Quantum Physics and Applications Module-5 BBPHYB102/202

Superconductivity

Superconductors - Introduction, Temperature dependence of resistivity, Meissner’s effect,

Critical field, Temperature dependence of critical field, Types of Superconductors, BCS
theory, Josephson junctions, Superconducting magnets, MAGLEV vehicles, MRI, Quantum
tunneling, Superconducting qubits and types, Superconducting quantum computers, Flux
quantization, DC and AC SQUIDS
Numerical problems.
08 Hours

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Introduction
The sudden disappearance of electrical resistivity of certain materials below its critical
temperature is known as super conductivity and the materials exhibiting this property are
called Superconductors. Superconductivity generally achieved at very cold temperatures.
Superconductors are used in particle accelerators, generators, transportation, computing,
electric motors, medical, power transmission, etc.

Superconductivity was first discovered by the Dutch physicist Heike Kamerlingh Onnes in
1911. When measuring the resistivity of mercury, he observed electrical resistivity suddenly
drops to zero around 4.2 K. He concluded that as mercury attained a super conducting state.
The temperature at which the resistance of a material becomes zero and it behaves as a
superconductor is called as Critical or Transition temperature.

Temperature dependence of resistivity of a superconductor

The variation of resistivity of a superconductor with temperature is shown in figure. The

resistivity of a superconductor in the normal (non-superconducting) state decreases with
temperature and at a particular temperature the resistivity drops suddenly to zero. The
temperature at which a material undergoes transition from normal state to superconducting
state is called the critical temperature, Tc.

Meissner effect
In 1993, Meissner and Ochsenfeld discovered that a superconductor completely expels
magnetic field lines when it is cooled to below the transition temperature. They found that the
specimens spontaneously become perfectly diamagnetic at their transition temperature.

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“Superconducting material kept in a magnetic field expels the magnetic flux out of its body
when it is cooled below the critical temperature and thus becomes perfect diamagnet. This
effect is called the Meissner effect.”

Demonstration of Meissner effect

Consider a superconducting material in the normal state. Let two coils, namely primary and
secondary coils be wound on the material as shown in figure. The primary coil is connected
to a DC source and a key K. The secondary coil is connected to a Ballistic galvanometer
(B.G.).

When a key is pressed, current flows in the primary coil which sets up a magnetic field in it.
The magnetic flux immediately links with the secondary coil. As there is a change in
magnetic flux linking with a secondary coil, a momentary current flow through a Ballistic
galvanometer shows a momentary deflection. After transition time, no current flows in the
secondary coil. Now the temperature of the material has decreased gradually, as soon as the
temperature crosses down to the critical temperature the BG suddenly shows a deflection.
This indicates the flux linkage with the secondary coil has changed. The change in flux
linkage is attributed to the expulsion of magnetic flux from the body of the superconducting
material.

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Critical field (HC)

A superconductor can be turned into a normal conductor by subjecting it to a sufficiently
strong magnetic field at all temperatures.
“The strength of the magnetic field required to switch a material from its super conducting
state to normal state is called critical field.”

Temperature dependence of critical field

For a superconducting material in the superconducting
state, the critical field will be higher when the temperature
is lower. If T is the temperature of the superconducting
material (T < TC), HC the critical field, and H0 the field
required to turn the superconductor to a normal conductor
at 0K, then the relation for critical field is given by,
T2
HC = H0 [1 − ]
TC2
The dependence of HC on T is shown in the above figure, the curve is almost parabolic.
Under the influence of a magnetic field whose strength is greater than H0, the material can
never become a superconductor however low the temperature may be.

Type-I and Type-II superconductors

Superconductors are classified in to two types based on the response shown by them in the
applied magnetic field. They are Type-I superconductors and Type-II superconductors.
Difference between Type-I and Type -II Superconductors
Type-I Superconductor Type-II Superconductor
It exhibits a complete Meissner effect or It exhibits incomplete Meissner effect.
perfect diamagnetism.
Magnetization curve: Magnetization curve:

It has only one critical magnetic field (Hc). It has two critical magnetic fields (Hc1 and Hc2).

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If H < HC the material is in If H < HC1 material is in superconducting state

superconducting state and acts as perfect
and acts as perfect diamagnet.
diamagnet. If H > HC1 the flux starts to penetrate partially
If H > HC material becomes normal through the material but doesn’t lose its
conductor by losing diamagnet property. superconductivity.
If H > HC2 the material becomes normal
conductor & flux completely fills in the body.
No mixed states exist. Mixed or Vertex state exists.
They have low critical magnetic field They have high critical magnetic field values.
values.
They also known as soft superconductors They also known as hard superconductors
They are not useful for the construction of They are useful for the construction of super
super conducting magnets. conducting magnets because of high HC2 values.
E.g.: Al, Zn, Ga, Pb etc. E.g.: Nb, Zr, Nb – Ti alloy, Y-Ba-Cu-O etc.

