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UNIT- I

UNIT-I

Introduction:-Purpose of testing,Dichotomies,model for testing,consequences of bugs, taxonomy of

bugs,Flow graphs and Path testing:- Basics concepts of path testing, predicates, path predicates
and achievable paths, path sensitizing, path instrumentation, application of path testing.

What is testing?

Testing is the process of exercising or evaluating a system or system components by manual or

automated means to verify that it satisfies specified requirements.

The Purpose of Testing

Testing consumes at least half of the time and work required to produce a functional program.
o MYTH: Good programmers write code without bugs. (It’s wrong!!!)
o History says that even well written programs still have 1-3 bugs per hundred statements.

Productivity and Quality in Software:

o In production of consumer goods and other products, every manufacturing stage is
subjected to quality control and testing from component to final stage.
o If flaws are discovered at any stage, the product is either discarded or cycled back for
rework and correction.
o Productivity is measured by the sum of the costs of the material, the rework, and the
discarded components, and the cost of quality assurance and testing.
o There is a tradeoff between quality assurance costs and manufacturing costs: If
sufficient time is not spent in quality assurance, the reject rate will be high and so will
be the net cost. If inspection is good and all errors are caught as they occur, inspection
costs will dominate, and again the net cost will suffer.
o Testing and Quality assurance costs for 'manufactured' items can be as low as 2% in
consumer products or as high as 80% in products such as space-ships, nuclear reactors,
and aircrafts, where failures threaten life. Whereas the manufacturing cost of software
is trivial.
o The biggest part of software cost is the cost of bugs: the cost of detecting them, the
cost of correcting them, the cost of designing tests that discover them, and the cost of
running those tests.
o For software, quality and productivity are indistinguishable because the cost of a
software copy is trivial.
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o Testing and Test Design are parts of quality assurance should also focus on bug
prevention. A prevented bug is better than a detected and corrected bug.
Phases in a tester's mental life:

Phases in a tester's mental life can be categorized into the following 5 phases:

1. Phase 0: (Until 1956: Debugging Oriented) There is no difference between testing and
debugging. Phase 0 thinking was the norm in early days of software development till
testing emerged as a discipline.
2. Phase 1: (1957-1978: Demonstration Oriented) the purpose of testing here is to show that
software works. Highlighted during the late 1970s. This failed because the probability of
showing that software works 'decreases' as testing increases. I.e. the more you test, the
more likely you will find a bug.
3. Phase 2: (1979-1982: Destruction Oriented) the purpose of testing is to show that
software doesn’t work. This also failed because the software will never get released as you
will find one bug or the other. Also, a bug corrected may also lead to another bug.
4. Phase 3: (1983-1987: Evaluation Oriented) the purpose of testing is not to prove anything
but to reduce the perceived risk of not working to an acceptable value (Statistical Quality
Control). Notion is that testing does improve the product to the extent that testing catches
bugs and to the extent that those bugs are fixed. The product is released when the
confidence on that product is high enough. (Note: This is applied to large software
products with millions of code and years of use.)
5. Phase 4: (1988-2000: Prevention Oriented) Testability is the factor considered here. One
reason is to reduce the labor of testing. Other reason is to check the testable and non-
testable code. Testable code has fewer bugs than the code that's hard to test. Identifying
the testing techniques to test the code is the main key here.

Test Design:

We know that the software code must be designed and tested, but many appear to be unaware
that tests themselves must be designed and tested. Tests should be properly designed and
tested before applying it to the actual code.

Testing isn’t everything:

There are approaches other than testing to create better software. Methods other than testing include:

1. Inspection Methods: Methods like walkthroughs, desk checking, formal inspections and
code reading appear to be as effective as testing but the bugs caught don’t completely
overlap.

2. Design Style: While designing the software itself, adopting stylistic objectives such as
testability, openness and clarity can do much to prevent bugs.
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3. Static Analysis Methods: Includes formal analysis of source code during compilation. In
earlier days, it is a routine job of the programmer to do that. Now, the compilers have
taken over that job.
4. Languages: The source language can help reduce certain kinds of bugs. Programmers
find new bugs while using new languages.
5. Development Methodologies and Development Environment: The development
process and the environment in which that methodology is embedded can prevent
many kinds of bugs.

