Learning Unit 1: SCIENCE AND THE ENVIRONMENT cold. It saves it from the hostile environment of outer space.

d. It saves it from the hostile environment of outer space. The atmosphere is composed
Lesson 1: Definition, Scope and Importance of nitrogen and oxygen besides, argon, carbon dioxide and trace gases.
INTRODUCTION
2. Hydrosphere: The Hydrosphere comprises all types of water resources oceans, seas, lakes,
Science - systematic knowledge of the physical or material world gained through observation rivers, streams, reservoirs, polar icecaps, glaciers, and ground water. Oceans represent 97%
and experimentation (Thesaurus) of the earth’s water and about 2% of the water resources is locked in the polar icecaps and
glaciers. Only about 1% is available as fresh water as surface water in rivers, lakes, streams,
Environment – from the word “Environner” which means to encircle, around or surround. and as ground water for human use.
 the complex of physical, chemical, and biotic factors (such as climate, soil, and living 3. Lithosphere: Lithosphere is the outer mantle of the solid earth. It consists of minerals
things) that act upon an organism or an ecological community and ultimately determine occurring in the earth’s crusts and the soil e.g. minerals, organic matter, air and water.
its form and survival (Merriam- Webster)
 is the sum total of land, water, air, interrelationships among themselves and also with 4. Biosphere: Biosphere indicates the realm of living organisms and their interactions with
the human beings and other living things. environment, viz atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere.
ELEMENTS OF ENVIRONMENT
Environmental Science – is the study of the effects of natural and unnatural processes, and of
Environment is constituted by the interacting systems of physical, biological and cultural
interactions of the physical components of the planet on the environment
elements inter-related in various ways, individually as well as collectively. These elements are:
([Link])
(1) Physical elements
- is the interdisciplinary field and requires the study of the interactions among the
Physical elements are space, landforms, water bodies, climate, soils, rocks and minerals. They
physical, chemical and biological components of the environment with the focus on
determine the variable character of the human habitat, its opportunities as well as limitations.
environmental pollution and degradation.
(2) Biological elements
 The Environment is about the surrounding external conditions influencing development or Biological elements such as plants, animals, microorganisms and men constitute the biosphere.
growth of people, animal or plants; living or working conditions etc. This involves three (3) Cultural elements
questions i.e., what is surrounded, by what surrounded and where surrounded. The answer Cultural elements such as economic, social and political elements are essentially man- made
to the first is living objects in general and man in particular. Human life is concerned to be features, which make the cultural background.
the main in the study of environment.
ENVIRONMENT STUDIES: IMPORTANCE
The environment studies make us aware about the importance of protection and
DEFINITIONS OF THE ENVIRONMENT
conservation of our mother earth and about the destruction due to the release of pollution into
Some important definitions of the environment are as under:
the environment. The increase in human and animal population, industries and other issues
1. According to Boring. “A person’s environment consists of the sum total of the stimulation
make the survival cumbersome.
which he receives from his conception until his death”. Indicating that environment
comprises various types of forces such as physical, intellectual, mental, social, moral and Environment studies have become significant for the following reasons:
emotional.
2. Douglas and Holland defined that “The term environment is used to describe, in aggregate, 1. Environment Issues are being of Global: It has been well recognised that environment
all the external forces, influences and conditions which affect the life, nature, behaviour and issues like global warming and ozone depletion, acid rain, marine pollution and biodiversity
the growth and development and maturity of living organisms”. are not merely national issues but are global issues and hence require international efforts
and cooperation to solve them.
SCOPE OF ENVIRONMENT:
2. Development and Environment: Development leads to Urbanization, Industrial Growth,
The environment consists of four segments of the earth namely atmosphere, hydrosphere,
Telecommunication and Transportation Systems, Hi-tech Agriculture and Housing etc.
lithosphere and biosphere:
However, it has become phased out in the developed world. The North intentionally moves
1. Atmosphere: The Atmosphere forms a distinctive protective layer about 100 km thick
their dirty factories to South to cleanse their own environment. When the West developed,
around the earth. A blanket of gases called the atmosphere surrounds the earth and
it did so perhaps in ignorance of the environmental impact of its activities. Development of
protects the surface of earth from the Sun’s harmful, ultraviolet rays. It sustains life on the
the rich countries of the world has undesirable effects on the environment of the entire
earth. It also regulates temperature, preventing the earth from becoming too hot or too
world.
3. Explosive Increase in Pollution: World census reflects that one in every seven persons in Four global trends that indicate that the health of planet Earth is suffering:
this planet lives in India. Evidently with 16 percent of the world's population and only 2.4 (1) human population and well-being,
percent of its land area, there is a heavy pressure on the natural resources including land. (2) the status of vital ecosystem services,
Agricultural experts have recognized soil health problems like deficiency of micronutrients (3) global climate change, and
and organic matter, soil salinity and damage of soil structure. (4) the loss of biodiversity.
4. Need for an Alternative Solution: It is essential, especially for developing countries to find
alternative paths to an alternative goal. Population Growth and Human Well-Being
We need a goal as under:  The world’s human population, more than 7.3 billion in 2014, has grown by 2 billion in just
1) A true goal of development with an environmentally sound and sustainable the past 25 years. It is continuing to grow, at the rate of about 80 million persons per year.
development.
2) A goal common to all citizens of our planet earth. Human Development Index
3) A goal distant from the developing world in the manner it is from the over-consuming  Each year since 1990, the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) has published
wasteful societies of the “developed” world. a Human Development Report. A key part of the report is the Human Development Index
It is utmost important for us to save the humanity from extinction because of our activities (HDI), a comprehensive assessment of human well-being in most countries of the world.
constricting the environment and depleting the biosphere, in the name of development. With this index, well-being is measured in health, education, and basic living standards.
5. Need for Wise Planning of Development: Our survival and sustenance depend on
resources availability. Hence Resources withdraw, processing and use of the products have Ecosystem Goods and Services
all to be synchronised with the ecological cycle. In any plan of development our actions  Around the world, human societies are depleting groundwater supplies, degrading
should be planned ecologically for the sustenance of the environment and development. agricultural soils, overfishing the oceans, and cutting forests faster than they can regrow. The
6. Misra (1991) recognized four basic principles of ecology, as under: (i) Holism, (ii) Ecosystem, world economy depends heavily on many renewable resources, as we exploit these systems
(iii) Succession and (iv) Conversation. for goods— water, all of our food, much of our fuel, wood for lumber and paper, leather,
furs, raw materials for fabrics, oils and alcohols, and much more.
Holism has been considered as the real base of ecology. In hierarchical levels at which
interacting units of ecology are discussed, are as under: Misra (1991) has recognised four  These same ecosystems also provide a flow of services that support human life and
basic requirements of environmental management as under: economic well-being, such as the breakdown of waste, regulation of the climate, erosion
1) Impact of human activities on the environment, control, pest management, and maintenance of crucial nutrient cycles.
2) Value system,
3) Plan and design for sustainable development, Global Climate Change
4) Environment education  The global economy runs on fossil fuel. Every day in 2013 we burned some 91.3 million
barrels of oil, 324 billion cubic feet of natural gas, and 11.6 million tons of coal. All of this
“The Earth is dying.” A phrase com m only heard from people experiencing changes in combustion generates carbon dioxide (CO2), which is released into the atmosphere at a
the environment. rate of 80 million tons a day.

