Thermal Insulation of Buildings:

A Synthesis of Approaches and Innovative

Materials
ISBN 978-630-95064-5-0

Dr. Slimane ZIAD

Technium Press
2025
Thermal Insulation of Buildings

A Synthesis of Approaches and Innovative Materials

ISBN 978-630-95064-5-0

Dr. Slimane ZIAD

Researcher in Civil Engineering
University of Bechar- Tahri Mohamed
Department of Civil and Hydraulic Engineering
LMS Laboratory (Laboratoire Mécanique des Structures)
Email: [Link]@[Link]

Bechar, Algeria
July 2025
Dr. Slimane ZIAD
University of Bechar- Tahri Mohamed

EDITORIAL OFFICE
TECHNIUM PRESS
E.U.

For citation purposes, cite as indicated below:

Slimane ZIAD. Thermal Insulation of Buildings: A Synthesis of Approaches and Innovative Materials; ISBN 978-630-95064-5-0
TECHNIUM PRESS: Constanta, Romania, 2025.

FIRST EDITION 2025

ISBN 978-630-95064-5-0 (PDF)

doi:10.47577/book13094

Cover image courtesy of AI ChatGPT.

© 2025 by the author. The book is Open Access and distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution license (CC BY-NC-
ND), which allows users to download, copy and build upon published work non-commercially, as long as the author and
publisher are properly credited. If the material is transformed or built upon, the resulting work may not be distributed.
 About the Author

Dr. Slimane ZIAD is a researcher in Civil Engineering at Tahri Mohamed University

of Bechar, Algeria. He holds a Ph.D. in Civil Engineering, with a specialization in Structures.

Dr. ZIAD is affiliated with the LMS Laboratory, where his research focuses on
sustainable construction, thermal insulation technologies, and the development of eco-friendly
building materials.

He has authored several scientific publications and has participated in national and
international conferences.

His academic interests include energy efficiency in buildings, thermal performance of

structures, and innovative insulation systems.

Contact: [Link]@[Link]
 Preface

Thermal insulation has become a major concern in the sustainable design of buildings.
As energy performance requirements grow increasingly stringent, it is essential for
stakeholders in the construction sector including engineers, architects, educators, researchers,
and students to master both the scientific foundations and the technical solutions related to
insulation.

This book offers a clear, structured, and accessible synthesis of the essential concepts
surrounding thermal insulation in buildings. It highlights classical approaches (such as internal
insulation) while placing significant emphasis on innovative materials and sustainable
practices emerging in the field.

Based on a rigorous bibliographic study, this work aims to provide a solid knowledge
base for those seeking to deepen their understanding of this technical and scientific
domain, which lies at the crossroads of energy efficiency, occupant comfort, and
environmental sustainability.

It is primarily intended for students, educators, building professionals, and

researchers who wish to gain a synthetic, up-to-date, and critical overview of thermal
insulation techniques.

Dr. Slimane ZIAD

University of Bechar - Tahri Mohamed
Bechar, Algeria
 Table of contents

General Introduction ............................................................................................................... 9

Chapter I: Fundamental Principles of Heat Transfer ........................................................ 11
1.1 General theory of heat exchange ............................................................................... 11
1.2 Modes of heat transfer ............................................................................................... 11
1.2.1 Conduction ......................................................................................................... 11
1.2.2 Convection ......................................................................................................... 12
1.2.3 Radiation ............................................................................................................ 13
1.3 Heat flux .................................................................................................................... 14
1.4 Thermal conductivity coefficient .............................................................................. 14
1.5 Heat exchange between two environments separated by a wall ............................... 15
1.6 Heat flux density equation through a wall ................................................................ 16
1.6.1 Case of a single plate ......................................................................................... 16
1.6.2 Case of juxtaposed plates ................................................................................... 16
1.7 Thermal loss of an uninsulated dwelling................................................................... 17
Chapter II: Fundamentals of Thermal Insulation in Buildings ........................................ 19
2.1 Definition and principles ........................................................................................... 19
2.1.1 Internal Thermal Insulation (ITI) ....................................................................... 19
2.1.2 External Thermal Insulation (ETI)..................................................................... 20
2.1.3 Distributed Thermal Insulation (DTI) ................................................................ 20
2.2 Thermal insulation methods ...................................................................................... 21
2.2.1 Roof insulation ................................................................................................... 21
2.2.2 Exterior walls insulation (opaque vertical walls)............................................... 22
2.2.3 Windows insulation ........................................................................................... 23
2.2.4 Low floor insulation ........................................................................................... 24
2.3 Thermal insulating materials ..................................................................................... 25
2.3.1 What is a thermal insulating material ?.............................................................. 25
2.4 Types of thermal insulators ....................................................................................... 26
2.4.1 Synthetic insulators ............................................................................................ 26

6
 2.4.2 Mineral-based insulators .................................................................................... 27
2.4.3 Plant-based insulators ........................................................................................ 27
2.4.4 Recycled materials ............................................................................................. 28
2.4.5 Animal origin ..................................................................................................... 29
2.4.6 Next-generation materials .................................................................................. 29
2.5 Characteristics must have thermal insulator.............................................................. 30
Chapter III: External Thermal Insulation (ETI)................................................................ 33
3.1 Overview of external thermal insulation ................................................................... 33
3.1.1 Definition ........................................................................................................... 33
3.1.2 Benefits of external thermal insulation .............................................................. 33
3.1.3 Thermal performance of ETI ............................................................................. 34
[Link] Summer and winter comfort ....................................................................... 34
[Link] Protection against climatic solicitations ..................................................... 35
3.1.4 Treatment of singular points in ETI ................................................................... 37
3.1.5 Impact of ETI on thermal bridges ...................................................................... 38
[Link] Junction thermal bridges ............................................................................. 38
[Link] Integrated thermal bridges .......................................................................... 40
3.1.6 Impact of ETI on condensation and humidity.................................................... 41
3.2 Sustainable, naturally-derived materials for exterior insulation ............................... 44
3.2.1 Wood fiber ......................................................................................................... 45
3.2.2 Hemp wool ......................................................................................................... 45
3.2.3 Expanded cork ................................................................................................... 46
3.3 ETI techniques for reinforced concrete structures .................................................... 47
3.3.1 Techniques for opaque walls ............................................................................. 47
[Link] Coated systems ........................................................................................... 47
[Link] Ventilated facade systems (Cladding) ........................................................ 48
[Link] Types of veneer and clothing systems ........................................................ 48
[Link] Thermal insulating coatings........................................................................ 49
3.3.2 ETI techniques for flat terrace roofs .................................................................. 52
[Link] Hot roof....................................................................................................... 52
[Link] Inverted roof ............................................................................................... 53

7
 [Link] Combined roof ............................................................................................ 54
General Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 55
Bibliographic References....................................................................................................... 57
Appendices .............................................................................................................................. 63

8
 General Introduction

In the face of growing challenges posed by climate change and the progressive
depletion of energy resources, energy efficiency has become a global priority. The building
sector alone accounts for a significant share of global energy consumption, primarily due to
heating, cooling, and ventilation demands. In this context, improving the thermal
performance of buildings has become an environmental, economic, and social imperative.

Thermal insulation stands out as one of the most effective strategies for reducing
energy loss, limiting greenhouse gas emissions, and ensuring long-lasting thermal comfort
regardless of external weather conditions. It is a key pillar of bioclimatic architecture and a
central component of any sustainable construction strategy.

To design thermally efficient buildings, it is essential to understand the mechanisms

of heat transfer, master the various insulation methods, and evaluate the properties of
insulating materials, especially those emerging from recent technological advancements and
eco-friendly approaches.

This book aims to provide a comprehensive scientific and technical synthesis on

thermal insulation in buildings. It is intended to support:

• Students, by offering solid theoretical and practical foundations;

• Researchers, through a structured state-of-the-art overview;
• Professionals, by presenting high-performance and applicable solutions.

The content is organized in a pedagogical sequence: it begins with the fundamental

principles of heat transfer, then explores thermal insulation techniques and various types
of insulating materials (traditional, bio-based, and innovative). Special attention is given to
External Thermal Insulation (ETI), which is considered one of the most effective and
durable approaches in building design.

Finally, the book concludes with a synthesis of ETI techniques specifically adapted
for reinforced concrete structures, supported by real-world examples, with the goal of
providing a complete, current, and practical understanding of the topic.

9
 Chapter I:
Fundamental
Principles of Heat
Transfer

10
 Chapter I: Fundamental Principles of Heat Transfer

1.1 General theory of heat exchange

Temperature indicates the speed rate of agitation of the elementary particles in matter.
Between two bodies with different temperatures, heat flow inevitably occurs, with heat moving
from the hot body to the cold one until temperature equilibrium is reached (Eyrolles, 1977, p.
11). There is no way to prevent the exchange of heat; only its intensity can be altered.

1.2 Modes of heat transfer

Heat is exchanged through three fundamental modes: conduction, convection and
radiation.

1.2.1 Conduction

Heat transfer by conduction is an exchange of energy that occurs without the

movement of matter, thus involving solids and immobilized fluids (Venkateshan, 2021, p. 9).
This transfer can occur within a single body or through contact between two bodies. It involves
the movement of free electrons within the crystalline lattice for solids (metals) and the
transmission of kinetic energy through collisions between molecules for fluids.