Dichotomies:

Testing Versus Debugging:

Many people consider both as same. Purpose of testing is to show that a program has
bugs. The purpose of testing is to find the error or misconception that led to the
program's failure and to design and implement the program changes that correct the
error.
Debugging usually follows testing, but they differ as to goals, methods and most
important psychology. The below tab le shows few important differences between
testing and debugging.

Testing Debugging
Testing starts with known conditions, Debugging starts from possibly unknown
uses predefined procedures and has initial conditions and the end cannot be
predictable outcomes. predicted except statistically.
Testing can and should be planned, Procedure and duration of debugging cannot
designed and scheduled. be so constrained.
Testing is a demonstration of error or
Debugging is a deductive process.
apparent correctness.
Debugging is the programmer's vindication
Testing proves a programmer's failure.
(Justification).
Testing, as executes, should strive to be
Debugging demands intuitive leaps,
predictable, dull, constrained, rigid and
experimentation and freedom.
inhuman.
Much testing can be done without Debugging is impossible without detailed
design knowledge. design knowledge.
Testing can often be done by an
Debugging must be done by an insider.
outsider.
Much of test execution and design can
Automated debugging is still a dream.
be automated.

Function versus Structure:

o Tests can be designed from a functional or a structural point of view.

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o In Functional testing, the program or system is treated as a black box. It is

subjected to inputs, and its outputs are verified for conformance to specified
behavior. Functional testing takes the user point of view- bother about
functionality and features and not the program's implementation.
o In Structural testing does look at the implementation details. Things such as
programming style, control method, source language, database design, and
coding details dominate structural testing.
o Both Structural and functional tests are useful, both have limitations, and both
target different kinds of bugs. Functional tests can detect all bugs but would take
infinite time to do so. Structural tests are inherently finite but cannot detect all
errors even if completely executed.

Designer versus Tester:

o Test designer is the person who designs the tests where as the tester is the one
actually tests the code. During functional testing, the designer and tester are
probably different persons. During unit testing, the tester and the programmer
merge into one person.
o Tests designed and executed by the software designers are by nature biased
towards structural consideration and therefore suffer the limitations of
structural testing.

Modularity versus Efficiency:

A module is a discrete, well-defined, small component of a system. Smaller the modules,

difficult to integrate; larger the modules, difficult to understand. Both tests and systems
can be modular. Testing can and should likewise be organized into modular
components. Small, independent test cases can be designed to test independent
modules.

Small versus Large:

Programming in large means constructing programs that consists of many components

written by many different programmers. Programming in the small is what we do for
ourselves in the privacy of our own offices. Qualitative and Quantitative changes occur
with size and so must testing methods and quality criteria.

Builder versus Buyer:

Most software is written and used by the same organization. Unfortunately, this
situation is dishonest because it clouds accountability. If there is no separation between
builder and buyer, there can be no accountability.
The different roles / users in a system include:
1. Builder: Who designs the system and is accountable to the buyer.
2. Buyer: Who pays for the system in the hope of profits from providing services?
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3. User: Ultimate beneficiary or victim of the system. The user's interests are also
guarded by.
4. Tester: Who is dedicated to the builder's destruction?
5. Operator: Who has to live with the builders' mistakes, the buyers' murky
(unclear) specifications, testers' oversights and the users' complaints?

MODEL FOR TESTING:

Figure 1.1: A Model for Testing

Above figure is a model of testing process. It includes three models: A model of the environment,
a model of the program and a model of the expected bugs.
Environment:
o A Program's environment is the hardware and software required to make it run.
For online systems, the environment may include communication lines, other
systems, terminals and operators.
o The environment also includes all programs that interact with and are used to
create the program under test - such as OS, linkage editor, loader, compiler,
utility routines.
o Because the hardware and firmware are stable, it is not smart to blame the
environment for bugs.
Program:
o Most programs are too complicated to understand in detail.
o The concept of the program is to be simplified in order to test it.
o If simple model of the program doesn’t explain the unexpected behavior, we
may have to modify that model to include more facts and details. And if that
fails, we may have to modify the program.
Bugs:
o Bugs are more insidious (deceiving but harmful) than ever we expect them to be.
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o An unexpected test result may lead us to change our notion of what a bug is and
our model of bugs.
o Some optimistic notions that many programmers or testers have about bugs are
usually unable to test effectively and unable to justify the dirty tests most
programs need.
o Optimistic notions about bugs:
1. Benign Bug Hypothesis: The belief that bugs are nice, tame and logical.
(Benign: Not Dangerous)