A Paradox: What is the real state of the planet? Monitoring Carbon Dioxide and Its Effects
Paradox (n.): A statement exhibiting contradictory or inexplicable aspects or qualities. A group  Carbon dioxide is a natural component of the lower atmosphere, along with nitrogen and
of scientists from McGill University recently published a paper in which they identified a so- oxygen. It is required by plants for photosynthesis and is important to the Earth-
called environmentalist’s paradox. atmosphere energy system. Carbon dioxide gas absorbs infrared (heat) energy radiated
from Earth’s surface, thus slowing the loss of this energy to space.
To explain this paradox, the authors advanced four hypotheses:  Greenhouse effect - The absorption of infrared energy by CO2 and other gases warms
1. The measurements of human well-being are flawed; it is actually declining. the lower atmosphere in a phenomenon. As the greenhouse gases trap heat, they keep
2. Food production, a crucial ecosystem service that has been enhanced, outweighs the effects Earth at hospitable temperatures.
of declines in other ecosystem services.  Climate change is a huge global problem, and it must be addressed on a global scale.
3. Human technology, such as irrigation and synthetic fertilizers, makes us less dependent on Responses
ecosystem services.  The most obvious need is to reduce global CO2 emissions; the reduction of emissions
4. There is a time lag between ecosystem decline and human well-being; the worst is yet to is called mitigation.
come.
  International agreements to reduce greenhouse gas emissions have been forged, and  The flow of energy, the cycling of materials and community are the components for making
some limited mitigation has been achieved. an ecosystem functional. The living community of plants and animals in any area together
 Most observers believe that the best course forward is to aim toward an effective, with the non-living components of the environment such as soil, air and water, constitute
binding international treaty to reduce emissions, but for countries also to act the ecosystem.
independently on a more immediate scale.  Ecosystems are divided into terrestrial or land based ecosystem and aquatic ecosystem in
Loss of Biodiversity water. These form the two major habitat conditions for the Earth’s living organisms. At
Biodiversity - is the variability among living organisms, both terrestrial and aquatic. It global level thin mantle of the earth on the land, the sea and the air, forms the biosphere.
includes the variety within species, among species, and within ecosystems.
Structure and functions of an ecosystem:
 The rapidly growing human population, with its increasing appetite for food, water,
The structure of an ecosystem consists of both biological communities and abiotic
timber, fiber, and fuel, is accelerating the conversion of forests, grasslands, and wetlands
components.
to agriculture and urban development.
 The inevitable result is the loss of many of the wild plants and animals that occupy those The two basic components of an ecosystem are:
natural habitats. Pollution also degrades habitats—particularly aquatic and marine i. The autotrophic component and
habitats— eliminating the species they support ii. The heterotrophic component.
Why is the loss of biodiversity so critical?  The autotrophic components include the autotrophs which convert the radiant energy
 Biodiversity is the mainstay of agricultural crops and of many medicines. It is a key factor of the sun into chemical energy and stored as complex organic molecules. The
in maintaining the stability of natural systems and enabling them to recover after heterotrophs feed on the food manufactured by the autotrophs.
disturbances such as fires or volcanic eruptions.  The heterotrophs recover the energy by breaking down the complex organic molecules.
 Many of the essential goods and services provided by natural systems are derived An ecosystem comprises of:
directly from various living organisms. These goods and services are especially important 1. Abiotic,
in sustaining the poor in developing countries. 2. Producers,
 There are also aesthetic and moral arguments for maintaining biodiversity: Once a 3. Consumers and
species is gone, it is gone forever. Finding ways to protect the planet’s biodiversity is one 4. Decomposers.
of the major challenges of environmental science.  The nonliving substances called abiotic include factors like light, temperature, pressure,
soil, water, carbon dioxide, pH, mineral, and chemical compounds. The physical and
chemical components of an ecosystem constitute its abiotic structure which includes
Learning Unit 2: ECOSYSTEM TYPES STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS soil, geographical, climatic factors, energy, nutrients and toxic substances.
LESSON 2: Concept of Ecosystem  The producers are to autotrophs mainly green plants, algae, etc., and they are further
sub-divided into
 The German biologist Ernst Haeckel in 1869 coined the word “Ecology” combining two i. micro vegetation and
Greek words – oikos, meaning “household” or “home” and logos, meaning “study of” – to ii. macrovegetation.
coin ecology, the science that deals with the study of organisms in their natural home  Producers can make their own food by using the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere,
interacting with their surroundings i.e., other living organisms and physical components. water and sunlight and chlorophyll in the leaves through the process of photosynthesis.
 Ecology examines the life histories, distribution and behaviour of individual species as well They are also called as photo autotrophs.
as the structural and functions of a natural system in terms of population, communities,  Some microorganisms can produce organic matter through oxidation of certain
ecosystems and landscape. chemicals in the absence of sunlight. They are called as chemosynthetic organisms or
 In 1935 essay the English biologist Arthur Tansley proposed the concept of an energy model chemo-autotrophs.
involving “ecosystems” and “energy”. Tansley (1935) described an ecosystem as a group of  At ocean depths, chemoautotrophic bacteria using the heat available at earth core to
biotic communities of species interacting with one another and with their non-living convert dissolved hydrogen sulphide and carbon dioxide into organic compounds. The
environment exchanging energy and matter. consumers are mainly heterotrophs like animals that feed on other organisms.
 On the energy model, the ecological whole is to be understood as an energy system or They are further sub-divided into micro-consumers and macro-consumers.
circuit. Just as the physicist studies the flow of energy through a physical system, the 1. Herbivores or primary consumers feed directly on producers.
ecologist studies the flow of energy through an ecosystem. The language of food chain is 2. Carnivores or secondary consumers feed on herbivores and if they feed on
replaced with the mathematically more precise language of chemistry and physics. 3. Omnivores feed on both plants and animals.
4. Detritivores feed on the parts of dead organisms and wastes of living organisms.
 5. The Decomposers are heterotrophs which include mainly bacteria and fungi which  In a linear food chain, if one species becomes extinct or one species suffers then the
derive their nutrition by decomposing and breaking down the complex organic species in the subsequent trophic levels are also affected. In a food web, there are a number
molecules to simple organic compounds and ultimately into inorganic nutrients. of options available at each trophic level and hence if one species is affected it does not
affect other trophic levels so seriously.
The biotic structure prevails in most of the ecosystems. In forests and agroecosystems  Food chain and food web play an important role in the ecosystem, because the energy flow
primary producers predominate whereas in deep ocean decomposers predominate. Both the and nutrient cycling take place through them.
biotic and abiotic components influence each other and are linked through energy flow and  Food chains regulate and maintain the population size of different animals, thereby
matter recycling. The flow of energy and matter take place through the food chains. maintaining the ecological balance. However, many heavy metals, pesticides and other
chemicals are not bio-degradable and also not decomposed by microorganisms. These
chemicals pass on from one trophic level to another and at each level they keep on
FOOD CHAIN AND ENERGY FLOW increasing in concentration known as ‘bio magnifications’.
 The plants convert the radiant energy of sun into chemical energy and store them as
complex molecules; this is the food energy stored in plants. This food energy is transferred FUNCTIONS OF ECOSYSTEM
to the primary consumers while the plant is consumed.  Ecosystem invariably performs in a systematic way under natural conditions. It converts the
 When the large consumers feed on the primary consumers, the food energy is transferred radiant energy of sun and pass it to biotic components.
to them. The transfer of food energy through a chain of organisms is called the “food  The biotic components exchange themselves and abiotic components the energy, nutrition
chain”. and water for life processes.
 Each organism in the ecosystem is assigned a feeding level depending on its nutritional  The main functions of an ecosystem are
status. The level of energy flow in each link of the food chain is called ‘trophic level’. i. Energy flow,
There are three types of food chain viz ii. food chain,
i. prey predator, iii. biochemical cycling of nutrients
ii. detritus and iv. primary and secondary production and
iii. parasitic food chains. v. Ecosystem development and regulation
 Prey predator food chain is also called grazing food chain: grass land ecosystem, pond
ecosystem, marine ecosystem and forest ecosystem. Detritus food chain is also called as
saprophytic food chain like mangrove habitat. Parasitic chain goes from larger to smaller
organisms. Learning Unit 2: ECOSYSTEM TYPES STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS
 These food chains are not isolated units but are hooked together on food webs. Flow of LESSON 3: Type and Structure of Environment
energy through an ecosystem in a way parallels the flow of food through the food chain.
 Photosynthesis is the process through which solar energy breaks the chemical bonds of VARIOUS TYPES OF ENVIRONMENT
carbon dioxide and water molecules forming new molecules of carbohydrates and oxygen.  According to Kurt Lewin, environment is of three types which influence the personality of
Respiration transforms carbohydrates and oxygen back into carbon dioxide, water and an individual as under:
energy. (a) Physical Environment,
 The energy released in this process powers the chemical and physical processes of life, (b) Social and Cultural Environment, and
growth, reproduction and so on. Photosynthesis and respiration are the processes of the (c) Psychological Environment.