The general equation for thermal conduction through a material is given by Fourier's
law:

dT
Φ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ T = −λ𝑆
⃗⃗⃗ = −λgrad (I. 1)
dx

Where:

• 𝛌 : Thermal conductivity of the material [W/m. K];

• 𝑺: Surface through which the heat propagates [m²];
• 𝚽 : Heat flux through the surface [W];

ⅆ𝐓
• : Temperature gradient across the material [K/m].
ⅆ𝐱

11
1.2.2 Convection

Convection is a heat transfer that occurs in a material medium with the movement of
matter (Mergui, 2024, pp. 3-4). This phenomenon occurs in fluid medium (liquids or gases) or
between the interface of a solid wall and a moving fluid. Two types of convection are
distinguished:

Natural Convection (free): movements are due to variations in density in a fluid

subjected to the gravitational field. Density variations can be generated by temperature
gradients (hot air is lighter than cold air).

Forced Convection: fluid movement is caused by external mechanical actions (pump,

fan, etc.).

Mixed Convection combines both modes of convection mentioned above equally.

In the case of heat transfer between a fluid and a solid (Figure I.1), the thermal flux
exchanged between the surface and the moving fluid is given by Newton's law:

Φ = hS(Tp − Tf) (I. 2)

Where:

• 𝐓𝐩 : Solid wall temperature [K];

• 𝐒: Surface area through which heat is transferred [m²];
• 𝐓𝐟 : Temperature of the surrounding fluid [K];
• 𝚽 : Heat flux through the wall [W];
• 𝐡: Convection heat transfer coefficient [W/m². K].

Tp Fluid

Tf
Solid

Figure I.1. Convection between a solid and a fluid interface. Author source

12
1.2.3 Radiation

Every solid and liquid object releases energy from its surfaces as electromagnetic
waves. If radiated energy encounters a body absorbing these wavelengths, it is transformed
into heat (Eyrolles, 1977, p. 11). This transfer requires no material support, and occurs even in
a vacuum. (Example: the sun heats the earth by radiation).

The general equation for thermal radiation is Stefan-Boltzmann's law (Mergui, 2024, p.
7):

Φ = SεσT 4 (I. 3)

Where:

• 𝐒: Emissive surface [m²];

• 𝛆: body emissivity (   ) dimensionless;
• 𝚽 : Radiant heat flux [W];
• 𝐓 : Absolute temperature of the emissive surface [K];
• 𝛔: Stefan-Boltzmann's constant (≈ 5,6703 × 10−8 [W m−2 K−4]).

The heat transfer modes referred above (conduction, convection and radiation) can be
summarized in Figure I.2.

Conduction
Convection

Radiation

Figure I.2. Main modes of heat transfer. Source : (Verschaere, 2016)

13
1.3 Heat flux
Flux of heat (symbol Φ), represents the quantity of heat (Q) exchanged per unit of time
[t], (Eyrolles, 1977, p. 12) :

Q
Φ= (I. 4)
t

It expresses an energy per unit of time, i.e. a power, and is measured in watts [W].

For calculating heat losses in buildings, it is convenient to relate the heat flux to unit
area S. This ratio is called the flux density (symbol φ) :

Φ
φ= (I. 5)
S

The flux density is measured in watts per square meter: [W ∕ m2 ].

1.4 Thermal conductivity coefficient

Thermal conductivity (noted λ) of a material (Eyrolles, 1977, p. 13) is defined as the
amount of heat flux passing through it per meter of thickness for a temperature difference of
1°C between the two faces (Figure I.3).

Figure I.3. Thermal conductivity of a body. Source : (Apere asbl, 2021)

14
1.5 Heat exchange between two environments separated by a wall
The phenomenon of heat exchange between two environments (indoor and outdoor) of
different temperatures (Ti> Te), separated by a wall, takes place as follows (Eyrolles, 1977, p.
14):

Heat from the indoor environment is transferred to the wall through radiation and
convection. Within the wall, it moves via conduction before being released back into the
outside environment through radiation and convection (Figure I.4).

Figure I.4. Heat exchange between two environments separated by a wall. (Eyrolles, 1977)

Inside the wall, the temperature is not uniform.

In a homogeneous wall, it decreases steadily from the inner face to the outer face.

15
1.6 Heat flux density equation through a wall
1.6.1 Case of a single plate

Consider a portion of 1m² in the center of a very large wall made of a homogeneous
material, both sides of the wall maintain surface temperatures (θi and θe ) intermediate, that
are between the ambient temperatures (Eyrolles, 1977, p. 15).

The temperature variance generates a heat flux directed from θi to θe (θi > θe ). The
density of this flux is directly proportional to the temperature difference and inversely
proportional to the thermal resistance of the wall:

θi − θe θi − θe
φ= = ⅇ (I. 6)
Ru
λ

Where:

• e: Thickness of material [m];

• 𝐑 𝐮 : Thermal resistance of the wall [m². °C/W];
• 𝛉𝐢 and 𝛉𝐞 : Internal and external surface temperatures of the wall [°C].

1.6.2 Case of juxtaposed plates

If the wall consists of parallel plates made of different materials, the thermal resistances
of each plate add up to resist the passage of the heat flux:

θ i − θe θi − θe θi − θe
φ= = = ⅇ (I. 7)
R u1 + R u2 + R u3 + ⋯ + R un ∑Ru ∑
λ

16
1.7 Thermal loss of an uninsulated dwelling
According to ADEME (Environment and Energy Management Agency), heat escapes
from an uninsulated detached house (Figure I.5) 25 to 30% through the roof, 20 to 25% across
the walls, 20 to 25% over ventilation, 10 to 15% along windows and exterior doors, 7 to 10%
by floor (or ground) and 5 to 10% by thermal bridges (Virdi & Waters, 2017, pp. 87-88).

+30% through the roof Summer Winter

-30% through the roof

+25% through
the walls
-20% by air ventilation

+20% by
air ventilation -25% through
the walls

+13% by the -13% by the

windows windows

+5% thermal bridges -5% thermal bridges

+7% by soil -7% by soil

Figure I.5. Thermal losses in winter and summer of an uninsulated dwelling.

Source : (Francis , 2020)

17
 Chapter II:
Fundamentals of
Thermal Insulation
in Buildings

18
 Chapter II: Fundamentals of Thermal Insulation in Buildings

2.1 Definition and principles

Thermal insulation (Beaumier & Janin, 2017) refers to all the techniques used to limit
heat transfer between a hot and a cold environment. The term « thermal insulation » can be
found in many fields. It is used in construction, industry, automotive industry, cold storage,
kitchen and textiles (Matheswaran, Arjunan, & Selvaraj, 2023). In the case of buildings,
thermal insulation can consist of a (single) insulating material or a combination of insulating
materials (David W, Yarbrough, & Kośny, 2022). It mainly concerns the insulation of exterior
walls, roofs and low floors. Thermal insulation enables to:

• Minimize heat exchange between the building interior and the external surroundings
(thermal loss);
• Reduce energy consumption for heating and/or cooling (energy savings);
• Make the home more ecological by reducing pollution linked to the release of
greenhouse gases into the atmosphere;
• Create a healthy living space (better living comfort) and a more comfortable building
(thermal comfort).

When two elements in contact have different temperatures (the building and the outside
environment), heat is exchanged between them until their temperatures become identical. The
aim of thermal insulation is to retard this exchange, maintaining the walls at a temperature as
similar as feasible to that of the indoor air (Gonzalez & Siano, 2021, p. 109). There exist three
ways to insulate a building envelope, these includes: external insulation (ETI), distributed
insulation (DTI), and internal insulation (ITI).

2.1.1 Internal Thermal Insulation (ITI)

This category of insulation (Figure II.1) consists of installing a thermal insulation inside
the building, against the structural elements (walls and floors). ITI is widely used in France
(Eyrolles, 1977), thanks to its ease of implementation and lower installation costs than other
types of insulation, to improve a building's thermal insulation. It's especially preferable for
apartment renovations, as it's difficult to intervene on the building's exterior. While, its
disadvantages are more important: it reduces living space, eliminates the benefits of thermal

19
inertia, causes wall condensation and creates thermal bridges (wall/floor and wall/roof
junctions). In addition, the quality of interior insulation can decline over time (wool settling
behind plasterboard, mouse holes in polystyrene, etc.).

Figure II.1. Interior thermal insulation of walls. Source : (Isover France, 2019)

2.1.2 External Thermal Insulation (ETI)

Also known as « coat wall » or « ETI » in its abbreviated form, this approach involves
applying a thermal coat to the external envelope of the building, including walls and roofs
(Barreira & De Freitas, 2015). It is more effective than the first type (ITI), since it preserves
living space, eliminates most thermal bridges, protects structural elements (load-bearing walls,
floors between storeys and roofs) against thermal stress and reduces the risk of condensation
occurring within the masonry. This form of insulation is extensively utilized in Belgium and
Luxembourg, and even more so in Germany, Switzerland, Austria and Poland (Eyrolles, 1977).
On the other hand, ETI is difficult to install on some older buildings (protected facades) and
almost always requires the intervention of qualified professionals, so it is often more expensive
to install.

2.1.3 Distributed Thermal Insulation (DTI)

This technique combines building materials and thermal insulation to create a single
material with a dual function (insulating and load-bearing) (Christian Lhomme, 2014, p. 35).
These are known as « monomers » (Figure II.2). DTI uses materials that incorporate insulation
in their structure, such as aerated concrete, hemp bricks, clay bricks with insulating cores and

20
so on (Akin & Boztaş, 2024; Dlimi, Agounoun, Kadiri, Saadani, & Rahmoune, 2023).
Monomers are generally assembled using glue (chosen for its low thermal conductivity) rather
than cement mortar, with the main aim of minimizing thermal bridges and improving overall
thermal insulation performance (Li Wang, Jiang Li, Kang Li, Kun Hui, & Wang, 2022). In
addition, distributed insulation is generally used in new-build construction, at a slightly higher
cost than other types of insulation (interior and exterior). As a result, this type of insulation
offers good comfort in both winter and summer, is a high-performance, long-lasting solution,
is quick to install, limits the risk of humidity and condensation, and requires no insulation on
the walls. However, it's preferable to call in a professional to install this type of insulation.