2. Bug Locality Hypothesis: The belief that a bug discovered with in a component affects
only that component's behavior.
3. Control Bug Dominance: The belief those errors in the control structures (if, switch etc) of
programs dominate the bugs.
4. Code / Data Separation: The belief that bugs respect the separation of code and data.
5. Lingua Salvatore Est.: The belief that the language syntax and semantics (e.g. Structured
Coding, Strong typing, etc) eliminates most bugs.
6. Corrections Abide: The mistaken belief that a corrected bug remains corrected.
7. Silver Bullets: The mistaken belief that X (Language, Design method, representation,
environment) grants immunity from bugs.
8. Sadism Suffices: The common belief (especially by independent tester) that a sadistic
streak, low cunning, and intuition are sufficient to eliminate most bugs. Tough bugs need
methodology and techniques.
9. Angelic Testers: The belief that testers are better at test design than programmers is at
code design.

Test
s:
o Tests are formal procedures, Inputs must be prepared, Outcomes should predict,
tests should be documented, commands need to be executed, and results are to
be observed. All these errors are subjected to error
o We do three distinct kinds of testing on a typical software system. Theyare:
1. Unit / Component Testing: A Unit is the smallest testable piece of
software that can be compiled, assembled, linked, loaded etc. A unit is
usually the work of one programmer and consists of several hundred or
fewer lines of code. Unit Testing is the testing we do to show that the
unit does not satisfy its functional specification or that its implementation
structure does not match the intended design structure. A Component is
an integrated aggregate of one or more units. Component Testing is the
testing we do to show that the component does not satisfy its functional
specification or that its implementation structure does not match the
intended design structure.
2. Integration Testing: Integration is the process by which components are
aggregated to create larger components. Integration Testing is testing
done to show that even though the components were individually
satisfactory (after passing component testing), checks the combination of
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components are incorrect or inconsistent.

3. System Testing: A System is a big component. System Testing is aimed at
revealing bugs that cannot be attributed to components. It includes
testing for performance, security, accountability, configuration
sensitivity, startup and recovery.
Role of Models: The art of testing consists of creating, selecting, exploring, and revising
models. Our ability to go through this process depends on the number of different
models we have at hand and their ability to express a program's behavior.

CONSEQUENCES OF BUGS:

Importance of bugs: The importance of bugs depends on frequency, correction cost,

installation cost, and consequences.
1. Frequency: How often does that kind of bug occur? Pay more attention to the
more frequent bug types.
2. Correction Cost: What does it cost to correct the bug after it is found? The cost is
the sum of 2 factors: (1) the cost of discovery (2) the cost of correction. These
costs go up dramatically later in the development cycle when the bug is
discovered. Correction cost also depends on system size.
3. Installation Cost: Installation cost depends on the number of installations: small
for a single user program but more for distributed systems. Fixing one bug and
distributing the fix could exceed the entire system's development cost.
4. Consequences: What are the consequences of the bug? Bug consequences can
range from mild to catastrophic.

A reasonable metric for bug importance is

Importance= ($) = Frequency * (Correction cost + Installation cost +
Consequential cost)