carbon and oxygen cycles in ecosystems.
These may be explained as under:
FOOD WEB: Physical Environment
 Neither do most primary consumers feed upon just one kind of plant, nor are they fed upon  Physical environment refers to geographical climate and weather or physical conditions
to only one kind of secondary consumer. Food web denotes the more complex pattern of wherein an individual lives. The human races are greatly influenced by the climate. Some
feeding relationships among organisms. examples are given below:
 Food web is a network of food chains where different types of organisms are connected at a) In the cold countries i.e. European countries the people are of white colour. Likewise, in
different trophic levels, so that there are a number of options of eating and being eaten at Asian and African countries, that is, in hot countries people are of dark complexion.
each trophic level. Food webs give greater stability to the ecosystem. b) The physique of an individual depends on climate conditions as the individual tries to
adjust in his physical environment.
 c) The human working efficiency also depends on the climatic conditions. Thus, the biotic environment further be divided into floral environment and faunal
environment. All the organisms work to form their social groups and organizations at several
Social Environment levels. Thus, the social environment is formed. In this social environment the organisms work to
 Social Environment includes an individual’s social, economical and political condition derive matter from the physical environment for their sustenance and development. This
wherein he lives. The moral, cultural and emotional forces influence the life and nature of process gives birth to economic environment. Man claims to be most skilled and civilized of all
individual behaviour. Society may be classified into two categories as following: the organisms. This is the reason why his social organisation is most systematic. The three
i. An open society is very conductive for the individual development. aspects of man, e.g. physical, social and economic, function in the biotic environment as under:
ii. A closed society is not very conductive for the development.
i. The Physical Man: The ‘Physical Man’ is one of the organisms, populations or biological
community. He is in need of basic elements of the physical environment like habitat
Psychological Environment
(space), air, water and food. Besides, like other biological populations, he releases wastes
 The psychological environment enables us to understand the personality of an individual.
into the ecosystem.
Both, the person and his goal form psychological environment. If a person is unable to
overcome the barriers, he can either get frustrated or compelled to change his goal for a ii. The Social Man: The ‘Social Man’ performs the following functions:
new psychological environment. By adopting this mechanism, the individual is helped in his (a) Establishing social institutions,
adjustment to the environment. (b) Forming social organisations,
(c) Formulating laws, principles and policies,
STRUCTURE OF ENVIRONMENT (d) Taking steps to safeguard his existence, interest and social welfare.
Environment is both physical and biological. It includes both living and non-living
iii. The Economic Man: The economic man derives and utilises resources from the physical
components.
and biotic environment with his skills and technologies. The economic function makes the
A. Physical Environment man an environment/ geomorphic process as he transports matter and energy from one
The Physical Environment is classified into three broad categories viz. component of the ecosystem to the other. There may be any following two situations:
i. Solid, a) His exploitative functions may be in harmony with the natural environment. Such,
ii. Liquid functions do not necessarily involve change in the working of the ecosystem.
iii. Gas. b) These functions may exceed the critical limit. Consequently, the equilibrium of the
These represent the following spheres: environment/ecosystem is disturbed and a great number of environment and
i. The lithosphere (solid earth) ecological problems crop up. These are detrimental to him besides to whole population
ii. The hydrosphere (water component) and of human species in a given ecosystem.
iii. The atmosphere
As such, the three basics of physical environment may be termed as under:
i. Lithospheric Environment Learning Unit 3: BASIC NEEDS OF LIVING THINGS
ii. Hydrospheric Environment Lesson 4: Matter in Living and Nonliving Systems
iii. Atmospheric Environment
The scientists have classified them into smaller units based on different spatial scales, e.g. To understand this simple ecological relationship, we need to know some basic chemistry and
i. Mountain Environment physics.
ii. Glacier Environment
iii. Plateau Environment Basic Units of Matter
iv. Coastal Environment Matter
- is defined as anything that occupies space and has mass.
B. Biological Environment - This definition covers all solids, liquids, and gases as well as all living and nonliving things.
The biological environment consists of: - is composed of atoms—very small pieces—that are combined to form molecules, which
i. Plants (flora) in turn can be combined into more complex structures.
ii. Animals (fauna). Atoms
- are the basic building blocks of all matter. Only 94 different kinds of atoms occur in
nature, and these are known as the naturally occurring elements.
 - are made up of protons, neutrons, and electrons, which in turn are made up of still smaller Atmosphere. The lower atmosphere is a mixture of molecules of three important gases—
particles. For example, lead (Pb) is an element. An atom of lead is the smallest amount of oxygen (O2), nitrogen (N2), and carbon dioxide (CO2)—along with water vapor and trace
lead existing that has the characteristics of lead. A lead atom has a characteristic number amounts of several other gases.
of protons (positive particles), neutrons (neutral particles), and electrons (negative
particles). Hydrosphere. Each molecule of water consists of two hydrogen atoms bonded to an oxygen
atom, so the chemical formula for water is H2O. A weak attraction known as hydrogen bonding
Molecules and Compounds exists between water molecules. Water is an important molecule for living things and usually
Molecule - consists of two or more atoms (either the same kind or different kinds) bonded in needs to be available in liquid form.
a specific way. The properties of a material depend on the exact way in which atoms are bonded
to form molecules as well as on the atoms themselves. Water occurs in three different states.
1. At temperatures below freezing, hydrogen bonding holds the molecules in position with
Compound - consists of two or more different kinds of atoms that are bonded. For example,
respect to one another, and the result is a solid crystal structure (ice or snow).
the fundamental units of oxygen gas, which consist of two bonded oxygen atoms, are molecules
2. At temperatures above freezing but below vaporization, hydrogen bonding still holds the
(O2) but not compounds.
molecules close but allows them to move past one another, producing the liquid state.
 By contrast, when an oxygen atom binds with hydrogen atoms to create water, it is both a
3. Vaporization (evaporation) occurs as hydrogen bonds break and water molecules move
molecule and a compound (H2O). On the chemical level, the cycle of growth, reproduction,
into the air independently. As temperatures are lowered again, all of these changes of
death, and decay of organisms is a continuous process of using various molecules and
state go in the reverse direction. Generally, water undergoes melting and evaporation,
compounds from the environment (food), assembling them into living organisms (growth),
but sometimes water molecules leave snow or ice and go directly into the air. This process
disassembling them (decay), and repeating the process.
is sublimation (Figure 3–9).
Lithosphere. All the other elements that are required by living organisms, as well as the
Four Spheres approximately 72 elements that they do not require, are found in the lithosphere, in the form
During growth and decay, atoms move from the environment into living things and of rock and soil minerals.
then return to the environment. To picture this process, think of the environment as three open,
nonliving systems, or “spheres,” interacting with the biosphere. Interactions. Air, water, and minerals interact with each other in a simple, but significant,
manner. Gases from the air and ions (charged atoms) from minerals may dissolve in water.
Atmosphere - is the thin layer of gases (including water vapor) separating Earth from outer  Therefore, natural water is inevitably a solution containing variable amounts of dissolved
space. gases and minerals. This solution is constantly subject to change because various processes
- is a major source of carbon and oxygen for organisms may remove any dissolved substances in it or additional materials may dissolve in it.
Hydrosphere - is water in all of its liquid and solid compartments: oceans, rivers, ice, and Molecules of water enter the air by evaporation and leave it again via condensation and
groundwater. precipitation.
- the source of hydrogen for organisms.
Organic Compounds
Lithosphere - is Earth’s crust, made up of rocks and minerals. Matter is constantly being Your body, is composed of relatively large chemical compounds in a number of broad
exchanged within and between these four spheres, as shown in Figure 3–8 on categories, such as proteins, carbohydrates (sugars and starches), lipids (fatty substances), and
the following page. nucleic acids (DNA and RNA). These compounds usually contain six key elements: carbon (C),
hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and sulfur (S)
Figure 3–8 The four spheres of Earth’s environment.
The biosphere is all of life on Earth. It depends on, Organic - refers to the chemical compounds making up the tissues of living organisms. Some
and interacts with, the atmosphere (air), the of these molecules may contain millions of atoms. These molecules are constructed mainly from
hydrosphere (water), and the lithosphere (soil and carbon atoms bonded into chains, with hydrogen and oxygen atoms attached.
rocks). (Source: adapted from Geosystems, 5th ed.,
by robert W. christopherson, © 2005 Pearson Inorganic - then, refers to molecules or compounds with neither carbon–carbon nor carbon–
Education, In hydrogen bonds.
 While this is the general rule, some exceptions occur; by convention, a few compounds that
contain carbon bonds, such as carbon dioxide, are still considered inorganic. All plastics and
countless other human-made compounds are also based on carbon bonding and are,
chemically speaking, organic compounds. To resolve any confusion this may cause, the
compounds making up living organisms are referred to as natural organic compounds and
the human made ones as synthetic organic compounds.