BCS theory of superconductivity

 A microscopic theory of superconductivity was developed in 1957 by John Bardeen, Leon
Cooper and J Robert Schrieffer known as the BCS theory and is based on the formation of
Cooper pair which is purely quantum mechanical concept.
 When current flows through the superconductor, an electron comes near +ve ion due to
opposite charges a force of attraction develops between them.
 So +ve ion displaces from its position leads to the lattice distortion. Another electron
comes near the distorted lattice, interacts with it & reduces the energy of electron.
 This process is said to be interaction b/w two electrons via lattice & the lattice vibrations
are said to be quantized in terms of phonons.
 If the two electrons have equal and opposite spins & opposite momentum according to
cooper, the force of attraction between electrons will exceed the coulombian force of
repulsion & leads to the formation of cooper pair.
 Cooper pair is a bound pair of electrons formed by the interaction between the
electrons with opposite spin and momenta in a phonon field.
 From quantum mechanical rules, a wave function associated with cooper pair is
considered as single entity & are able to extend over a large volume.
 Thus, the wave functions associated with each cooper pairs start overlapping & form a
union of vast number of cooper pairs.
 The resistance encountered by any single cooper pair is simply overcome by the co-
operative action of other pairs in the union.

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 Hence, the electrons flow in the form of cooper pairs in materials, they don’t undergo any
scattering and the resistance factor vanishes or conductivity becomes infinity which is
termed as superconductivity.

Josephson Junctions
 The Josephson effect is a phenomenon that occurs when two superconductors are placed in
proximity, with some barrier or restriction between them.
 It is an example of a macroscopic quantum phenomenon, where the effects of quantum
mechanics are observable at ordinary, rather than atomic scale.
 The Josephson effect has many practical applications because it exhibits a precise
relationship between different physical quantities such as voltage and frequency,
facilitating highly accurate measurements.
 A Josephson junction is made by sandwiching a thin layer of a non-superconducting
material between two layers of superconducting material. The non-superconducting barrier
separating the two superconductors must be very thin.
 If the barrier is an insulator, it must be about 30 angstroms thick or less. If the barrier is
another metal, it can be as much as several nanometre thick.
 In this system, the cooper pairs tunnel through the barrier without resistance.
 This phenomenon of flow of current between two pieces of superconductor separated by a
normal material is called as Josephson effect and the current is called Josephson current.
The current flows through the junction even in the absence of external DC voltage. Hence
the Josephson current is present in the absence of supply voltage.
 If the external DC voltage is applied, current oscillates rapidly with a frequency of several
GHz, leading to the development of AC voltage.
 Josephson junctions have important applications in quantum mechanical circuits such as
Superconducting quantum interference device (SQUIDs), superconducting qubits and
rapid single flux quantum digital electronics.

DC Josephson effect
 It is the phenomenon of flow of super current through the junction even in the absence of
external emf. If the voltage across the junction is measured, it gives zero.
 Consider a Josephson junction containing two superconducting films separated by thin
oxide layer. Here cooper pairs in the superconductor starts tunnelling through the oxide
layer which are represented by wave function.

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 During this process the oxide layer introduces the phase difference between input and
output wave functions.
 Due to this, super current flow through the junction, even in the absence of external
source. The super current through the junction is,
IS = IC SinΦ0
Where, IC – critical current at zero voltage, which depends on the thickness of the
junction layer and the temperature.
Φ0 – Phase difference between the wave functions of cooper pairs.

AC Josephson effect
 When dc voltage is applied across the Josephson junction, it leads to the development of
oscillating current. In other words, an alternating emf of high frequency is established
across the junction. This effect is called as AC Josephson effect.

 The oscillating current is because of the fact that, the application of dc voltage across the
junction causes the additional phase change for the cooper pairs.
 The energy difference of cooper pairs on both sides is of the order of 2eV.
 Thus, the super current is given by,
IS = IC Sin(Φ0 + ∆Φ)

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Where, IC – critical current and ∆Φ – phase difference

 The frequency of the generated AC is,
2𝑒𝑉
𝜔=
ℎ
Here 2eV = E, is the energy difference between the cooper pairs on either side of the
junction.