Figure II.2. Illustration of distributed insulation. Source : (Gluzicki, 2020)

2.2 Thermal insulation methods

Enhancing the thermal insulation of a dwelling involves several key strategic points:
roof, walls, windows and floors (Gonzalez & Siano, 2021, pp. 109-110), However, it's essential
to select the elements that have priority over others, in order to achieve efficient and long-
lasting thermal insulation. Indeed, the priority of the element is established according to its
high percentage of thermal losses.

2.2.1 Roof insulation

The roof is a structure covering the upper part of a building, representing a significant
surface area that is highly exposed to external elements such as rain, wind, cold, and sun. The
roof is responsible for the largest portion of thermal losses in a non-insulated dwelling,

21
accounting for approximately 25 to 30% of the losses depending on the roof configuration: flat
roofs (horizontal roofs) or sloped roofs (converted or unconverted attics). It is the primary area
where heat escapes, making it a critical site for thermal insulation. Depending on the type of
roof (flat or sloped), thermal insulation can be applied either from the inside or outside (Figure
II.3). In the case of a flat roof, a rigid insulating material such as polystyrene, polyurethane,
cork, wood fibers, or hemp is required to be placed on the roof with adequate protection.
Properly insulating the roof with suitable materials helps extend the lifespan of the building by
preventing moisture infiltration and the deterioration of roofing materials. However, the cost
of the work varies depending on the technique used, roof slope, roof area, and chosen materials.

Figure II.3. External insulation of a flat roof. Source : ([Link], 2021)

2.2.2 Exterior walls insulation (opaque vertical walls)

An exterior wall is any load-bearing construction element, made of stone, brick, breeze-
block or other material, which separates two environments (a heated part of the building and
the outside environment). Its role is purely mechanical (strength), however, it must also serve
as a protective screen to safeguard the habitat and withstand various external stresses and
aggressions (such as rainwater penetration, thermal shocks, etc.). Walls are the second most
important source of heat loss, following closely following the roof, with 20 to 25% of wasted
energy, requiring particular attention to these elements in thermal insulation works (priority
number 2). On the other hand, two main techniques are possible: insulation from the inside or
the outside (Figure II.4), mainly using rigid insulating panels (polystyrene, mineral fibers,
expanded cork, compressed straw, etc.), which are glued directly to the load-bearing wall or

22
screwed onto a support structure (metal or wood). Furthermore, the thermal insulation can be
placed inside the wall into which it is integrated, thus the wall can be built using insulating
materials (DTI). In fact, thermal insulation of walls allows to limit energy losses from the
building, reduce noise nuisances by improving sound insulation, and consequently save money
and enhance the comfort of the occupants.

Figure II.4. External thermal insulation of a wall. Source : (DSD Renov, 2024)

2.2.3 Windows insulation

The window is an architectural component of the building façade, representing an

opening with glass in a wall or sloping roof. It provides several functions for the room
concerned: sunlight, ventilation, view of the outside environment and sometimes verbal
communication and evacuations safety. However, when they are in poor condition, poorly
installed or too thinly glazed, they contribute significantly to thermal losses (10 to 15% of total
building heat loss). Following the exterior walls, these elements are considered weak points in
the building's overall thermal insulation and are thus ranked third in priority for thermal
insulation and renovation plan. In order to achieve effective acoustic and thermal insulation,
three solutions were proposed:

• Installation double glazing, which comprises two panes of glass separated by a layer
of stationary air (air space), to reduce cold-wall effect, condensation and heat loss;
• Adopt reinforced insulation double glazing (RIG), which has the same insulating
properties as double glazing, but with solar control represented by a metal optical filter
that reflects infrared radiation or heat radiation, while transmitting visible light. In
addition, RIG prevents heat from escaping in winter and entering in summer;

23
 • Use triple glazing (Figure II.5), which consists of three panes of glass separated by two
layers of immobile air (air space) working as insulation. This technique offers the best
thermal performance, but is relatively heavy and cannot be installed everywhere.

Figure II.5. Triple-glazed window for thermal and acoustic insulation. Source : (SMOME,
2024)

2.2.4 Low floor insulation

The low floor is the lowest soil of the building, below which there is no other level, and
only the upper part of this floor opens onto a heated space. It is generally composed of (clean
concrete, dry stone hedgehog, reinforced slab, etc.). This load-bearing component of the
structure supports both fixed and variable loads and allows for the passage of ducts and piping
networks. Among these types are the floor on ground or on unheated basement. On the other
hand, it contributes to thermal losses (7 to 10% of total heat loss from an uninsulated building).
Indeed, thermal insulation of low floors is not a priority compared to the other building
elements mentioned above (roof, external walls and windows) and can therefore be classified
as « fourth priority ». However, it is essential to insulate it thermally in order to minimize heat
loss, offer long-term living comfort and make a very profitable investment. In this context, the
thermal insulation of low floors can be achieved using two techniques: insulation from the top
or insulation from the bottom:

• Insulation from the bottom (under reinforced slab) : this is the simplest technique.
Insulation in this case is placed between the soil and the reinforced slab, and must be a
low-compression, non-hydrophilic insulating material, or well protected against
moisture (polyurethane foam, polystyrene foam, mineral fibers and cellular glass). In

24
 addition, the insulation boards should be laid with staggered joints to prevent any
laitance from running off;
• Insulation from the top (under reported or floating screed) : this technique requires
heavy work (total renovation of the floor, raising door thresholds, etc.), which can be
difficult and costly to implement in renovation projects. Insulation must be placed on
the raw floor slab (Figure II.6), with a waterproof film interposed to prevent rising
humidity, before being covered with a coating and allowed to circulate in the rooms.
Nonetheless, the insulation must be as low-compressible and resilient as possible
(polyurethane foam, polystyrene foam, wood fibers and expanded cork). Thus, the
Board insulation is laid with staggered joints, and with the edges against each other, to
prevent any laitance from flowing between the boards.

Figure II.6. Insulating a low floor from the top. Source : (SDLM Travaux, 2018)

2.3 Thermal insulating materials

2.3.1 What is a thermal insulating material ?

A thermal insulator (Roulet, 2012, p. 27) is a material with low thermal

conductivity, unlike a thermal conductor, which has high thermal conductivity. It acts by
slowing the transmission of heat through it, which helps maintain a stable temperature inside a
space while limiting heat loss to the outside or heat gains from the outside. Thermal insulators
are widely used in many fields, including building construction, industrial applications,
heating and air-conditioning systems. In the construction sector, insulation ensures good
thermal insulation of the building by reducing heat leakage (heating) or heat entry (keeping
cool) during winter and summer periods.
25
2.4 Types of thermal insulators
Moreover, there are different types of thermal insulators, which we can classify into
families according to their origin; we distinguish the following families:

2.4.1 Synthetic insulators

Synthetic insulators materials (Pfundstein, Gellert, Spitzner, & Rudolphi, 2012) (Figure
II.7) are rigid alveolar products (or foams), commonly called « insulating plastics », and are
the fruits of modern chemistry. They are made from petrochemical materials. Their
manufacturing process is based on non-renewable resources and energy-intensive processes.
These main materials include expanded polystyrene (EPS), extruded polystyrene (XPS) and
polyurethane (PUR).

(a) (b)

(c)

Figure II.7. Synthetic insulators (a) : expanded polystyrene, (b) : extruded polystyrene, (c) :
polyurethane foam. Source : (Futura Sciences, 2019; Batiproduits, 2017; Zherebtsov, 2019)

26
2.4.2 Mineral-based insulators

These insulators are made from mineral raw materials (silica, clay, volcanic rock, etc.),
which are generally transformed into fine fibers, rolls, panels or granules by incorporating
additives (Roulet, 2012). The manufacturing method for this type of materials is based on high-
temperature firing, which is energy-intensive and CO2-producing. Mineral insulators are
renowned for their fire resistance, durability, low thermal conductivity and ability to withstand
high temperatures. They include rock wool, glass wool, expanded vermiculite and perlite
(Figure II.8). The recycling of materials depends on the nature of the products and the additives
used.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure II.8. Mineral insulators (a) : glass wool, (b) : expanded perlite, (c) : rock wool, (d) :
expanded vermiculite. Source : (Isolation et chauffage, 2024; Keji, 2023; Knauf Insulation
Maghreb, 2024; Health Canada, 2009)

2.4.3 Plant-based insulators

Plant insulators (Pfundstein, Gellert, Spitzner, & Rudolphi, 2012) are materials whose
basic component is of renewable plant origin, such as cork, straw, hemp and wood (Figure
II.9). They are most often in panel form, and are used both as insulation and as supports or

27
facings in the construction of insulation complexes. This insulation type is the preferred choice
for green building practices, thanks to its low environmental impact, energy efficiency and
insulating properties.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure II.9. Plant insulators: (a): expanded cork, (b): straw, (c): hemp, (d): wood wool
Source : (Alsabrico, 2020; Cluster Robin·s, 2024; Fauteux, 2024; Johan, 2024)

2.4.4 Recycled materials

Recycled insulators (Figure II.10) are insulation materials whose raw material is
derived from the recycling of end-of-life products (paper, plastics, fabrics, etc.) (Trachte, 2012,
p. 525).