Matter and Energy

 The universe is made up of matter and energy. By contrast, light, heat, movement, and
electricity do not have mass, nor do they occupy space. These are the common forms of
energy that you are familiar with.
 What do the various forms of energy have in common? They affect matter, causing changes
in its position or state. For example, the release of energy in an explosion causes things to
go flying—a change in position. Heating water causes it to boil and change to steam, a Energy Changes in Organisms
change of state.  Picture someone building a fire in a fireplace. The wood is largely composed of complex
organic molecules. These molecules required energy to form, and therefore, their chemical
Energy Basics bonds contain high potential energy. Lighting a fire causes a series of reactions that break
Energy - is the ability to move matter. these molecules and release energy. When released, the energy contained in those bonds
 Energy can be categorized as either kinetic or potential. can be used to do work. This chemical reaction involves oxidation, a loss of electrons, usually
Kinetic energy - is energy in action or motion. Light, heat, physical motion, and electrical accomplished by the addition of oxygen (which causes burning). The heat and light of the
current are all forms of kinetic energy. Numerous chemicals, such as gasoline and other fuels, flame are the potential energy being released as kinetic energy.
release kinetic energy—heat, light, and movement—when ignited.
Producers and Photosynthesis.
Potential energy - is energy in storage. A substance or system with potential energy has the  Producers (primarily plants and algae) make high-potential-energy organic molecules for
capacity, or potential, to release one or more forms of kinetic energy. A stretched rubber band their needs from low-potential-energy raw materials in the environment—namely, carbon
has potential energy; it can send a paper clip flying. The potential energy contained in such dioxide, water, and a few dissolved compounds of nitrogen, phosphorus, and other
chemicals and fuels is called chemical energy. elements.
 Consumers (all organisms that live on the production of others) obtain energy for
 Energy may be changed from one form to another in innumerable ways. Besides movement and growth from feeding on and breaking down organic matter made by
understanding that potential energy can be converted to kinetic energy, it is especially producers (Figure 3–17). Plants and algae use the process of photosynthesis to make sugar
important to recognize that kinetic energy can be converted to potential energy. (glucose, which contains stored chemical energy) from carbon dioxide, water, and light
energy.
 Because energy does not have mass or occupy space, it cannot be measured in units of
weight or volume. Instead, energy is measured in other kinds of units. One of the most Figure 3–16 Producers as chemical
common energy units is the calorie, which is defined as the amount of heat required to factories. Using light energy,
raise the temperature of 1 gram (1 milliliter) of water 1 degree Celsius. This is a very small producers make glucose from
carbon dioxide and water,
unit, so it is frequently more convenient to use the kilocalorie (1 kilocalorie = 1,000 releasing oxygen as a by-product.
calories), the amount of thermal (heat) energy required to raise 1 liter (1,000 milliliters) of Breaking down some of the
water 1 degree Celsius. Kilocalories are sometimes denoted as “Calories” with a capital glucose to provide additional
“C.” Food Calories, which measure the energy in given foods, are actually kilocalories. chemical energy, they combine the
Temperature measures the molecular motion in a substance caused by the kinetic energy remaining glucose with certain
present in it. nutrients from the soil to form
Figure 3–13 Energy can be transformed from one form to another. Each time energy is transformed, some energy is other complex organic molecules
transformed into heat (thermal) energy and is lost to the system’s pool of usable energy. Heat dissipates from hotter to cooler that the plant then uses for growth.
areas, eventually radiating out into space. Thus energy transformations are never 100% efficient, except when the objective
is to transform energy to heat.
 This process, which also releases oxygen gas as a by-product, is described by the  The purpose of cellular respiration is to release the potential energy contained in organic
following chemical equation: molecules to perform the activities of the organism.
Photosynthesis (An energy-demanding process)  All organisms need to perform cellular respiration, even producers like plants and algae. In
6 CO2 + 12 H2O → C6H12O6 + 6 O2 + 6 H2O order to have the oxygen they need, animals such as deer grazing on grass must obtain
carbon dioxide water light energy glucose oxygen water oxygen through some type of respiratory organ. This means that their ability to use food
(gas) (gas) depends on the availability not only of food, but also of oxygen.