Consequences of bugs: The consequences of a bug can be measure in terms of human

rather than machine. Some consequences of a bug on a scale of one to ten are:
1 Mild: The symptoms of the bug offend us aesthetically (gently); a misspelled
output or a misaligned printout.
2 Moderate: Outputs are misleading or redundant. The bug impacts the system's
performance.
3 Annoying: The system's behavior because of the bug is dehumanizing. E.g.
Names are truncated or arbitrarily modified.
4 Disturbing: It refuses to handle legitimate (authorized / legal) transactions. The
ATM won’t give you money. My credit card is declared invalid.
5 Serious: It loses track of its transactions. Not just the transaction itself but the
fact that the transaction occurred. Accountability is lost.
6 Very Serious: The bug causes the system to do the wrong transactions. Instead
of losing your paycheck, the system credits it to another account or converts
deposits to withdrawals.
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7 Extreme: The problems aren't limited to a few users or to few transaction types.
They are frequent and arbitrary instead of sporadic infrequent) or for unusual
cases.
8 Intolerable: Long term unrecoverable corruption of the database occurs and the
corruption is not easily discovered. Serious consideration is given to shutting the
system down.
9 Catastrophic: The decision to shut down is taken out of our hands because the
system fails.
10 Infectious: What can be worse than a failed system? One that corrupt other
systems even though it does not fall in itself ; that erodes the social physical
environment; that melts nuclear reactors and starts war.

Flexible severity rather than absolutes:

o Quality can be measured as a combination of factors, of which number of bugs

and their severity is only one component.
o Many organizations have designed and used satisfactory, quantitative, quality
metrics.
o Because bugs and their symptoms play a significant role in such metrics, as
testing progresses, you see the quality rise to a reasonable value which is
deemed to be safe to ship the product.
o The factors involved in bug severity are:
1. Correction Cost: Not so important because catastrophic bugs may be
corrected easier and small bugs may take major time to debug.
2. Context and Application Dependency: Severity depends on the context
and the application in which it isused.
3. Creating Culture Dependency: What’s important depends on the
creators of software and their cultural aspirations. Test tool vendors are
more sensitive about bugs in their software then games software
vendors.
4. User Culture Dependency: Severity also depends on user culture. Naive
users of PC software go crazy over bugs where as pros (experts) may just
ignore.
5. The software development phase: Severity depends on development
phase. Any bugs gets more severe as it gets closer to field use and more
severe the longer it has been around.

TAXONOMY OF BUGS:
 There is no universally correct way categorize bugs. The taxonomy is not rigid.
 A given bug can be put into one or another category depending on its history and the
programmer's state of mind.
 The major categories are: (1) Requirements, Features and Functionality Bugs (2)
Structural Bugs (3) Data Bugs (4) Coding Bugs (5) Interface, Integration and System
Bugs (6) Test and Test Design Bugs.
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Requirements, Features and Functionality Bugs: Various categories in Requirements,

Features and Functionality bugs include:

1. Requirements and Specifications Bugs:

 Requirements and specifications developed from them can be incomplete ambiguous,
or self-contradictory. They can be misunderstood or impossible to understand.
 The specifications that don't have flaws in them may change while the design is in
progress. The features are added, modified and deleted.
 Requirements, especially, as expressed in specifications are a major source of expensive
bugs.
 The range is from a few percentages to more than 50%, depending on the application
and environment.
 What hurts most about the bugs is that they are the earliest to invade the system and
the last to leave.
2. Feature Bugs:
 Specification problems usually create corresponding feature problems.
 A feature can be wrong, missing, or superfluous (serving no useful purpose). A missing
feature or case is easier to detect and correct. A wrong feature could have deep design
implications.
 Removing the features might complicate the software, consume more resources, and
foster more bugs.

3. Feature Interaction Bugs:

 Providing correct, clear, implementable and testable feature specifications is not enough.
 Features usually come in groups or related features. The features of each group and the
interaction of features within the group are usually well tested.
 The problem is unpredictable interactions between feature groups or even between
individual features. For example, your telephone is provided with call holding and call
forwarding. The interactions between these two features may have bugs.
 Every application has its peculiar set of features and a much bigger set of unspecified
feature interaction potentials and therefore result in feature interaction bugs.

Specification and Feature Bug Remedies:

 Most feature bugs are rooted in human to human communication problems. One
solution is to use high-level, formal specification languages or systems.
 Such languages and systems provide short term support but in the long run, does not
solve the problem.
 Short term Support: Specification languages facilitate formalization of requirements
and inconsistency and ambiguity analysis.
 Long term Support: Assume that we have a great specification language and that can be
used to create unambiguous, complete specifications with unambiguous complete tests
and consistent test criteria.
 The specification problem has been shifted to a higher level but not eliminated.
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Testing Techniques for functional bugs: Most functional test techniques- that is those techniques
which are based on a behavioral description of software, such as transaction flow testing, syntax
testing, domain testing, logic testing and state testing are useful in testing functional bugs.

