Chapter 18: Regional Variation in Language

Complete Study Notes — The Study of Language

This chapter explores how language varies by region — why people in different places speak differently,
how linguists study these differences, and what happens when languages mix or are officially managed.

1. The Standard Language

When we learn grammar rules or use a dictionary, we engage with the 'standard language' — an
idealized, non-regional variety.

An idealized variety of a language with NO specific regional home. It is

associated with education, government, and the mass media. Examples:
Standard Language
Standard American English, Standard British English, Standard Australian
English.

Characteristics:
• No specific home region — belongs to all formal/institutional contexts
• Found in newspapers, books, schools, and broadcasting
• Taught to second-language learners
• More easily described through writing (spelling, grammar, vocabulary) than through speech

⭐ Key Point: Every educated speaker uses something close to the standard in formal writing, but
nearly everyone also uses a regional dialect when speaking informally.

2. Accent vs. Dialect

Refers ONLY to pronunciation — how someone sounds. Everyone has an
Accent
accent. No one speaks 'without' one; some are just more familiar to us.

A broader term: pronunciation (accent) + differences in vocabulary +

Dialect differences in grammar. Describes how a group of people speak in a
particular region or social group.

💬 Example: Standard: "You don't know what you're talking about." (same written form no matter
the accent) Scottish dialect: "Ye dinnae ken whit yer haverin' aboot" → Different pronunciation: ye,
 whit, aboot → Different vocabulary: ken = know, haverin' = talking nonsense → Different grammar:
dinnae, yer

⭐ Key Point: Accent = sound only. Dialect = sound + words + grammar. A dialect difference goes
much deeper than just an accent.

3. Variation in Grammar
Grammatical differences between dialects are real and can cause genuine miscommunication. Classic
example from Donegal, Ireland:

💬 Example: Irish English speaker (A): "How long are youse here?" British visitor (B): "Till after
Easter." [hears it as future tense — confused] British visitor (C): "We came on Sunday." [answers
with past tense] A: "Ah, youse're here a while then." Why the confusion? In A's dialect, "How long
are youse here?" = "How long HAVE you been here?" (past). Visitor B heard it as "How long are you
going to BE here?" (future) — a real miscommunication caused purely by dialect grammar.

• "Youse" = plural of "you" — a grammatical feature unique to some Irish English dialects.
• Present tense used to refer to past time — another grammatical dialect feature.

4. Dialectology
The systematic academic study of dialects. Helps distinguish between two
dialects of the same language (speakers can usually understand each other)
Dialectology
vs. two different languages (speakers generally cannot understand each
other).

The ability of speakers of different varieties to understand each other. A

Mutual Intelligibility key criterion in deciding whether two varieties are dialects of one language
or two separate languages.

Non-mobile, Older, Rural, Male Speakers. The traditional ideal informants

for dialect surveys — chosen because they were least exposed to outside
NORMS
linguistic influences. Downside: results often reflect older speech, not
current usage.
 ⭐ Key Point: Linguistically, no dialect is better than another — they are simply different. Prestige
comes from society, not from language itself. Standard varieties gain status because they are tied to
centers of economic and political power.

5. Isoglosses & Dialect Boundaries

A line drawn on a map marking the geographic boundary of a single
Isogloss
linguistic feature (a word, pronunciation, or grammar form).

When many isoglosses cluster at the same line, a solid dialect boundary can
Dialect Boundary be drawn — indicating a strong, meaningful division between two regional
dialects.

💬 Example: Upper Midwest USA example: • Northern area: say 'paper bag' (marked with dots on
map) • Midland area: say 'paper sack' (marked with plus signs) The dividing line = an isogloss.
Other isogloss pairs: 'pail' (North) vs 'bucket' (Midland) | 'kerosene' (North) vs 'coal oil' (Midland)

Northern vs. Midland Dialect — Key Differences:

Dialect 'taught' sound 'roof' sound Bag word Pail word

Northern [ɔ] [ʊ] paper bag pail

Midland [ɑ] [u] paper sack bucket

⭐ Key Point: Isogloss = one feature boundary. Dialect boundary = many isoglosses at the same line
= a stronger, more meaningful regional division.