(low potential energy) (high potential energy)

Learning Unit 3: BASIC NEEDS OF LIVING THINGS
 The key energy steps in photosynthesis take the hydrogen from water molecules and join Lesson 5: The Cycling of Matter in Ecosystems:
carbon atoms together to form the carbon–carbon and carbon–hydrogen bonds of glucose.  According to the Law of Conservation of Matter, atoms cannot be created or destroyed, so
These steps convert the low-potential-energy bonds in water and carbon dioxide molecules recycling is the only possible way to maintain a dynamic system. To see how recycling takes
to the high-potential energy bonds of glucose. place in the biosphere, we now focus on the pathways of four key elements heavily affected
by human activities: carbon, phosphorus, nitrogen, and sulfur.
Within the Plant.  Because these pathways are circular and involve biological, geological, and chemical
The glucose produced in photosynthesis serves three purposes in the plant: processes, they are called biogeochemical cycles. Some processes in biogeochemical
1) Glucose, with the addition of other molecules, can be the backbone used for making all the cycles, such as photosynthesis and respiration, occur rapidly.
other organic molecules (proteins, carbohydrates, and so on) that make up the stem, roots,
leaves, flowers, and fruit of the plant. The Carbon Cycle
2) It takes energy to run the cellular activities of plants, such as growth. This energy is obtained  For descriptive purposes, it is convenient to start the carbon cycle with the reservoir of
when the plant breaks down a portion of the glucose to release its stored energy in a carbon dioxide (CO2 molecules present in the air). Through photosynthesis and further
process called cellular respiration. metabolism, carbon atoms from CO2 become the carbon atoms of the organic molecules
3) A portion of the glucose produced may be stored for future use. For storage, the glucose is making up a plant’s body.
generally converted to starch, as in potatoes or grains, or to oils, as in many seeds. This  The carbon atoms can then be eaten by an animal, such as the deer, and become part of
stored energy is what is available to be eaten by consumers (Figure 3–17). the tissues of all the other organisms in the ecosystem. About half of the carbon containing
molecules are respired by plants and animals, and half are deposited to the soil (a large
Figure 3–17 Consumers only a small reservoir) in the form of detritus (dead plant and animal matter).
portion of the food ingested by a
 Respiration by organisms in the soil that eat dead matter returns more carbon to the
consumer is assimilated into body
growth and repair. Some food atmosphere (as CO2). The cycle is different in the oceans: Photosynthesis by phytoplankton
provides energy in chemical bonds and macroalgae removes CO2 from the huge pool of inorganic carbonates in seawater, and
that are broken by the process of feeding moves the organic carbon through marine food webs.
cellular respiration: this is the reverse  The carbon cycle includes several other important processes. The figure indicates two in
process of photosynthesis, and waste particular: (1) diffusion exchange between the atmosphere and the oceans; and (2) the
products are carbon dioxide, water,
combustion of fossil fuels, which releases CO2 into the atmosphere. Some geological
and various mineral nutrients. a third
portion is not digested and becomes processes of the carbon cycle are not shown in Figure 3–19.
fecal waste.

Cellular Respiration - refers to the process of breaking down organic molecules inside each Figure 3–19 The global
carbon cycle. Boxes in the
cell to release the energy required for the work done by that cell.
figure refer to pools of
Cellular Respiration (An energy-releasing process) carbon, and arrows refer
C6H12O6 + 6 O2 → 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + energy to the movement, or flux,
glucose oxygen carbon dioxide water of carbon from one pool
to another.
(high potential energy) (low potential energy)
Human Impacts. Human intrusion into the carbon cycle is significant. Deforestation and soil  Humans are accelerating the natural phosphorus cycle as it is mined from the earth and as
degradation released significant amounts of CO2 into the atmosphere. However, more recent it subsequently moves from the soil into aquatic ecosystems, creating problems as it makes
reforestation and changed agricultural practices have improved this somewhat. its way to the oceans.

The Phosphorus Cycle The Nitrogen Cycle

 The phosphorus cycle is similar to the cycles of other mineral nutrients—those elements  The nitrogen cycle has similarities to both the carbon cycle and the phosphorus cycle. Like
that have their origin in the rock and soil minerals of the lithosphere, such as iron, calcium, carbon, nitrogen has a gas phase; like phosphorus, nitrogen acts as a limiting factor in plant
and potassium. growth. Like phosphorus, nitrogen is in high demand by both aquatic and terrestrial plants.
 The phosphorus cycle is illustrated in Figure 3–20. Like the carbon cycle, it is depicted as a  The nitrogen cycle is otherwise unique. Most notably, unlike in the other cycles, bacteria in
set of pools of phosphorus and fluxes to indicate key processes. Phosphorus exists in soils, water, and sediments perform many of the steps of the nitrogen cycle. The main
various rock and soil minerals as the inorganic ion phosphate (PO4 3− ). As rock gradually reservoir of nitrogen is the air, which is about 78% nitrogen gas (N2). This form of nitrogen
breaks down, phosphate and other ions are released in a slow process. Plants absorb PO4 is called nonreactive nitrogen; most organisms are not able to use it in chemical reactions.
3− from the soil or from a water solution. Once the phosphate is incorporated into organic The remaining forms of nitrogen are called reactive nitrogen (Nr) because they are used
compounds by the plant, it is called organic phosphate. by most organisms and can make chemical reactions more easily.
 Moving through food chains, organic phosphate is transferred from producers to the rest  The nitrogen then moves from producers through consumers and, finally, to decomposers.
of the ecosystem. As with carbon, at each step it is highly likely that the organic compounds At various points, nitrogen wastes are released, primarily as ammonium compounds.
containing phosphate will be broken down in cellular respiration or by decomposers,  A group of soil bacteria, the nitrifying bacteria, oxidizes the ammonium to nitrate in a
releasing PO4 3− in urine or other waste material. Phosphate is then reabsorbed by plants process that yields energy for the bacteria. At this point, the nitrate is again available for
to start the cycle again. uptake by green plants—a local ecosystem cycle within the global cycle. In most
ecosystems, the supply of Nr is quite limited, yet there is an abundance of nonreactive N—
if it can be accessed. The nitrogen cycle in aquatic ecosystems is similar.

Figure 3–20 The

global phosphorus
cycle. Phosphorus is
a limiting factor in
many ecosystems.
Note that the cycle
is not connected to
the atmosphere,
which limits
biosphere recycling.