Superconducting magnets
“A superconducting magnet is a powerful electromagnet made up of superconducting coils
which, when cooled below their critical temperature produces a very strong and stable
magnetic fields with zero electrical resistivity”. The key component of these magnets is
superconducting coil or wire, generally made up of type II superconductors like niobium-
titanium (NbTi) or niobium-tin (Nb₃Sn) alloys. These materials exhibit zero resistance when
cooled below their critical temperature and allowing continuous current flow without power
dissipation. The magnetic fields generated can reach several teslas, far exceeding those
produced by conventional electromagnets. This capability makes superconducting magnets
essential in scientific, medical and industrial applications where high magnetic field strength
and efficiency are required.
 The superconducting wire is cooled to cryogenic temperatures using liquid helium or
nitrogen, reaching below its critical temperature to induce superconductivity.
 An electric current is applied to the superconducting coil through external power source.
Once the desired current is achieved the persistent switch is closed.
 Due to zero resistance, the current circulates indefinitely without energy loss.
 The flowing current creates a strong and steady magnetic field around the coil.
 The magnetic field strength is controlled by adjusting the current and high-intensity
magnetic fields can be produced for precise applications.

Applications of superconducting magnets:

Medical Imaging – Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) machines rely on superconducting
magnets to generate strong, stable magnetic fields for detailed internal body scan.
Particle accelerators – Superconducting magnets used as essential key components in
particle accelerators to steer and focus high-energy particles.
Maglev Vehicles – Maglev trains utilizes superconducting magnets for frictionless, high-
speed travel offering faster and more efficient transportation with low maintenance costs.

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Energy Storage & Power Transmission – Superconducting magnetic energy storage

(SMES) systems store and release large amount of energy efficiently, stabilizing power grids
and supporting renewable energy integration.
Industrial Applications – They are used in materials testing, nuclear magnetic resonance
(NMR), and other scientific instruments to analyze material properties with high precision.

Maglev vehicle
 The magnetically levitated vehicles are generally known as Maglev vehicles.
 They works on the principle of Meissner effect.
 The cross sectional view of Magleev vehicle is shown in below figure.

 The vehicle consists of superconducting magnets built into its base.

 There is an aluminum guide-way which can be converted as magnet by passing current.
 It consists of retractable wheels which come in contact to guide way only when starting
and stopping the vehicle.
 While running, the vehicle will be levitated because of the magnetic repulsive force
between the guide way & superconducting magnet.
 The current applied to the aluminum guide way acts as propellant so that vehicle moves in
forward direction.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), is a non-invasive medical imaging test that produces
detailed images of internal structure of the human body that includes the organs, bones,
muscles and blood vessels. MRI scanners create images of the body using a large magnet and
radio waves. No ionizing radiation is produced during the test. These images give important
information in diagnosing medical condition and planning a course of treatment.

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MRI consists of a large and powerful magnet, a radiofrequency system and a computer
system. The device generates a strong magnetic field which aligns the protons in the body
cells, that can be manipulated using radiofrequency waves to produce clear images.
 The pateint lies on a sample table that smoothly slides into the MRI scanning machine.
 The scanner genrates a strong magnetic field, aligning hydrogen atoms (protons) of the
body cells in a single direction.
 A radio wave pulse is then applied that disturbing this alignment and causing the atoms to
shift their position.
 As the radio wave pulse stops, the atoms return to their original state by emitting a signals
that are detected by the scanning sensors.
 The advanced computer system process these signals to create detailed internal body
images.

Quantum tunneling

Quantum tunnelling is a quantum mechanical process where wave functions can penetrate
through a potential barrier. Tunnelling is an outcome of wave nature of matter and is found in
low mass particles like electrons, protons etc. Probability of transmission of a wave packet
through a barrier decreases exponentially with the barrier height. When the quantum wave
reaches the barrier, its amplitude will decrease exponentially. The transmission through the
potential barrier can be finite and relies exponentially on the barrier width and barrier height.
The wave functions have the genuine probability of disappearing on one side and reappearing
on the remaining side. Quantum tunnelling cannot be explained through the laws of classical
mechanics where a dense potential barrier needs potential energy.

Tunnelling plays an essential role in physical phenomena such as nuclear fusion and alpha
radioactive decay of atomic nuclei. Tunnelling applications include the tunnel diode,
quantum computing, flash memory, and the scanning tunnelling microscope.

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Superconducting qubits
Superconducting qubits are artificial atoms made up of electrical circuits consists of
superconductors like aluminum or niobium and Josephson junctions to process and store
quantum information.
As the superconductors possess zero electrical resistance when cooled to near absolute zero
temperature. This allows the charge carriers or Cooper pairs to flow without any energy loss
building a macroscopic quantum state. Superconducting qubits work by manipulating the
quantum states of superconducting circuits using Josephson junctions, enabling fast, scalable,
and controllable quantum computation.