Structural bugs: Various categories in Structural bugs include:

1. Control and Sequence Bugs:
 Control and sequence bugs include paths left out, unreachable code, improper nesting
of loops, loop-back or loop termination criteria incorrect, missing process steps,
duplicated processing, unnecessary processing, rampaging, GOTO's, ill-conceived (not
properly planned) switches, spaghetti code, and worst of all, pachinko code.
 One reason for control flow bugs is that this area is amenable (supportive) to theoretical
treatment.
 Most of the control flow bugs are easily tested and caught in unit testing.
 Another reason for control flow bugs is that use of old code especially ALP & COBOL
code are dominated by control flow bugs.
 Control and sequence bugs at all levels are caught by testing, especially structural
testing, more specifically path testing combined with a bottom line functional test based
on a specification.

2. Logic Bugs:
 Bugs in logic, especially those related to misunderstanding how case statements and
logic operators behave singly and combinations
 Also includes evaluation of boolean expressions in deeply nested IF-THEN-ELSE
constructs.
 If the bugs are parts of logical (i.e. boolean) processing not related to control flow, they
are characterized as processing bugs.
 If the bugs are parts of a logical expression (i.e. control-flow statement) which is used to
direct the control flow, then they are categorized as control-flow bugs.

3. Processing Bugs:
 Processing bugs include arithmetic bugs, algebraic, mathematical function evaluation,
algorithm selection and general processing.
 Examples of Processing bugs include: Incorrect conversion from one data
representation to other, ignoring overflow, improper use of greater-than-or-equal etc
 Although these bugs are frequent (12%), they tend to be caught in good unit testing.

4. Initialization Bugs:
 Initialization bugs are common. Initialization bugs can be improper and superfluous.
 Superfluous bugs are generally less harmful but can affect performance.
 Typical initialization bugs include: Forgetting to initialize the variables before first use,
assuming that they are initialized elsewhere, initializing to the wrong format,
representation or type etc
 Explicit declaration of all variables, as in Pascal, can reduce some initialization problems.
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5. Data-Flow Bugs and Anomalies:

 Most initialization bugs are special case of data flow anomalies.
 A data flow anomaly occurs where there is a path along which we expect to do
something unreasonable with data, such as using an uninitialized variable, attempting to
use a variable before it exists, modifying and then not storing or using the result, or
initializing twice without an intermediate use.

Data bugs:
 Data bugs include all bugs that arise from the specification of data objects, their
formats, the number of such objects, and their initial values.
 Data Bugs are at least as common as bugs in code, but they are often treated as if they
did not exist at all.
 Code migrates data: Software is evolving towards programs in which more and more of
the control and processing functions are stored in tables.
 Because of this, there is an increasing awareness that bugs in code are only half the
battle and the data problems should be given equal attention.

Dynamic Data Vs Static data:

 Dynamic data are transitory. Whatever their purpose their lifetime is relatively short,
typically the processing time of one transaction. A storage object may be used to hold
dynamic data of different types, with different formats, attributes and residues.
 Dynamic data bugs are due to leftover garbage in a shared resource. This can be
handled in one of the three ways: (1) Clean up after the use by the user (2) Common
Cleanup by the resource manager (3) No Clean up
 Static Data are fixed in form and content. They appear in the source code or database
directly or indirectly, for example a number, a string of characters, or a bit pattern.
 Compile time processing will solve the bugs caused by static data.

Information, parameter, and control:

Static or dynamic data can serve in one of three roles, or in combination of roles: as a parameter, for
control, or for information.