Human Impacts. The most serious human intrusion into the phosphorus cycle comes from the
use of phosphorus containing fertilizers.
 Phosphorus is a common limiting factor in soils and, when added to croplands, can greatly
stimulate production.
 Unfortunately, human applications have tripled the amount of phosphorus reaching the
oceans. This increase is roughly equal to the global use of phosphorus fertilizer in Figure 3–21. The global nitrogen cycle. Like phosphorus, nitrogen is often a limiting factor. Its cycle heavily
agriculture. involves different groups of bacteria.
Nitrogen Fixation.  This complex series of ecological effects is known as the nitrogen cascade, in recognition
 A number of bacteria and cyanobacteria (chlorophyll-containing bacteria, formerly referred of the sequential impacts of Nr as it moves through environmental systems, creating
to as blue-green algae) can use nonreactive N through a process called biological nitrogen problems as it goes.
fixation.
 In terrestrial ecosystems, the most important among these nitrogen-fixing microbes live in The Sulfur Cycle
nodules on the roots of legumes, the plant family that includes peas and beans. The legume Sulfur - is important to living things because it is a component of many proteins, hormones,
provides the bacteria with a place to live and with food (carbohydrates and proteins) and and vitamins. Sulfur is often linked in nature with oxygen atoms, as in sulfate (SO4).
gains a source of nitrogen in return. From legumes, nitrogen enters the food web. The  The weathering of rocks and volcanic activity sends sulfur into the atmosphere or soil. Sulfur
legume family includes a huge diversity of plants. Without them, plant production would also gets into the air when fossil fuels are burned and when mined metals are processed.
be sharply impaired due to a lack of available nitrogen.  In soil, sulfate can be taken up by plants and microorganisms. In air, sulfur dioxide (SO2)
 Three other important processes also “fix” nitrogen. contributes to acid rain when it combines with water vapor and forms sulfuric acid.
1. One is the conversion of nitrogen gas to the ammonium form by discharges of lightning  Sulfates are added to water bodies as sulfur compounds fall from the atmosphere or are
in a process known as atmospheric nitrogen fixation: the ammonium then comes down weathered from rocks. There they can be serious pollutants.
with rainfall.
2. The second is the industrial fixation of nitrogen in the manufacture of fertilizer: the
Haber-Bosch process, which converts nitrogen gas and hydrogen to ammonia, is the
main source of agricultural fertilizer.
3. The third is a consequence of the combustion of fossil fuels, during which nitrogen from
coal and oil is oxidized; some nitrogen gas is also oxidized during high-temperature
combustion.
 These last two processes lead to nitrogen oxides (NOx) in the atmosphere, which are soon
converted to nitric acid and then b brought down to Earth as acid precipitation.

Denitrification - is a microbial process that occurs in soils and sediments depleted of oxygen.
A number of microbes can take nitrate (which is highly oxidized) and use it as a substitute for
oxygen.
 In so doing, the nitrogen is reduced (it gains electrons) to nitrogen gas and released back
into the atmosphere. Figure 3–22 The global sulfur cycle. Sulfur spends little time in the atmosphere. Part of the cycle does rely on
bacteria, but less than nitrogen’s cycle like all three other cycles, parts of the sulfur cycle are sped up by human
activity.
Human Impacts.
 Human involvement in the nitrogen cycle is substantial. Many agricultural crops are
Human Impacts.
legumes (peas, beans, soybeans, alfalfa), so they draw nitrogen from the air, thus increasing
 The largest human impact of the sulfur cycle is the addition of sulfur oxides to the
the rate of nitrogen fixation on land.
atmosphere and the addition of sulfates to water. Soil and water sulfate levels are increased
 The consequences of this global nitrogen fertilization are serious. Nitric acid (and sulfuric
by human action. Acid rain and water pollution are the major effects.
acid, produced when sulfur is also released by burning fossil fuels) has destroyed thousands
 For example, in heavily developed areas of the Everglades, the percent of sulfates in water
of lakes and ponds and caused extensive damage to forests.
is 60 times what it would normally be expected to be. Sulfate compound aerosols (small
 Nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere contribute to ozone pollution, global climate change,
particles or drops) also play a role in the climate. They act to temporarily cool the
and stratospheric ozone depletion.
atmosphere, although the compounds cause other problems when they fall to earth.
 Surplus nitrogen has led to the “nitrogen saturation” of many natural areas, whereby
nitrogen can no longer be incorporated into living matter and is released into the soil.
Washed into surface waters, nitrogen makes its way to estuaries and coastal areas of oceans,
where, just like phosphorus, it triggers a series of events leading to eutrophication,
resulting in dead seafood, detriments to human health, and areas of oceans that are unfit
for fish.
Learning Unit 4: Populations and Communities
Lesson 6: Dynamics of Natural Populations and Limits on Populations:  To calculate the growth rate of a population undergoing exponential growth, you need to
know the current size of the population, the period of time over which the population will
Population - is a group of members of the same species living in an area, and the populations grow, and the number of offspring individuals can produce in a given amount of time if
of different species living together in one area constitute a community. resources are unlimited. This last value is often designated rmax, or just r. The equation for
 Births and immigration cause the population to grow, and deaths and emigration cause the exponential growth can be described as follows:
population to shrink. This can be described by a simple equation: Starting population x A constant (e) multiplied by
(Births + Immigration) - (Deaths + Emigration) = Change in population itself a certain number of times = Ending population

 This equation shows the change in the size of the population, or population growth. If  The number of times you multiply e by itself is equal to the value of r (the potential to
births plus immigration are more or less equal to deaths plus emigration, the population is produce offspring) multiplied by time. This means that under unlimited conditions,
said to be in equilibrium. There is no change in the size of the population, so the population populations of organisms with a high r value will grow more rapidly than those with a low
growth is zero. r value. Exponential growth can continue indefinitely only if there are no limits to the size
 But often, populations are either increasing or decreasing—that is, their population growth the population can reach, but in nature this is extremely rare.
is not zero. If you take the amount a population has changed and divide it by the time it  There is an upper limit to the population of any particular species that an ecosystem can
had to change, you get the population growth rate. support. This limit is called the carrying capacity (K) (Figure 4–1). More precisely, the carrying
Population Growth Curves capacity is the maximum population of a species that a given habitat can support without
 In a natural setting, the growth of a population can follow several patterns. A constant rate being degraded over the long term—in other words, a sustainable system.
of population growth is the simplest type of growth to model. Although constant growth 2. Logistic Growth.
rarely occurs in nature, it serves as a good comparison to other growth patterns because it  As a population increases, one of two outcomes will eventually occur. One outcome is that
is so simple. Constant population growth is calculated by this equation: the population will keep growing until it exhausts its essential resources, often food.
Starting population + (A constant x Time) = Ending population Starvation or other problems will then cause the population to crash, or die off precipitously.
Such a pattern of growth can be plotted as a J-curve followed by a steep drop, as shown by
1. Exponential Increase. the green line in Figure 4–2.
 Every species has the capacity to increase its population when conditions are favorable. For  Alternatively, some processes may slow population growth so that the size of the
example, a beetle population growing in a bag of cereal could double every week (the first population levels off. The simplest version of this pattern is known as logistic growth.
week 2, then 4, then 8, then 16 beetles). Such a series is called an exponential increase. Plotting this type of growth on a graph results in an S-shaped curve, or S- curve, as shown
 In contrast to our first example of constant growth, exponential growth does not add a by the orange line in Figure 4–1. The point at which the population levels off is the carrying
constant number of individuals to the population for each time period. Instead, the capacity (K). The equation for logistic growth can be explained this way:
doubling time of the population remains constant. That is, if it takes two days to go from 8
beetles to 16 beetles, it will take two days to go from 1,000 beetles to 2,000 beetles. Such Starting population + (Reproductive capacity (r)
growth results in what is called a population explosion. x Population x A number that represents how far
 If we plot numbers over time during an exponential increase, the pattern produced is the population is from carrying capacity)
commonly called a J-curve because of its shape (see the green line in Figure 4–1). = Ending population