(a) (b)

Figure II.10. Recycled insulators: (a): cellulose wadding, (b): recycled textile
Source : (Guillois Isolation, 2024; [Link], 2024)

28
Introducing this type of material into the thermal insulation of buildings allows to preserve
natural resources, to reduce the volume of waste generated and consequently the associated
pollution. In addition, they offer insulation performance comparable to that of traditional
insulation. The most common in this category are cellulose wadding and recycled textile.

2.4.5 Animal origin

Animal-based insulators (Pfundstein, Gellert, Spitzner, & Rudolphi, 2012) are

materials made from animal resources (Figure II.11), such as sheep's wool and duck feathers
(main insulators). They offer effective insulating properties and are appreciated for their
durability and ability to regulate humidity. Animal-based insulation is often used as an
ecological alternative to synthetic insulations, as it is renewable, helping to reduce the
environmental footprint of buildings. In addition, theoretically all animal hair and feathers
could be used as insulators.

(a) (b)

Figure II.11. Insulation of animal origin: (a): sheep's wool, (b): duck feathers
Source : (BZH Qualité, 2020)

2.4.6 Next-generation materials

New-generation thermal insulations (Figure II.12) are materials designed by

researchers and manufacturers (Almusaed, 2012, pp. 65-69; Leventis, Aegerter, & Koebel,
2011, p. 585) to ensure better energy efficiency in construction and industrial applications,
compared to traditional materials such as glass or rock wool, expanded polystyrene, etc. They
are developed through innovative new technologies and advanced formulations. These include
aerogels (AG) and vacuum insulation panels (VIP). While these insulators offer many

29
advantages in terms of thermal insulation and durability, however they have disadvantages,
notably high cost, installation and sensitivity to certain environments.

(a) (b)

Figure II.12. New-generation insulation :(a): aerogels, (b): vacuum insulation panels.
Source : (Shanghai Tanchain, 2022; Recticel Insulation, 2024)

2.5 Characteristics must have thermal insulator

In reality, the effectiveness of thermal insulation primarily hinges on the properties of
the insulator itself. For this reason, the most important criteria (Roulet, 2012, p. 33) to obtain
effective thermal insulator are:

• Humidity resistance: A good insulator must be resistant to or protected against

humidity, as moisture can reduce the insulator's effectiveness;
• High thermal resistance: Thermal resistance indicates the insulator's ability to block
the flow of heat. The higher the thermal resistance, the improved the insulation;
• Adequate thickness: The insulator must be sufficiently thick to ensure effective
insulation. The greater the thickness, the more efficient the insulation;
• Low thermal conductivity: The insulator must have a minimal ability to conduct heat.
The lower the thermal conductivity, the better the material insulates;
• Non-flammability: Preferably, the insulator should be non-flammable or possess very
low flammability for safety reasons;
• Thermal stability: The insulator must be able to withstand temperature variations,
swelling or dilatation without degrading;

30
• Non-toxicity: Insulation must be safe for human health and the environment, without
harmful gas or particle emissions.

31
 Chapter III:
External Thermal
Insulation (ETI)

32
 Chapter III: External Thermal Insulation (ETI)

3.1 Overview of external thermal insulation

3.1.1 Definition

External Thermal Insulation of buildings (ETI) is a high-performance technique aimed

to improve the energy efficiency and thermal comfort of structures by enveloping their
exteriors with an insulating material (Simonnot & Lheureux, 2018, p. 124).

The explanation of the typical procedure of ETI for buildings is shown in Figure III.1.

ETI procedure

Installation of insulator Finishing

Preparation of exterior
surfaces (walls, roofs) Thermal insulator panels Finishing coat for
or rolls (EPS, XPS, wood protecting insulator from
Cleaning weathering (mineral
fiber, etc.)
Repair of any cracks plasters, synthetic
Fastening by special glues
Ensuring a flat and (cement base, epoxy), coatings, wood or metal
uniform surface mechanical (dowels) or a cladding, etc.)
combination of both Improving the aesthetic
aspect of the building

Figure III.1. Illustrative flowchart of the typical procedure for the ETI of Buildings. Author
source

3.1.2 Benefits of external thermal insulation

This solution offers many benefits (Imbert & Mediouni, 2010, p. 5), including:

• Carrying out work without moving the inhabitants, on occupied site;

• 2-in-1 realization, facade renovation and insulation;
• Preservation of living space and consequently the value of the building, compared to
installing thermal insulation from the inside;

33
 • Reduced thermal losses through walls and roof;
• Saving energy and thereby saving money;
• Diminution the risk of condensation, in contrast to internal thermal insulation and
minimizing sources of thermal bridging, which are potential causes of building
pathologies;
• Enhanced thermal inertia of the building envelope to improve comfort during both
summer and winter seasons;
• Reduced greenhouse gas emissions (CO2);
• Enhancing the architectural quality of the building and preserving its heritage;

3.1.3 Thermal performance of ETI

[Link] Summer and winter comfort
External insulation enhances thermal comfort (Fabbri, 2024; Humphreys, Nicol, Roaf,
& Sykes, 2015) in both winter and summer by leveraging the thermal inertia of the wall (Imbert
& Mediouni, 2010, p. 19). When insulation is installed on the exterior, it doesn't create a barrier
between the interior of the building and the walls, allowing for the exchange of heat and
contributing to regulating indoor temperature (Figure III.2).

external thermal
high-inertia
insulation
stone wall

exterior cold

interior heat

Figure III.2. Thermal inertia phenomenon of a wall under ETI. Author source

34
 Additionally, it eliminates the sensation of cold walls. In winter, in a heated room, the
walls store heat and release it if the indoor environment cools. In summer, by practicing night
ventilation and using solar protection during the day, the walls can retain some of the
coolness from the night, helping to decrease excessive heat during the day. This reduces the
reliance on air conditioning.

[Link] Protection against climatic solicitations

External insulation protects the building structure against climatic stresses that can
cause cracking and deterioration. The effects are twofold:

a) Keep homogeneous temperatures in the building (main structural or load-bearing

part):

Figure III.3 below shows the temperature profile of a wall in summer and winter. This
wall is initially composed of 20 [cm] breeze-block, on which is fixed, by glue pads sparing an
air space of 2 [cm], a polystyrene plate of 2 [cm] is attached on the inside (Imbert & Mediouni,
2010, p. 20).

Figure III.3. Temperature profile Figure III.4. Temperature profile

with a breeze-block wall. (Imbert & with external insulation. (Imbert &
Mediouni, 2010) Mediouni, 2010)

35
 Note that the temperature contrast within the breeze-block, fluctuates, reaching 4 [°C]
in during summer and 8.6 [°C] during winter. While once isolated on the outside by 12 [cm] of
polystyrene (Figure III.4), the temperature difference is only 1 [°C] in summer and 2.5 [°C] in
winter. These significant temperature variations within the structure are sources of differential
expansion movement that can lead to cracking. At the level of thermal bridges, this
phenomenon of differential expansion is accentuated. Moreover, external thermal insulation
has the capability to address specific thermal bridges at floor and structural walls levels, thereby
lowering the risk of cracking.

b) Reduce the temperature range swept between summer and winter

Figure III.5 below illustrates the thermal shock between summer and winter
experienced by the structure, in this case the breeze block (Imbert & Mediouni, 2010, p. 21).
Without external insulation, the temperature range swept between summer and winter is 43
[°C] at the breeze-block. With external insulation (Figure III.6), the temperature range is
reduced to 15 [°C]. The structure receives less stress, so it moves less. Conversely, there is a
significant temperature variance within the insulation and the coating, necessitating
appropriately tailored technical attributes.

Figure III.5. Thermal shock with Figure III.6. Thermal shock with
a breeze-block wall. (Imbert & external thermal insulation. (Imbert
Mediouni, 2010) & Mediouni, 2010)

36
3.1.4 Treatment of singular points in ETI

Singular points (Information Resources Management Association, 2021, p. 484) or

discontinuity of an insulation (bay frames, balconies, stops and corners) create thermal bridges.
These thermal bridges are cold points that lead to condensation and therefore moisture in the
walls.

Bay frame
Top
stop
Balcony

Side stop

Dilatation joint
Outgoing Incoming
Bottom
corner angle
stop

Figure III.7. Singular points to be treated in external thermal insulation. (CSTB, 2000)

Addressing singular points, as depicted in Figure III.7, is crucial. Frequently, the quality
of their execution determines the maintenance of the works over time and the efficacy of the
system. However, the most common thermal bridges and their corresponding solutions are
summarized below:

a) Bay and openings framing: Doors and windows are sensitive points where thermal
bridges occur. To deal with them, it is essential to use adapted profiles and to ensure a
good connection between the joinery and the insulator. Solutions such as thermal bridge
breakers or special frames can be used to minimize heat loss;
b) Corners and stops: Building corners and stops (bottom stop, top stop, side stop,
outgoing and incoming corner stops) are areas where insulation can be interrupted or
less effective. The treatment of these singular points, is made from the special profiles

37
 (starting and finishing profiles, edge profiles and corner profiles) to ensure insulation
continuity and avoid thermal bridges, thus guaranteeing homogeneous insulation;
c) Junctions with salient elements: Elements such as balconies, require special attention
when installing ETI. To ensure waterproofing and continuity of insulation around these
elements, there are flexible materials and special installation techniques such as (liquid
waterproofing membranes, self-adhesive sealing strips, sealants, rubber profiles, etc.);
d) Dilatation joints: the treatment of dilatation joints in ETI involves the use of flexible
materials (sealant), and an appropriate finish to ensure effective waterproofing and the
structural stability of the building.