6. The Dialect Continuum

Dialects don't switch abruptly at borders — they gradually blend into each
Dialect Continuum other as you travel geographically. Regional variation exists as a smooth
gradation, not sharp breaks.
 💬 Example: Traveling from the Netherlands into Germany: near the border, Dutch begins to sound
more like German. The two dialects merge gradually. This is the Dutch-German dialect continuum.

Speaking two dialects. Most people are bidialectal — using one dialect
Bidialectal informally with friends/family and a more standard variety at school or
work.

Speaking two entirely different languages (not just two dialects of the same
Bilingual
language).

7. Bilingualism
In many regions, variation goes beyond dialect — entirely different languages coexist. When someone
grows up in a minority language community but must also use a dominant language to participate in
wider society, bilingualism at the individual level develops.

💬 Example: Canada: officially bilingual (French + English). French speakers in Quebec grew up
speaking French but must also know English to participate in Canadian society at large. Wales:
Welsh speakers grew up speaking Welsh but English dominates public life. Bilingual English-Welsh
road signs only appeared relatively recently — many Welsh speakers ('henoed' = elderly people)
never expected to see their first language on public signs.

• Bilingualism is most common among minority group members, who learn the dominant
language to access education, jobs, and public life.
• The dominant group rarely needs to learn the minority language.

Speaking only one language. Countries where bilingualism is mostly found

Monolingual among minority groups are often (incorrectly) assumed to be fully
monolingual.

8. Diglossia
A situation where TWO distinct varieties of the SAME language exist side by
Diglossia side in a community — one 'High' (H) variety for formal/official use, and
one 'Low' (L) variety for everyday informal use.
 Variety HIGH (H) LOW (L)
Where used Formal lectures, religion, serious Everyday conversation, home, street,
political events, schools casual settings
Arabic example Classical/Modern Standard Arabic Egyptian Arabic, Lebanese Arabic, etc.
European history Latin (used in church, law, Early French, Italian, Spanish
example scholarship) (vernacular)

The everyday, locally spoken variety of a language — the 'Low' variety in a

Vernacular
diglossic situation. The natural, informal mother tongue of a community.

9. Language Planning
The process by which governments and official bodies decide which
Language Planning language or variety will be used for official purposes in a country — and
then implement that decision through policy, education, and media.

A country or person that uses only one language. Many multilingual

Monolingual countries are incorrectly assumed to be monolingual by dominant-group
members.

Why is language planning necessary? Countries with many languages must make difficult choices:
• San Antonio, Texas: majority of residents prefer Spanish radio over English — raises questions
about school language policy.
• Guatemala: 26 Mayan languages + Spanish — which language of instruction gives children fair
access to education?
• India: Hindi chosen as official language — caused riots in non-Hindi regions.
• Philippines: 'National Language Wars' before agreement on Filipino as the national language.
• Israel: Hebrew revived as official language despite not being most widely spoken at the time.

The 5 Stages of Language Planning (Tanzania/Swahili model):

# Stage What Happens

Selection Choosing which language or variety will become the official/standard

1
language.
 Codification Creating the tools to formalize it: grammars, dictionaries, and written
2
models.
Elaboration Developing the standard for use in all areas of social life; literary works
3
are written in it.
Implementation Government action to promote and enforce use of the standard
4
language.
Acceptance The final stage: a substantial majority of the population uses it and sees
5
it as part of national identity.

⭐ Key Point: Language planning is a long process taking many years. Tanzania's adoption of Swahili
as its national language is a successful example — gradually introduced through education, law, and
government while English colonial vestiges remained.

10. Pidgins
A contact language that develops when groups of people who do not share
Pidgin a common language need to communicate (usually for trade). A pidgin has
NO native speakers — it is learned as an additional, functional language.

The language that contributes most of the vocabulary (words) to a pidgin. If

Lexifier
English is the lexifier, the result is an 'English pidgin.'