Types of superconducting qubits

Superconducting qubits are divided into three main types, namely charge qubit, phase qubit,
and flux qubit. The three types of qubits are distinguished from each other according to the
ratio of Josephson energy EJ (i.e. the energy stored in a Josephson junction in the event of a
supercurrent passing through it) to charge energy EC (i.e. the energy stored in the electrical
field between the plates of the capacitor). The ratio determines whether the behavior of the
qubit is governed by phase fluctuations or charge fluctuations.

Charge qubit (Cooper pair box)

The charge qubit, also known as a Cooper pair box was one of the first developed
superconducting qubits. Designed with a Josephson junction in the circuit, this qubit consists
of a small superconducting island (black dot with node flux φ); the “island” denotes a specific
superconducting area connected to the circuit in a manner that facilitates the manipulation of
the number of Cooper pairs in the area.

The external voltage Vg controls the number of Cooper pairs flowing into and out of the
island. Consequently, a certain number of Cooper pairs are trapped inside the island. The

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number of Cooper pairs trapped will be determined by quantum fluctuations, which, causing
an oscillation, will manifest themselves in the form of energy levels used to represent the
qubit.

Phase qubit
A phase qubit consists of a larger, current-biased Josephson junction than that of the charge
qubits. It is operated in the zero-voltage state with a non-zero current bias. For greater non-
linearity, the biased current should be close to the critical current IC of the junction because
the Josephson junction will allow currents up to IC to pass through without any voltage.

In general, biasing refers to the initial operating conditions required for a particular circuit to
function in the precise manner; the circuit needs a consistent flow of current or voltage. So if
we say that a phase qubit is “current-biased”, it means that it is operated in the zero-voltage
state, but with “non-zero” current bias. This has a significant implication compared to the
other two types of superconducting qubits, the “tunability” (tuning the phase of the qubit by
changing the frequencies) of the current-biased Josephson junction is the chief advantage of
the phase qubit. However, the phase qubit is also vulnerable to fluctuations in current, which
may affect its performance.

Flux qubit
The flux qubits are loops of superconducting material interrupted by Josephson junctions.
The loops are controlled by an external magnetic flux Φext and the bias current Ib. The state of
a flux qubit, corresponding to the direction in which the superconducting current passes
through the loop, is measured by a SQUID (superconducting quantum interference device), a
highly sensitive magnetometer that measures the direction of the current in the qubit and,
consequently, its basis state (0 or 1).

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The main advantage of a flux qubit is its large anharmonicity (the approximation of a system
to the desired qubit states). Other advantages include easy readout and a relatively weak
sensitivity to charge noise (compare this to the charge qubit which is highly sensitive to
charge noise). Currently, D-Wave, Rigetti, and MIT are using this approach.

Superconducting qubits offer very fast gate operations and can be scaled using standard
microfabrication techniques, making them suitable for building large quantum processors
with precise microwave control. However, they must operate at extremely low milli kelvin
temperatures, have limited coherence times due to noise and de-coherence, and require
complex and expensive cryogenic systems.

Superconducting quantum computers

Superconducting quantum computers uses superconducting qubits, which are the circuits
made up of superconducting materials that exhibit zero electrical resistance at very low
temperatures. These qubits are the fundamental units of quantum information in these
systems. Superconducting circuits can be engineered to behave quantum mechanically, which
means that they can exist in superposition of states (both 0 and 1 simultaneously) and can be
entangled with other qubits.

Superconducting quantum computers are built on the principle of

quantum superposition and entanglement. A superconducting qubit consists of a tiny
superconducting loop, generally in the form of a Josephson junction. When a current flow
through this loop, it can exist in two distinct states: a clockwise current and a counter
clockwise current. These states are quantum superposition, and they can be manipulated by
applying microwave pulses.

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Components of Superconducting Quantum Computers

Qubits – Superconducting qubits are usually created using superconducting circuits made
from materials like aluminium or niobium. These circuits can represent a quantum bit (qubit)
by using two energy states: ground and excited. By applying microwave pulses, the qubit can
be manipulated to achieve quantum superposition.
Quantum Gates – Quantum gates are the operations performed on qubits and works on the
principles of quantum mechanics. In superconducting quantum computers, quantum gates
manipulate the superposition states of qubits.
Quantum Interference – Superconducting quantum computers utilize quantum interference
to perform calculations. Quantum interference occurs when quantum states combine in such a
way that certain outcomes become more likely than others. This is essential for running
algorithms like Shor's algorithm and Grover's algorithm efficiently.
Cryogenics – As the superconducting qubits require extremely low temperatures to function,
these systems operate within specialized cryogenic arrangements. Cryostats keep the
quantum processor at temperatures close to absolute zero (around 15 milli kelvin), where the
qubits quantum properties remain stable.