3.1.5 Impact of ETI on thermal bridges

A thermal bridge (David W, Yarbrough, & Kośny, 2022, p. 461) refers to a section of
the building envelope where the typically consistent thermal resistance is significantly
diminished due to the absence or localized degradation of insulation, resulting in significant
heat leaks to the outside. On average, thermal bridges account for 10 % of the losses of an
uninsulated collective building, increasing to 25 % in a building insulated internally. For an
uninsulated dwelling, thermal bridges account for 5 to 10 %, rising to 18 % with internal
insulation.

[Link] Junction thermal bridges

External insulation addresses the thermal bridge at the junctions between intermediate
floors and the facade, as well as between load-bearing walls and the facade. With internal
insulation (Figure III.8), the continuity of insulation is not guaranteed at intermediate floor
level, which leads to a significant thermal leakage.

In contrast, in the case of external insulation (Figure III.9), insulation continuity is

ensured, treating the thermal bridge and significantly limiting heat loss.

38
 External Thermal Insulation Internal Thermal Insulation

Figure III.9. Internal temperature Figure III.8. Internal temperature in a

of an externally insulated wall. wall with internal thermal insulation.
(Imbert & Mediouni, 2010) (Imbert & Mediouni, 2010)

However, thermal bridges at connections (Guyer, P.E, & R.A, 2022) are not confined
to intermediate floors and walls. They occur at the junction between two or more walls, at least
one of which is exterior-facing. The optimal solution involves extending insulation into the
buried section and insulating the lower floor. Similarly, the connection between the wall and
the roof must be addressed by extending the insulation over the acroterion or eaves. The risk
escalates if insulation is absent or discontinuous. In internal insulation, the discontinuity may
arise if the insulation fails to reach the top plate in the attic, does not extend fully to the bottom
of the wall, or is cut too short around joinery edges.

When insulating from the outside, it's essential to control the joint between the
insulation panels. During renovations, rainwater downpipes must be dismantled before being
repositioned in front of the insulation with longer fixing brackets, as the discontinuity created
by stopping the insulation on either side of the downpipe creates a thermal bridge.
Modenations, fascias and window supports also pose a problem.

These protrusions must imperatively be trimmed in order to pass the insulator in front
without having to dig it in its thickness. Once dug in, the insulator is sometimes only one or

39
two centimeters thick, which greatly reduces the thermal performance of the wall at these points
and creates a thermal bridge.

[Link] Integrated thermal bridges

The realization of external insulation can be a source of integrated thermal bridges
(Chateauneuf, Curt, Baroth, & Peyras, 2014), compromising the insulation within the wall
itself. This differs from thermal bridges at connections, which occur at the junctions between
the building's walls. These are very often caused by insulation fasteners or secondary frames
(Figure III.10).

Figure III.10. Integrated thermal bridges. Source : (Tout Sur l’Isolation, 2019)

The effect of integrated thermal bridges in external thermal insulation varies depending
on the chosen system (Imbert & Mediouni, 2010, pp. 52-53). For a coating system, the impact
is minimal if the insulation is glued or mechanically fixed with plastic profiles. With metal
profiles, however, the impact can be significant, i.e. it can reduce the wall's resistance by 15 to
30%. Most often, cladding systems also have a strong impact on wall insulation, due to the
metal fasteners of the secondary framework. Positioning a plastic piece between the bracket
and the wall can limit thermal bridge.

40
3.1.6 Impact of ETI on condensation and humidity

Air always contains a certain percentage of water vapor. The latter is generally higher
inside dwellings than outside. Indeed, it is related to the presence of occupants, domestic
activities (cooking, appliances, etc.), using the toilet (showers, etc.). But, the humidity always
migrates towards either the driest or hottest environment, or both, in other words, from inside
to outside (Louvigné, 2022). During this transfer through a more or less porous wall, water
vapor can condense into liquid water at one level or another (Simmons, 2011, p. 427). It is this
liquid water that generates pathologies, in particular: It can weaken the structure, by causing
masonry to swell (Figure III.11) or encircling reinforcing steel, however it also compromises
the physical properties of materials, particularly the thermal performance of the insulator, or
peel off paint papers and being favorable to the development of mold (Figure III.12).

Figure III.11. Swelling of the masonry. Source : (Mur Humide, 2024)

Figure III.12. Mold on a wall. Source : (Humidité-Expert, 2024)

41
 In addition, a hygrothermal study of a breeze-block wall (type of individual house) was
carried out to assess its behavior in the face of natural agents such as heat and water (Imbert &
Mediouni, 2010, pp. 56-58). This study consists in drawing Glaser diagrams for the different
cases of wall and climatic conditions. First of all, a Glaser diagram includes a temperature
curve, a water vapor saturation pressure curve and a partial pressure curve.

Note that, the study was conducted in summer and winter on a wall composed of 20
[cm] breeze-block, to which a 2 [cm] polystyrene panel is fixed by glue pads providing a 2
[cm] air space, then on the same wall after external insulation with 12 [cm] polystyrene. The
climatic conditions selected for this study are shown in Table III.1 below:

Table III.1: Climatic conditions of the study. (Imbert & Mediouni, 2010)
Outside Inside
Temperature [°C] Relative Temperature [°C] Relative
humidity % humidity %

Winter -10 [°C] 90 % 19 [°C] 60 %

Summer 35 [°C] 35 % 22 [°C] 40 %

In summer, the partial pressure curve (Pv) is largely lower than the saturation pressure
curve, both in the initial state of the breeze-block wall (Figure III.13) and after external
insulation (Figure III.14). Water vapor remains in the vapor state and doesn't condense.

42
 Figure III.13. Glaser diagram of Figure III.14. Glaser diagram of a breeze-
a breeze-block wall in summer. block wall after external insulation in
(Imbert & Mediouni, 2010) summer. (Imbert & Mediouni, 2010)

In winter (Figure III.15), the partial pressure curve passes the saturation pressure curve
at the interface between the thin inner insulation and the air space, and remains above it until
the outer face of the breeze block. This indicates that total condensation occurs on the outer
face (breeze-block side) of the insulator. Due to gravity, the water gathers at the base of the
wall, and can cause damage to baseboards. Moreover, as condensation occurs at sub-zero
temperatures, ice crystals are likely to settle on the walls of the breeze-block partitions.

Following the installation of external insulation (Figure III.16), the partial pressure
curve consistently stays below the saturated pressure curve across the entire wall thickness.
Consequently, the risks of condensation are reduced compared to the initial case.

43
 Figure III.15. Glaser diagram of Figure III.16. Glaser diagram of a
a breeze-block wall in winter. breeze-block wall after external
(Imbert & Mediouni, 2010) insulation in winter. (Imbert &
Mediouni, 2010)

External thermal insulation can protect moisture-sensitive building materials by

keeping them at higher temperatures, reducing the risk of internal condensation and moisture
damage.

3.2 Sustainable, naturally-derived materials for exterior insulation

In the case of exterior insulation, the insulator must satisfy several criteria, such as
rigidity, which facilitates installation, or the insulator's behavior in an environment with high
air humidity. Various insulator materials have evolved positively to meet the requirements of
external thermal insulation. Among them, we can mention wood fiber, hemp and expanded
cork.

44
3.2.1 Wood fiber

Wood fibers (sometimes derived from waste or untreated sawmill chips) can also be
found in the form of flexible or semi-rigid insulation panels. When made from natural green
wood, they are bound with polyolefin and ammonium phosphate, with no risk to health or the
environment. These panels are recyclable, without chemical binders or carcinogenic short
fibers. They have excellent thermal and acoustic insulation, inertia, moisture regulation and
water vapor diffusion properties (Figure III.17), and are highly recommended for facade
insulation (Horvathova, 2021).

Figure III.17. ETI with wedge-laminated wood fiber panels.

Source : (Dieumegard , 2016)

3.2.2 Hemp wool

Hemp is a very «ecological» material: its two main components are fiber and shives
(Martínez, Mendizabal, Roncero, Maso, & Gil, 2024). The fiber is carded, shredded and mixed
with polyester fibers, before being cooked and cut into rolls or panels. Additionally, the fiber
yields wool that insulates well, regulates humidity and absorbs noise, resists pests without
protective treatment, is non-toxic and rot-proof. In fact, impregnation with a fire-retardant
substance (sodium carbon or ammonium phosphate) is essential for good fire behavior (Faiz
Ahmed, Zahidul Islam, Sultan Mahmud, Sarker, & Reajul Islam, 2022).

In contrast, hemp blocks (Shewalul, Quiroz, Streicher, & Walls, 2023) (Figure III.18)
are construction products made from hemp fibers mixed with natural binders such as lime or

45
clay. These blocks are designed for external thermal insulation of walls, to offer additional
benefits in terms of moisture regulation, environmental friendliness and breathability.

Figure III.18. Realization of hemp blocks. Source : (Shewalul, Quiroz, Streicher, & Walls,
2023)

3.2.3 Expanded cork

A natural material that is 100% plant-based, derived from the bark of the cork oak
(Quercus suber). After harvesting, it rests for approximately three months to eliminate its
moisture and sap. Then, the raw material is granulated and expanded by high-temperature
steam (180 to 200 [°C]), allowing the residual sap to bind the granules together (Eyrolles,
1977). It can be packaged in a variety of forms: rigid panels, rolls, granules (or bulk), etc. Cork
can be used in a wide range of thermal insulation applications, the main ones being: cold rooms,
pipes (industrial insulation); vertical walls, floors, terraces, attics, etc. (in the building).

In the context of ETI, it is known for its insulating properties, notably its ability to
reduce heat transmission, be moisture-resistant and offer good acoustic absorption (Lakreb, et
al., 2023; Almeida, Simões, Tadeu, Palha, & Almeida, 2019). In addition, cork can withstand
high temperatures, making it flame-retardant, rot-proof and compression-resistant. However,
raw material resources are limited, making it an expensive insulator that should be reserved for
uses for which other bio based insulants are technically unsuitable.