 There are two things to notice about the logistic growth curve.
1. First, as the population nears its carrying capacity, the growth of the population slows
Figure 4–1 Three simple models of population growth.
Constant growth is represented by the blue line,
until the population size remains steady; at this time the population growth equals zero.
exponential growth by the green line, and logistic growth
2. Second, the maximum rate of population growth occurs halfway to carrying capacity.
by the orange line. The black dotted line represents the
carrying capacity.
 Environmental Resistance – refers to the combination of all the biotic and abiotic factors that
limit a population’s increase.
 Unlimited population growth is seldom seen in natural ecosystems because biotic and
abiotic factors cause mortality (death) in populations. Among the biotic factors that cause
Figure 4–2 Real-life growth. In real
mortality are predation, parasites, competition, and lack of food. Among the abiotic factors
populations, exponential growth is
often followed by a crash (green are unusual temperatures, moisture, light, salinity, and pH; lack of nutrients; and fire. (Figure
line), and logistic growth is often 4–3).
modified so that the population
fluctuates around K (orange line).
Reallife populations often do not
follow idealized equations, but Figure 4–3 Biotic potential and
such simple models help us to environmental resistance. A
understand possible outcomes. stable population in nature is
the result of the interaction
between factors tending to
increase the population and
factors tending to decrease
the population. Human
actions tend to decrease the
3. Real-Life Growth. amount of stable habitat and
 The population growth figures calculated using these simple models rarely match the exact increase the amount of
growth figures found in real life, although many populations show J- shaped explosions disturbed habitat, so some
followed by crashes (Figure 4–2). species are harmed while
 J-curves occur when there are unusual disturbances, such as the introduction of a foreign other species are benefited.
species, the elimination of a predator, or the sudden alteration of a habitat, all of which can
allow the rapid growth of a population.
 This growth is, however, followed by some type of crash. In some cases, huge overshoots
of carrying capacity (K) by one population result in a collapse of the habitat for many
species. Other populations, often those controlled by complex relationships among species,
show some type of S-curve, followed by cycles of lower and higher numbers roughly around Reproductive Strategies
carrying capacity. Environmental Resistance and Biotic Potential are the two common reproductive strategies in
 Many shoot somewhat above carrying capacity and then a little below, and eventually they the natural world:
cycle around the carrying capacity. This is illustrated by the orange line in Figure 4–2. 1. The first is to produce massive numbers of young, but then leave survival to the whims
of nature. Organisms with this strategy have life histories with rapid reproduction,
Biotic Potential Versus Environmental Resistance rapid movement, and often a short life span. Organisms with this strategy are usually
 The rate at which members of a species reproduce under unlimited conditions (which we small and tend to have huge boom-and-bust populations. Because these organisms
saw in the equations above as r) is a measure of its biotic potential. usually have a high r, they are called r-strategists or r- selected species. They are
Biotic Potential —the number of offspring (live births, eggs laid, or seeds or spores set in also called weedy or opportunistic species. One familiar r-strategist is the housefly,
plants) that members of a species can produce under ideal conditions. which multiplies very quickly but also has a high mortality rate.
2. In contrast, the second strategy is to have a much lower reproductive rate (that is, a
 The biotic potentials of different species vary tremendously, averaging from less than one lower biotic potential) but to care for the young until they can compete for resources
birth per year in certain mammals and birds to millions per year for many plants and some with adult members of the population. This strategy works best where the
invertebrates. To have any effect on the size of subsequent generations, however, the young environment is stable and already well-populated by the species. Organisms with such
must survive and reproduce in turn. Survival through the early growth stages to become a strategy are larger, longer lived, and well adapted to normal environmental
part of the breeding population is called recruitment.
fluctuations. Because their populations are more likely to fluctuate around the carrying
capacity, such species are sometimes called K-strategists or K-selected species. They
are also called equilibrial species (Table 4–1).
 Critical Number
Population’s Critical Number – refers to the survival and recovery of a population which
depend on a certain minimum population base.
 In some cases, the critical number is larger than a single pack or flock, because
interactions between groups may be necessary as well. If a population is depleted below
the critical number needed to provide such supporting interactions, the surviving
members become more vulnerable, breeding fails, and extinction is almost inevitable.
 The loss of biodiversity is one of the most disturbing global environmental trends.
Human activities are clearly responsible for the decline of many plants and animals. This
is happening because many human impacts are not density dependent; they may even
intensify as populations decline. Examples are alteration of habitats, introduction of alien
species, pollution, hunting, and other forms of exploitation.
 Species whose populations are declining rapidly are classified as threatened. If a
 In sum, whether a population grows, remains stable, or decreases is the result of population is near what scientists believe to be its critical number, the species may be
interplay between its biotic potential and environmental resistance. classified as endangered.
 Population balance is a dynamic balance, which means that additions (births and
immigration) and subtractions (deaths and emigration) are occurring continually, and
the population may fluctuate around a median.
Learning Unit 4: POPULATIONS AND COMMUNITIES
Limits on Populations Lesson 7: Community Interactions
 The carrying capacity of a habitat reflects how large a population can be sustained there,
but it may not explain what is actually limiting the population. Sometimes limiting  There are varied ways populations of different species living together in a biotic
factors, such as crowding or disease, have a greater effect when there are more community interact with one another.
individuals in the population. The higher the population density (the number of  The relationships between two species may be helpful, or positive (1); harmful, or
individuals per unit area), the greater the role of that limiting factor. negative (2); or neutral (0) for each species. These relationships are depicted in Table 4–
2.
Density Dependence and Independence
Rabbits thrive in a field with lush grass. As rabbits become more plentiful, foxes and
coyotes find it easier to catch and eat more of them and less of something else. This slows
the population growth of the rabbits. In this example, predation acts as a density-dependent
limit on a population.
 A density dependent limit - is one that increases as population density increases—
such as a disease or a food shortage. The environmental resistance caused by this limit
increases mortality. Conversely, as population density decreases, the environmental
resistance lessens, allowing the population to recover.
 Density-Independent Limits—those whose effects are independent of the size of the
population. For example, a fire that sweeps through a forest may kill all small mammals
in its wake, regardless of their numbers. Such a fire is a density independent cause of
mortality.
Environmental scientists distinguish between top-down and bottom -up regulation.
Top-Down Regulation - is the control of a population by predation, such as the control of
rabbits by their predators, coyotes, or the control of deer by mountain lions.
Bottom -Up Regulation - the most important control of a population is the availability of
some resource, often food. For example, the bighorn sheep are limited by the availability of
grass, a form of bottom-up regulation.
 Some of these positive and negative effects stem from a kind of symbiosis.  Therefore, infection rates increase, causing higher mortality. Conversely, when the
 Symbiosis — refers to a relationship in which the lives of two species are closely population density of the host is low, the transfer of infection is less efficient. This