Advantages and Limitations

Superconducting quantum computers offer very fast gate operations and are highly scalable
due to chip-based fabrication using established microelectronics technology. They allow
precise control using microwave pulses and are currently the most widely implemented
platform in practical quantum processors.
They require extremely low operating temperatures (milli kelvin range), making the system
complex and expensive. Their performance is limited by decoherence and noise, leading to
shorter coherence times and the need for advanced error correction techniques.

Applications
Quantum simulation – Used to simulate complex quantum systems in physics, chemistry,
and materials science.
Optimization problems – Solve complex optimization tasks in logistics, finance etc.
Cryptography – Useful in developing and testing quantum-safe cryptographic algorithms.
Machine learning – Applied in quantum-enhanced machine learning and data analysis.
Drug discovery and material Design – Help to model molecular structures and reactions
efficiently.

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Fundamental research – Enable experimental studies of quantum algorithms and quantum

error correction.

Flux quantization
It is the phenomenon observed in superconductors, where the magnetic flux passing through a
superconducting loop can only take on discrete values, which are an integer multiples of a
fundamental quantum unit of flux. This behaviour illustrating how quantum mechanical
effects manifest on macroscopic scales, especially in the context of superconductivity and the
Meissner effect.
In a superconductor, electrons form Cooper pairs behave as a single quantum wave function.
This wave function must be single-valued after completing a closed loop. As a result, the
phase change around a superconducting loop must be an integer multiple of 2π. This leads to
the quantization of magnetic flux.

In a superconducting loop, the total magnetic flux is quantized in units of

ℎ
∅0 = = 2.067 × 10−15 𝑊𝑒𝑏𝑒𝑟
2𝑒
Where h – is a Planck’s constant and e is the elementary charge of an electron.

Flux quantization is crucial for understanding the behaviour of type II superconductors,

which allow magnetic flux to penetrate their surface in discrete units. It confirms the quantum
nature of superconductivity and enabling advanced technologies like SQUIDs,
superconducting qubits and quantum computers.

Superconducting Quantum Interference Device (SQUID)

 A SQUID is a very sensitive magnetometer used to measure extremely subtle magnetic
fields, based on superconducting loops containing Josephson junctions.
 It is capable of measuring magnetic fields as low as 5×10-14 T.
 Due to their sensitivity, SQUIDs are widely used in research, biological studies and other
ultrasensitive electronic and magnetic measurements where faint signals cannot be sensed
using conventional measurement instruments.
 There are two types of SQUID, the direct current (DC) SQUID with two or more
Josephson junctions and the radio frequency (RF) SQUID consisting of only one
Josephson junction.

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DC SQUID
It has two Josephson junctions connected in parallel and works on the interference of current
from two junctions. It works on the principle of DC Josephson effect which is the
phenomenon of flow of super current through the junction even in the absence of external
emf.
Construction and Working

 The cross sectional view of the arrangement is shown in the above figure.
 P and Q are two Josephson Junctions arranged in parallel to each other.
 When current I flows through the point C, it divides into I1 and I2.
 Hence the wave function due to these super currents (cooper pairs) experience a phase
shift at P and Q.
 In the absence of applied magnetic field, the phase difference between the wave functions
is zero. If the magnetic field is applied perpendicular to the current loop, then phase
difference between the wave functions will not be zero. This is identified by the sum of the
currents I1ˈ and I2ˈ .
 The magnitude of phase difference is proportional to applied magnetic field.
 Hence, even if there is a weak magnetic field in the region will be detected.

RF SQUID
 It works on the principle of AC Josephson effect, when dc voltage is applied across the
Josephson junction, it leads to the development of oscillating current.
 It has single Josephson Junction.
 Magnetic field is applied perpendicular to the plane of the current loop.
 The flux is coupled into a loop containing a single Josephson Junction through an input
coil and an RF source. Hence when the RF current changes, there is corresponding change
in the flux linked with the coil.

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 This variation is very sensitive and is measured.

 It is also used in the detection of low magnetic field.
 It is less sensitive compared to DC Squid.
 Due to its low cost manufacturing, it is commonly used SQUID in many applications.

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