46
3.3 ETI techniques for reinforced concrete structures
3.3.1 Techniques for opaque walls

Exterior wall thermal insulation techniques (Eyrolles, 1977; Giebeler, Fisch, Krause, &
Musso, 2012; Ziad, Benoudjafer, & Benoudjafer, 2024; Ziad, Benoudjafer, & Benoudjafer,
2024) can be divided into two main categories: the wet process, using coatings on insulators
(thin or hydraulic), and the dry process, including the systems of cladding, veneer, clothing and
brick counter-walls.

[Link] Coated systems

Thin coated systems (Figure III.19-a) consist of an insulator fixed to the outside of the
wall and a specific coating reinforced with glass-fiber fabric and finishing coat. The thermal
insulation layer in these systems is relatively thin and includes light materials, such as expanded
polystyrene (EPS) board, polyurethane (PUR) board or glass fiber.

In the case of a hydraulic coating on insulation (Figure III.19-b), the thin coating is
replaced by a hydraulic coating (cement mortar or lime), generally sprayed on. These systems
involve the use of higher-density insulator materials, such as mineral wool panels or extruded
polystyrene (XPS). Indeed, this system offers better thermal performance than thin coatings
due to the greater thickness of the insulation.

Figure III.19. ETI techniques for walls under coating

(a): System with thin coating, (b): System with hydraulic coating. Author source

47
[Link] Ventilated facade systems (Cladding)
The insulator in this case is protected from the weather and thermal shock by a sparing
cladding (Figure III.20), between its internal face and the insulation there is a ventilated air
space (Gonzalo & Habermann, 2008, p. 104). The latter avoids the insulator from thermal
variations and eliminates any moisture that has migrated through the wall and its insulation.
However, the presence of a vapor barrier on the hot side of the wall will sometimes be
necessary, in order to limit the condensation that could occur on the cladding face. On the other
hand, if the condensation was significant, in winter, there would be ice formation with risk of
obturation of the air space (Imbert & Mediouni, 2010).

Figure III.20. ETI techniques for walls under cladding

(c): Single-frame cladding, (d): Double-frame cladding. Author source

[Link] Types of veneer and clothing systems

Veneers (Figure III.21-e) are manufactured insulation systems consisting of two
products: thermal insulation factory-laminated to the back of a cladding sheet that forms the
protective outer skin. The two elements (insulation and facing) are fitted together on the load-
bearing wall, and are mechanically fastened to the wall with screws and plugs (Imbert &
Mediouni, 2010; Matusiak, Rynska, Rucinska, Cieplik, & Kozminska, 2018). Unlike other ETI
techniques, which require several passes over the substrate. In addition, there's no air gap
between the cladding and the insulation, unlike in a cladding system.

48
Clothing (Figure III.21-f) are cladding elements without integrated insulation that are
mechanically fastened to the supporting structure (wall). The facing, applied directly to the
support with or without the air space, is fixed through the thermal insulator, with no
intermediate framework implemented to the insulation as in the case of cladding. The insulator
is temporarily attached to the wall, while the cladding guarantees its permanent stability.

Figure III.21. ETI techniques: veneer and clothing types (e): Veneer system, (f):
Clothing system. Author source

[Link] Thermal insulating coatings

What is a thermal insulating coating?

An insulating coating is a facade plaster composed of mortar, a binding ingredient (such

as cement, clay, lime), and an insulating material (hemp microbeads, cork, expanded
polystyrene). It enhances the insulation of a dwelling and serves as an aesthetic coating
(Reichel, Hochberg, & Köpke, 2004).

When applied in combination with effective existing insulation, insulating coating

improves the thermal resistance (R-value) of the facade. In fact, the higher the R-value, the
better the wall is insulated.

Types of insulating coatings

There are several types of insulating coatings (Abu-Tair, Kinuthia, & Fırat, 2018),
including the following:

49
 • Insulating paint: this paint is typically white (Fig III.22-a), helping reflect sunlight
and reduce indoor heat during summer. It also minimizes heat loss in winter and is
resistant to weather conditions;
• Polystyrene-based render: a mortar mix containing polystyrene beads (Fig III.22-b).
It is lightweight and effective but must be applied in several layers to achieve optimal
performance;

(a)

(b)

Figure III.22. Types of insulating coatings. (a): Thermal insulating paint, (b): Polystyrene-
based render. Source : (Rhea Habitat, 2024; Isolation-Thermique, 2025)

• Lime-hemp coating: this type of coating helps regulates humidity and offers protection
against electromagnetic waves and radiation. It is weather-resistant, pest-resistant, and
durable. Making it especially suitable for old walls;
• Wattle and daub (torchis): an old but still effective insulation technique. It is an eco-
friendly solution, made from a mixture of earth and straw, and also economical;

50
 • Lime-cork render: provides both thermal and acoustic insulation for the building.
Additionally, it is resistant to fire and adverse weather conditions;
• Silica aerogel-based insulating coating: silica aerogel remains relatively expensive
due to its complex and costly manufacturing process, which limits its availability
among craftsmen. However, its insulating performance is comparable to that of
fiberglass.

Steps for applying insulating coating

Insulating coating can be applied to both new constructions and buildings undergoing
renovation. Generally, the application process involves three simple steps:

Finishing coat
Bonding mortar Insulating mortar
Finally, a finishing coat
The first step involves Next, a second layer
is applied to provide
applying a bonding containing the
an attractive and
mortar layer to the insulating material is
protective exterior
facade applied
surface

Figure III.23. Application process of an insulating coating. Author source

Advantages

Insulating coating combines practical thermal insulation with decorative appeal. In

addition, it offers several other benefits:

• Eco-friendly: it can be used with natural insulating materials, such as hemp or cork,
making it a viable solution for sustainable construction practices;

51
 • Thermal resistance: insulating coating helps eliminate potential thermal bridges,
which is ideal for improving thermal resistance. It is particularly suitable for renovation
projects where existing insulation is insufficient;
• Breathable material: insulating coating made from lime, for example, regulates
moisture and reduces the formation of mold on exterior walls;
• Easy application: the application process is straightforward and practical. Typically,
three coats are enough to achieve an attractive facade finish.

3.3.2 ETI techniques for flat terrace roofs

Thermally insulating flat roofs is a primary focus in the field of thermal insulation for
both new constructions and building renovations (Schwartz, 2021). Indeed, effective insulation
of the roof terrace from the outside (ETI) contributes significantly to reducing energy
consumption for cooling and heating, enhances indoor thermal comfort and may even prolong
the lifespan of the roof itself, thereby ensuring the long-term durability of the structure.

There are three main techniques for insulating a flat roof from the outside: conventional
insulation (or hot roof), inverted insulation and combined insulation (Benoudjafer, Ziad, &
Benoudjafer, 2024).

[Link] Hot roof

This is the most common and recommended technique (Louvigné, 2022, p. 75). It
consists of placing a layer of insulation between the waterproofing membrane and the vapor
barrier, which is itself installed on the roof 's load-bearing structure (Figure III.24). The vapor
barrier is an essential element for evacuating moisture from the hot part of the insulation.
Conventional insulation also eliminates thermal bridges, providing effective protection against
temperature variations and condensation, and thus reducing the risk of cracks.

52
 Figure III.24. Hot roof system. Author source

[Link] Inverted roof

Unlike the hot roof, inverted insulation involves placing the insulation on top of the
waterproofing membrane (Figure III.25), which is then covered with slabs, tiles or gravel
(Hegger, 2009, p. 125).

Figure III.25. Inverted roof system. Author source

53
 This technique is less costly and quicker to install, as it does not require the addition of
a vapor barrier. Moreover, it's ideal for renovation projects where the waterproofing membrane
is in good condition. However, this process can have serious disadvantages over the long term,
as the insulation is not protected from moisture and gradually loses its effectiveness.

[Link] Combined roof

The combined roof system (Hegger, 2009, p. 125) is a mixture of the two techniques
hot roof and inverted roof, with the insulation mounted in two layers, as follows: the first layer
of insulation is overlaid with the waterproofing membrane. While, the second layer of
insulation is placed on top of the waterproofing membrane (Figure III.26). Then, a vapor barrier
is interposed between the support and the lower insulation.

Figure III.26. Combined roof system. Author source

This insulation technique protects the waterproofing membrane from thermal shocks
and ultraviolet radiation, and thus slows down its ageing.

54
 General Conclusion

Thermal insulation in buildings is one of the most effective means to reduce energy
demand in the construction sector, enhance occupant comfort, and address the environmental
challenges associated with climate change.

This book has presented a structured synthesis of the theoretical foundations,

insulation techniques, and materials used, with particular emphasis on innovative and
sustainable approaches.

We first reviewed the fundamental principles of heat transfer, which are essential
for understanding how insulation systems work. Three modes of heat transfer (conduction,
convection, and radiation) are involved in thermal exchanges, and any insulation solution aims
to reduce their intensity.

Next, we explored the various thermal insulation methods applied to building

envelope components such as roofs, walls, windows, and floors, highlighting that roofs and
walls are the main sources of heat loss. A classification of insulating materials was also
presented, based on their nature (synthetic, mineral, bio-based, recycled), with emphasis on the
importance of their thermo-physical properties to ensure the overall effectiveness of
insulation.

Finally, special attention was given to External Thermal Insulation (ETI), which
provides both high thermal performance and long-term protection of the building
structure against climatic stresses. ETI techniques were categorized into wet systems (coatings
on insulator) and dry systems (cladding, veneers), for both vertical walls and flat roofs
including (hot roofs, inverted roofs and combined roofs).