connected to each other. As we will see in several examples, symbionts have reduces the levels of infection and allows the host population to recover.
adaptations that make their relationship function.
Plant-Herbivore Dynamics.
The name of each type of interaction are as follows:  Herbivores prey on plants. Too many herbivores can do the same to their plant food. In
1. Predation -a relationship in which one member benefits and the other is harmed (+- 2) turn, when herbivore populations are low, their food plants encounter low environmental
resistance and can overshoot their carrying capacity.
 Parasitism is a subset of predation, as is herbivory (animals eating plants)
2. Competition - occurs when two species or individuals rely on the same resource. A (- -) These imbalances can lead to problems in the surrounding ecosystem.
relationship is one in which both species are harmed. This would include competitive
1. Overgrazing. If herbivores eat plants faster than they can grow, the plants will eventually
relationships where both species use a scarce resource.
be depleted, and animals that eat the plants will suffer. Overgrazing can often occur in
3. Mutualism - is a relationship between species in which both benefit (+ + ). agricultural systems. Overgrazing demonstrates that no population can escape ultimate
limitation by environmental resistance, although the form of environmental resistance
4. Commensalism - occurs when one species is benefited and the other is not affected (+
and the consequences may differ.
0).
2. Predator Removal. Eliminating predators or other natural enemies of herbivores upsets
 The most important interactions are predation, competition, mutualism, and
plant- herbivore relationships, just as introducing an animal without natural enemies
commensalism, but there are others.
disrupts normal population controls on the introduced species. In much of the United
5. Amensalism - one species is unaffected and the other harmed (0 –) through an accidental States, for example, wolves, mountain lions, and bears originally controlled white-tailed
interaction, such as an elephant stepping on a flower or a plant making a poison as a part deer populations. Many of these predators were killed because they were believed to be
of its normal metabolism that harms another organism. a threat to livestock and humans.
6. Neutralism - it is theoretically possible to have a (0 0) interaction, in which neither species
is harmed or benefited. Presumably the interaction would be a weak one. Competition
 There are species interactions in which both species are harmed. This result usually
Predation means that the species are competing for some scarce resource. Species are said to have
 The most important interaction between species. In any relationship in which one overlapping ecological niches when they compete with each other.
organism feeds on another, the organism that does the feeding is called the predator
and the organism that is fed on is called the prey.  Competition can also occur between members of the same species. Whether between
 Predation is a conspicuous process in all ecosystems. Predation ranges from the species or between members of the same species, competition harms both participants.
predator-prey interactions between carnivores (meat eaters) and herbivores (plant It lowers their fitness and their ability to produce offspring.
eaters) to herbivores feeding on plants and parasites feeding on their hosts.
Two categories of Competition:
Parasites: A Special Kind of Predator. Intraspecific Competition - Competition among members of the same species.
 Parasites are organisms—either plants or animals—that become intimately associated - This type can occur over different types of resources.
with their “prey” and feed on it over an extended period of time, usually without killing  Impact on the Species.
it. The plant or animal that is fed on is called the host. Parasites include a range of  Intraspecific competition can lead to the density-dependent regulation of a species’
species, such as tapeworms, microscopic disease-causing bacteria, viruses, protozoans, population through factors such as territoriality and self-thinning, a phenomenon
and fungi. whereby crowded organisms such as trees become less numerous as they grow bigger.
 Parasitic organisms affect the populations of their host organisms in much the same way
that predators affect their prey—in a density-dependent manner.  Intraspecific competition can also lead to long-term changes as the species adapts to
 As the population density of the host increases, parasites and their vectors (agents that its environment. The observation that individuals compete for scarce resources led
carry the parasites from one host to another, such as disease-carrying insects) have little Charles Darwin to identify the “survival of the fittest” as one of the forces in nature
trouble finding new hosts. leading to evolutionary change in species.
 Territoriality. Commensalism
 In many species, some members defend a territory, or limited space. Because
Commensalism - occurs when two species interact and one is benefited while the other is
territoriality is competition for space with resources, a lack of suitable territories is a
unaffected.
density-dependent limitation on a population—the larger the population grows, the
more intense the competition for space becomes. The males of many species of  The relationship between water buffalo and cattle egrets is an example: the grazer stirs
songbirds claim a territory and defend it vigorously at the time of nesting. Their song up insect prey, and the birds follow it and eat the insects.
warns other males to keep away (Figure 4–10).
 Commensalism also includes organisms that hitch rides on other species or grow on
them for support without harming them. Many orchids grow on the branches and trunks
Interspecific Competition – refers to the competition between members of different
of large trees, but do not feed on them as parasitic plants do.
species. Consider a natural ecosystem that contains hundreds of species of plants, all
competing for water, nutrients, and light.  In contrast to commensalism is amensalism, where one species is harmed while the
other is unaffected. Usually, this is accomplished by the natural chemical compounds
 If two species compete directly for the same resources, as sometimes occurs when a
produced by an organism, which are harmless to itself but harmful to other organisms
species is introduced from another continent, one of the two species generally perishes
around it. An example is the black walnut tree, which secretes a chemical compound
in the competition. This is the competitive exclusion principle. For example, the
from its roots that can harm or kill other plants in the area.
introduction of the European rabbit to Australia has led to the decline and disappearance
of several small marsupial animal species due to direct competition for food and  In summary, the relationships between two species or between two members of one
burrows. species can be described by the positive, negative, or neutral effects on the individuals.
 Differences in topography, type of soil, and other factors mean that the landscape is far
from uniform, even within a single ecosystem. Instead, it is composed of numerous
microclimates or microhabitats. The specific abiotic conditions such as moisture,
temperature, and light differ from location to location and through the course of time.
This is true even in lakes, where tiny pockets of water may have different temperatures,
chemistry, or light conditions.
 Competition is minimized because potential competitors are using different resources.
For example, woodpeckers, which feed on insects in deadwood, do not compete with
birds that feed on seeds. Bats and swallows both feed on flying insects, but they do not
compete because bats feed on night-flying insects and swallows feed during the day.

Mutualism
Mutualism - is a relationship between two species from which both benefit. There are many
mutualistic relationships.
 For example, the relationship between pollinators (such as bees, which receive nutrition
from flowers) and the plants they pollinate (which receive pollination) is an example of
mutualism. The fungi benefit from the food produced by the plants; in exchange, the
fungi make it easier for the plants to take in nitrogen and other nutrients from the soil.
Lichens are a mutualistic relationship between a fungus and an alga.
 One example of a mutualism between two animals is the relationship of the anemone
fish and the sea anemone. The fish protects the anemone from predation by the butterfly
fish, and in turn, the anemone’s stinging tentacles (to which the anemone fish is immune)
protect the fish from other predators.