💬 Example: Tok Pisin (Papua New Guinea): English is the lexifier, but words shift meaning: • 'gras'
(from English 'grass') = hair • 'mausgras' = moustache (mouth-grass) • 'gras bilong fes' = beard
(grass belonging to face) • 'yumi' = you and me (inclusive we) • 'mipela' = me and others (exclusive
we) Sentence structure: 'Baimbai hed bilongyu i-arrait gain' = 'Your head will soon get well again'

Features of Pidgins:
• No complex grammatical morphology (simplified structure)
• Limited vocabulary
• No inflectional suffixes like -s (plural) or -'s (possessive)
• Use function words like 'bilong' (belonging to) instead of changing word forms
• Word order substitutes for grammatical changes

⭐ Key Point: Between 6 and 12 million people still use pidgin languages today. A further 10-17
 million use languages descended from pidgins — called creoles.

11. Creoles
When a pidgin becomes the FIRST LANGUAGE of a community (the native
Creole language of children born into that community), it is called a creole.
Creoles are more complex than pidgins and have no restrictions on use.

The process by which a pidgin develops into a creole — gaining complexity,

Creolization
native speakers, and full linguistic functionality.

💬 Example: Tok Pisin evolved from pidgin to creole. Early pidgin: 'baimbai yu go' (by and by you go
— future marker separate) Later creole: 'bai yu go' → 'yu bigo' = 'you will go' (future marker
grammaticalized) Other creoles: Haiti French Creole | Jamaica English Creole | Sierra Leone English
Creole | Hawai'i Creole English (locally called 'Pidgin')

Pidgin vs. Creole — Quick Comparison:

Feature Pidgin Creole
Native speakers? No Yes

Complexity Simplified/limited Full & complex

Use Trade/contact only All areas of life

How acquired Learned as 2nd language Acquired as 1st language

12. The Post-Creole Continuum

When speakers of a creole are exposed to the prestige standard language
(e.g. British English in Jamaica), they tend to shift away from creole
Decreolization
features toward the standard. The creole gradually loses some of its
distinct features.

Post-Creole The range of varieties that exists AFTER decreolization begins — from the
Continuum most creole-heavy variety (basilect) at one extreme to the most standard-
like variety (acrolect) at the other, with mixed varieties (mesolects) in
 between.

💬 Example: Jamaica — three ways to say the same thing, reflecting different points on the post-
creole continuum: → "a fi mi buk dat" (most creole — basilect) → "iz mi buk" (mixed — mesolect) →
"it's my book" (closest to standard — acrolect, but still with creole accent) Speakers often move
across this continuum depending on the situation.

⭐ Key Point: The post-creole continuum shows that language is not fixed — speakers fluidly use
different varieties of the same language depending on social context, who they're talking to, and
what identity they want to project.

Master Glossary — All Key Terms

Idealized, non-regional variety used in education, media, and formal

Standard Language
contexts.

Accent Differences in pronunciation ONLY. Everyone has one.

Dialect Differences in pronunciation + vocabulary + grammar. Broader than accent.

Dialectology Academic study of dialects.

Ability of speakers of different varieties to understand each other — key

Mutual Intelligibility
test for same language vs. different language.

Non-mobile, Older, Rural, Male Speakers — traditional ideal dialect survey

NORMS
informants.

Isogloss Line on a map marking the boundary of ONE linguistic feature.

Dialect Boundary Line where MANY isoglosses cluster — stronger regional division.
Dialect Continuum Dialects blend gradually into each other geographically — no sharp breaks.

Bidialectal Able to use two dialects.

Bilingual Able to speak two distinct languages.

Monolingual Speaking only one language.

Two varieties of the SAME language used in the same community — High
Diglossia
(H) for formal, Low (L) for everyday use.

Vernacular The everyday, informal 'Low' variety of a language.

Official government process of selecting, codifying, and implementing a

Language Planning
standard language.

A contact language with no native speakers — develops for practical

Pidgin
communication (trade) between groups with no shared language.

Lexifier The language that contributes most vocabulary to a pidgin.

A pidgin that has become the first language of a community — more

Creole
complex and fully functional.

Creolization The process by which a pidgin becomes a creole.

Creole speakers shift toward the prestige standard variety, losing creole
Decreolization
features.

Post-Creole The range of varieties from most-creole (basilect) to most-standard

Continuum (acrolect) that exists after decreolization begins.
Based on Chapter 18: Regional Variation in Language — The Study of Language