Future perspectives

In the context of the energy transition, thermal insulation is expected to evolve toward
more intelligent and adaptive solutions. Some of the most promising avenues include:

55
 • Phase Change Materials (PCMs), which can store or release heat depending on
thermal demand ;
• Nano-based or aerogel insulation materials, which deliver superior thermal
performance with minimal thickness ;
• Dynamic or active insulation systems, integrating sensors, automated controls, and
even features such as ventilation or energy recovery.

These innovations pave the way for passive or net-positive energy buildings, adapted
to local climatic constraints and aligned with sustainable development goals.

Recommendations for research and practice

To address the technical, economic and environmental challenges, we offer the

following recommendations:

• Strengthen applied research on bio-based, recyclable, and low-carbon insulating

materials;
• Promote the standardization and normalization of ETI (External Thermal Insulation)
techniques adapted to local contexts (climate, structural types, and available materials);
• Develop more accessible thermal simulation tools for professionals, incorporating
real material performance data;
• Raise awareness among building stakeholders about the importance of a holistic
approach (building + climate + usage), rather than focusing solely on materials;
• Integrate smart insulation technologies into public energy efficiency policies, in
alignment with national and international goals.

In summary, this book aims to equip readers with a solid scientific foundation, up-to-
date technical knowledge, and a forward-looking perspective, in order to contribute, each at
their own level, to the design of buildings that are more sustainable, more energy-efficient, and
better suited to the energy challenges of our century.

56
 Bibliographic References

1. Abu-Tair, A., Kinuthia, J., & Fırat, S. (2018). Proceedings of 3rd International
Sustainable Buildings Symposium (ISBS 2017): Volume 1. Allemagne: Springer
International Publishing. doi:ISBN :9783319637099, 3319637096
2. Ademe, Agence de l'Environnement et de la Maîtrise de l'Énergie. (2013). Élaboration
d’un outil d’aide à la conception de maisons à très basse consommation d’énergie :
Annexe 1 - Critères hygrothermiques des matériaux de construction. Paris: Ademe.
Récupéré sur chrome-
extension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/[Link]
ository/ecobilan_de_parois_annexes[1].pdf?IDR=14391
3. Akin, S., & Boztaş, M. (2024, July 1). Examining Mechanical Properties of
Strengthened Aerated Concrete Masonry Walls. Case Studies in Construction
Materials, 20, p. e02804. doi:[Link]
4. Almeida, R., Simões, N., Tadeu, A., Palha, P., & Almeida, J. (2019, June 6). Thermal
behaviour of a green roof containing insulation cork board. An experimental
characterization using a bioclimatic chamber. Building and Environment, 160, p.
106179. doi:[Link]
5. Almusaed, A. (2012). Effective Thermal Insulation: The Operative Factor of a Passive
Building Model. Croatie: IntechOpen.
6. Alsabrico, B. (2020, 01 23). Blog Alsabrico. Récupéré sur Blog Alsabrico:
[Link]
naturel-et-le-liege-expanse/
7. Apere asbl. (2021, 3 4). Énergie Plus. Récupéré sur Énergie Plus: [Link]
[Link]/theories/enveloppe9/comportement-des-materiaux4/conductivite-thermique-
d-un-materiau/
8. Barreira, E., & De Freitas, V. (2015). External Thermal Insulation Composite Systems
(ETICS) An Evaluation of Hygrothermal Behaviour. Allemagne: Springer International
Publishing.
9. Batiproduits. (2017, juin 1). [Link]. Récupéré sur [Link]:
[Link]
[Link]
10. Beaumier, J.-L., & Janin, F. (2017). L'isolation thermique-acoutisque: Solutions
combinées écologiques - En neuf et en rénovation. France: Terre vivante.
11. Benoudjafer, I., Ziad, S., & Benoudjafer, I. (2024, November 12). Towards the
decarbonization of residential buildings through roof External Thermal Insulation (ETI)
in arid zones: A case study. Engineering and Applied Science Research, 51(6), pp. 727–
738. doi:10.14456/easr.2024.68

57
12. BZH Qualité. (2020, 10 18). Qualité.bzh. Récupéré sur Qualité.bzh:
[Link]
bonne-ou-mauvaise-idee-18-10-2020-151/
13. Chateauneuf, A., Curt, C., Baroth, J., & Peyras, L. (2014). Fiabilité des matériaux et
des structures: analyse de risques et fiabilité des systèmes dans leur environnement.
Royaume-Uni: ISTE Editions.
14. Christian Lhomme, J. (2014). La guerre des watts: Transitions énergétiques &
perspectives. France: Quae.
15. Cluster Robin·s. (2024, 03 05). Cluster Robin·s. Récupéré sur Cluster Robin·s:
[Link]
16. CSTB. (2000). Points singuliers à traiter en Isolation Thermique par l'Extérieur. Paris:
Centre Scientifique et Technique du Bâtiment (CSTB).
17. David W, Yarbrough, & Kośny, J. (2022). Thermal Insulation and Radiation Control
Technologies for Buildings. Suisse: Springer International Publishing.
18. Dieumegard , D. (2016, 01 15). LinkedIn. Récupéré sur LinkedIn:
[Link]
l%C3%A9cologie-david-dieumegard
19. Dlimi, M., Agounoun, R., Kadiri, I., Saadani, R., & Rahmoune, M. (2023, February
16). Thermal performance assessment of double hollow brick walls filled with hemp
concrete insulation material through computational fluid dynamics analysis and
dynamic thermal simulations. Advances in Electrical Engineering, Electronics and
Energy, 3, p. 100124. doi:[Link]
20. DSD Renov. (2024, 6 15). DSD Renov. Récupéré sur DSD Renov:
[Link]
gain-energetique-isolation-exterieure/
21. EN ISO 13790. (2008). Energy performance of buildings – Calculation of energy use
for space heating and cooling. Geneva, Switzerland: International Organization for
Standardization. Retrieved from [Link]
22. Eyrolles. (1977). Guide pratique de l'isolation thermique des batiments. Paris, France:
Eyrolles.
23. Fabbri, K. (2024). Thermal Comfort Perception: A Questionnaire Approach Focusing
on Children. Allemagne: Springer International Publishing, Imprint: Springer.
24. Faiz Ahmed, A., Zahidul Islam, M., Sultan Mahmud, M., Sarker, M., & Reajul Islam,
M. (2022, January 13). Hemp as a potential raw material toward a sustainable world: A
review. Heliyon,, 8(1), p. e08753. doi:[Link]
25. Fauteux, A. (2024, 12 17). La Maison du 21e siècle – [Link]. Récupéré sur La
Maison du 21e siècle – [Link]: [Link]
batiment?id=100274
26. Francis , B. (2020, 8 2). Conseiller Indépendant en Énergie. Récupéré sur
Conseiller Indépendant en Énergie:

58
 [Link]
la-chaleur/
27. Futura Sciences. (2019, octobre 20). Futura Sciences. Récupéré sur Futura Sciences:
[Link]
28. Giebeler, G., Fisch, R., Krause, H., & Musso, F. (2012). Rénover le bâti. Suisse: Presses
polytechniques et universitaires romandes.
29. Gluzicki, F. (2020, septembre 17). AC Presse. Récupéré sur AC Presse:
[Link]
30. Gonzalez, A., & Siano, D. (2021). Noise and Environment. Royaume-Uni: IntechOpen.
31. Gonzalo, R., & Habermann, K. (2008). Architecture et efficacité énergétique: Principes
de conception et de construction. Allemagne: Walter de Gruyter GmbH.
32. Guillois Isolation. (2024, 6 15). Ouate-isolation-é[Link]. Récupéré sur
Ouate-isolation-é[Link]: [Link]
cellulose/
33. Guyer, J., P.E, & R.A. (2022). An Introduction to Design of Building Envelopes for
Thermal Efficiency and Airtightness. (n.p.): Guyer Partners.
34. Health Canada. (2009, 3 2). Inspecnor. Retrieved from Inspecnor:
[Link]
35. Hegger, M. (2009). Construire: atlas des matériaux. Suisse: Presses polytechniques et
universitaires romandes.
36. Horvathova, M. (2021). Facade Insulation from Wood-Fiber Boards in The Burning
Process. 14th International scientific conference on sustainable, modern and safe
transport. 55, pp. 1415-1422. Zilina, Slovakia: Elsevier.
doi:[Link]
37. Humidité-Expert. (2024, 5 1). Humidité-[Link]. Récupéré sur Humidité-[Link]:
[Link]
38. Humphreys, M., Nicol, F., Roaf, S., & Sykes, O. (2015). Standards for Thermal
Comfort: Indoor Air Temperature Standards for the 21st Century. Royaume-Uni: CRC
Press.
39. Imbert, C., & Mediouni, D. (2010). isolation thermique par l'extérieur. Île, France:
Direction régionale et interdépartementale de l’Équipement et de l’Aménagement d’Île-
de-France. Récupéré sur [Link]
40. Information Resources Management Association. (2021). Research Anthology on
Clean Energy Management and Solutions. USA: IGI Global.
41. ISO 10211. (2017). Thermal bridges in building construction – Heat flows and surface
temperatures – Detailed calculations . Geneva, Switzerland: International Organization
for Standardization.
42. ISO 10456. (2007). Building materials and products – Thermal properties – Declared
and design values. Geneva, Switzerland: International Organization for
Standardization.

59
43. ISO 13370. (2017). Thermal performance of buildings – Heat transfer via the ground
– Calculation methods. Geneva, Switzerland: International Organization for
Standardization.
44. ISO 13789. (2017). Thermal performance of buildings – Transmission and ventilation
heat transfer coefficients – Calculation method. Geneva, Switzerland: International
Organization for Standardization.
45. ISO 6946. (2017). Building components and building elements – Thermal resistance
and thermal transmittance – Calculation method. Geneva, Switzerland: International
Organization for Standardization. Retrieved from
[Link]
46. Isolation et chauffage. (2024, 11 14). [Link]. Récupéré sur
[Link]: [Link]
effets-sur-la-sante/
47. Isolation-Thermique. (2025, 6 20). [Link]. Récupéré sur
[Link]: [Link]
48. [Link]. (2024, 7 2). [Link]. Récupéré sur
[Link]: [Link]
49. [Link]. (2021, 10 5). [Link]. Récupéré sur Isolation-
[Link]: [Link]
50. Isover France. (2019, 4 18). Tout sur l’isolation. Récupéré sur Tout sur l’isolation:
[Link]
51. Johan. (2024, 5 2). [Link]. Récupéré sur [Link]:
[Link]
52. Keji, C. (2023, 12 11). [Link]. Récupéré sur [Link]:
[Link]
Perlite-Expanded-Perlite-Sand-for-Foundry_ensihuuny.html
53. Knauf Insulation Maghreb. (2024, 12 15). Knauf Insulation Maghreb. Retrieved from
Knauf Insulation Maghreb: [Link]
[Link]/produits/avantages/laine-de-roche
54. Lakreb, N., Şen, U., Toussaint, E., Amziane, S., Djakab, E., & Pereira, H. (2023, March
3). Physical properties and thermal conductivity of cork-based sandwich panels for
building insulation. Construction and Building Materials, 368, p. 130420.
doi:[Link]
55. Leventis, N., Aegerter, M., & Koebel, M. (2011). Aerogels Handbook. Allemagne:
Springer New York.
56. Li Wang, Jiang Li, Kang Li, Kun Hui, & Wang, Y. (2022, June 18). Thermal insulation
performance and ablation resistance of ethylene propylene diene monomer insulation
materials reinforced with polydopamine-coated carbon nanotubes,. Diamond and
Related Materials, 127, p. 109190. doi:[Link]
57. Louvigné, M. (2022). Humidité dans les bâtiments: Prévention et traitement. France:
Éditions Ginger.
60
58. Louvigné, M. (2022). Humidité dans les bâtiments: Prévention et traitement. France:
Éditions Ginger.
59. Martínez, B., Mendizabal, V., Roncero, M., Maso, E., & Gil, L. (2024, February 2).
Towards sustainable building solutions: Development of hemp shiv-based green
insulation material. Construction and Building Materials, 414, p. 134987.
doi:[Link]
60. Matheswaran, M., Arjunan, T., & Selvaraj, V. (2023). Solar Thermal Conversion
Technologies for Industrial Process Heating. USA: CRC Press.
61. Matusiak, B., Rynska, E., Rucinska, J., Cieplik, K., & Kozminska, U. (2018). Design
Solutions for NZEB Retrofit Buildings. USA: IGI Global.
62. Mergui, S. (2024, 04 04). Laboratoire FAST. (S. Universités, Éd.) Récupéré sur
Laboratoire FAST: [Link]
[Link]/~mergui/2A101/cours_thermique_L2.pdf
63. Ministère de la Transition Écologique. (2021). Réglementation Environnementale 2020
(RE 2020). Paris, France: Gouvernement français.
64. Ministère de l'Écologie, du Développement durable, des Transports et du Logement.
(2012). Réglementation thermique 2012 (RT 2012). Paris, France: Gouvernement
français.
65. Mur Humide. (2024, 2 10). [Link]. Récupéré sur [Link]:
[Link]
66. Pfundstein, M., Gellert, R., Spitzner, M., & Rudolphi, A. (2012). Insulating Materials
Principles, Materials, Applications. Allemagne: De Gruyter.
67. Recticel Insulation. (2024, 8 29). [Link]. Retrieved from
[Link]: [Link]
between-deck-vq-and-vacuum-insulation-panel
68. Reichel, A., Hochberg, A., & Köpke, C. (2004). Plaster, Render, Paint and Coatings:
Details, Products, Case Studies. Allemagne: Edition Detail. doi:ISBN:
9783764371104, 3764371102
69. Rhea Habitat. (2024, 11 5). Rénovation Maison Paris. Récupéré sur Rénovation Maison
Paris: [Link]
isolante-thermique/
70. Roulet, C.-A. (2012). Éco-confort pour une maison saine et à basse consommation
d'énergie. Suisse: Presses polytechniques et universitaires romandes.
71. Schwartz, B. (2021). Réhabilitation des toitures terrasses. France: Éditions Ginger.
72. SDLM Travaux. (2018, 3 2). [Link]. Récupéré sur [Link]:
[Link]
73. Shanghai Tanchain. (2022, 12 28). TChainTech. Retrieved from TChainTech:
[Link]
74. Shewalul, Y., Quiroz, N., Streicher, D., & Walls, R. (2023, December 1). Fire behavior
of hemp blocks: A biomass-based construction material. Journal of Building
Engineering, 80, p. 108147. doi:[Link]
61
75. Simmons, H. (2011). Olin's Construction: Principles, Materials, and Methods.
Allemagne: Wiley.
76. Simonnot, N., & Lheureux, R. (2018). Architectures et espaces de la conservation
(1959-2015) Archives, bibliothèques, musées. France: Presses Universitaires du
Septentrion.
77. SMOME. (2024, 9 4). SMOME. Récupéré sur SMOME:
[Link]
78. Tout Sur l’Isolation. (2019, 9 25). [Link]. Récupéré sur
[Link]: [Link]
performance
79. Trachte, S. (2012). Matériau, matière d'architecture soutenable: Choix responsable des
matériaux de construction, pour une conception globale de l'architecture soutenable.
Belgique: Presses universitaires de Louvain.
80. Venkateshan, S. (2021). Heat Transfer (Third Edition ed.). (S. Cham, Ed.) India:
Springer Cham. doi:[Link]
81. Verschaere, A. (2016, 1 1). Je Retiens. Récupéré sur Je Retiens: [Link]
3-transferts-thermiques/
82. Virdi, S., & Waters, R. (2017). Construction Science and Materials. Royaume-Uni:
Wiley.
83. Zherebtsov, V. (2019, 2 15). Dreamstime. Retrieved from Dreamstime:
[Link]
clouds-backgrounds-construction-textures-type-insulation-image177861539
84. Ziad, S., Benoudjafer, I., & Benoudjafer, I. (2024, January 10). Multi criteria study of
thermal insulation techniques based on natural insulators for exterior walls of buildings.
Engineering and Applied Science Research, 51(1), pp. 80-87. doi:10.14456/easr.2024.9
85. Ziad, S., Benoudjafer, I., & Benoudjafer, I. (2024, March 15). Towards the use of
natural thermal insulation on the exterior of vertical building walls in desert regions: A
case study in the city of Bechar, Algeria. Journal of Thermal Engineering, 10(2), p.
308−320. doi:10.18186/thermal.1448589

62
 Appendices

Appendix A — Thermal properties of common building insulation

materials

Material Thermal Conductivity Density Specific Heat

(W/m·K) (kg/m³) Capacity (J/kg·K)
Polyurethane board 0.025 40 1400
Expanded
0.035 30 1450
polystyrene (EPS)
Extruded
0.035 35 1450
polystyrene (XPS)
Glass wool 0.035 60 1030
Rock wool 0.035 100 1030
Expanded cork 0.040 120 1700
Hemp fiber board 0.040 45 1550
Wood fiber boards 0.040 160 1470
Loose-fill cellulose 0.040 30 1600
Sheep wool 0.040 60 1500
Expanded perlite
0.057 145 900
boards
Aerated concrete
0.200 650 1000
block
Gypsum plaster 0.570 1200 1000
Lime plaster 0.730 1400 1000

Adapted from : (Ademe, Agence de l'Environnement et de la Maîtrise de l'Énergie, 2013)

63
 Appendix B — Excerpts from thermal standards

1. International ISO standards (excerpts and main functions)

Standard Full Title Main Content

ISO 6946:2017 Building components and Calculation method for
building elements – Thermal
thermal resistance and U-value
resistance and thermal
transmittance – Calculation (thermal transmittance
method coefficient)
ISO 10456:2007 Building materials and products –Tables of thermal conductivity
Thermal properties – Declared
values for common materials
and design values
(λ, R, etc.)
ISO 13789:2017 Thermal performance of buildings Calculation of heat losses
– Transmission and ventilation
through transmission and
heat transfer coefficients –
Calculation method ventilation in buildings
ISO 10211:2017 Thermal bridges in building Treatment and calculation of
construction – Heat flows and thermal bridges using 2D/3D
surface temperatures – Detailed modeling
calculations

Reference: (ISO 6946, 2017; ISO 10456, 2007; ISO 13789, 2017; ISO 10211, 2017)

2. French and European thermal regulations

Regulation Year Scope Key excerpts / Highlights

RT 2012 2012 French thermal Set a primary energy consumption
regulation limit of 50 kWh/m² per year

RE 2020 2020 Replaces RT2012 Incorporates carbon footprint and

promotes bio-based materials
EN ISO 13370 2007 Insulation of floors Calculation methodology for heat
in contact with the
flow beneath the floor
ground
EN ISO 13790 2008 Calculation of Quasi-static model for regulatory
(replaced) heating energy calculations
demand

Reference: (Ministère de l'Écologie, du Développement durable, des Transports et du

Logement, 2012; Ministère de la Transition Écologique, 2021; ISO 13370, 2017; EN ISO
13790, 2008)

64