Content, Structure and Attributes:

 Content can be an actual bit pattern, character string, or number put into a data
structure. Content is a pure bit pattern and has no meaning unless it is interpreted by a
hardware or software processor. All data bugs result in the corruption or
misinterpretation of content.
 Structure relates to the size, shape and numbers that describe the data object, which is
memory location used to store the content. (E.g. A two dimensional array).
 Attributes relates to the specification meaning that is the semantics associated with the
contents of a data object. (E.g. an integer, an alphanumeric string, a subroutine). The
severity and subtlety of bugs increases as we go from content to attributes because the
things get less formal in that direction.
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Coding bugs:
 Coding errors of all kinds can create any of the other kind of bugs.
 Syntax errors are generally not important in the scheme of things if the source language
translator has adequate syntax checking.
 If a program has many syntax errors, then we should expect many logic and coding bugs.
 The documentation bugs are also considered as coding bugs which may mislead the
maintenance programmers.

 Interface, integration, and system bugs:

Various categories of bugs in Interface, Integration, and System Bugs are:

1. External Interfaces:

 The external interfaces are the means used to communicate with the world.
 These include devices, actuators, sensors, input terminals, printers, and communication
lines.
 The primary design criterion for an interface with outside world should be robustness.
 All external interfaces, human or machine should employ a protocol. The protocol may
be wrong or incorrectly implemented.
 Other external interface bugs are: invalid timing or sequence assumptions related to
external signals
 Misunderstanding external input or output formats.
 Insufficient tolerance to bad input data.

2. Internal Interfaces:
 Internal interfaces are in principle not different from external interfaces but they are
more controlled.
 A best example for internal interfaces is communicating routines.
 The external environment is fixed and the system must adapt to it but the internal
environment, which consists of interfaces with other components, can be negotiated.
 Internal interfaces have the same problem as external interfaces.

3. Hardware Architecture:
 Bugs related to hardware architecture originate mostly from misunderstanding how the
hardware works.
 Examples of hardware architecture bugs: address generation error, i/o device operation
/ instruction error, waiting too long for a response, incorrect interrupt handling etc.
 The remedy for hardware architecture and interface problems is twofold: (1) Good
Programming and Testing (2) Centralization of hardware interface software in programs
written by hardware interface specialists.

4. Operating System Bugs:

 Program bugs related to the operating system are a combination of hardware
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architecture and interface bugs mostly caused by a misunderstanding of what it is the

operating system does.
 Use operating system interface specialists, and use explicit interface modules or macros
for all operating system calls.
 This approach may not eliminate the bugs but at least will localize them and make
testing easier.

5. Software Architecture:
 Software architecture bugs are the kind that called - interactive.
 Routines can pass unit and integration testing without revealing such bugs.
 Many of them depend on load, and their symptoms emerge only when the system is
stressed.
 Sample for such bugs: Assumption that there will be no interrupts, Failure to block or un
block interrupts, Assumption that memory and registers were initialized or not
initialized etc
 Careful integration of modules and subjecting the final system toa stress test are
effective methods for these bugs.
6. Control and Sequence Bugs (Systems Level):
These bugs include: Ignored timing, Assuming that events occur in a specified sequence,
Working on data before all the data have arrived from disc, Waiting for an impossible
combination of prerequisites, Missing, wrong, redundant or superfluous process steps.
The remedy for these bugs is highly structured sequence
control. Specialize, internal, sequence control mechanisms are
helpful.

7. Resource Management Problems:

 Memory is subdivided into dynamically allocated resources such as buffer blocks, queue
blocks, task control blocks, and overlay buffers.
 External mass storage units such as discs, are subdivided into memory resource pools.
 Some resource management and usage bugs: Required resource not obtained, Wrong
resource used, Resource is already in use, Resource dead lock etc
 Resource Management Remedies: A design remedy that prevents bugs is always
preferable to a test method that discovers them.
 The design remedy in resource management is to keep the resource structure simple:
the fewest different kinds of resources, the fewest pools, and no private resource
management.

8. Integration Bugs:
 Integration bugs are bugs having to do with the integration of, and with the interfaces
between, working and tested components.
 These bugs results from inconsistencies or incompatibilities between components.
 The communication methods include data structures, call sequences, registers,
semaphores, and communication links and protocols results in integration bugs.
 The integration bugs do not constitute a big bug category (9%) they are expensive
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category because they are usually caught late in the game and because they force
changes in several components and/or data structures.

9. System Bugs:
 System bugs covering all kinds of bugs that cannot be ascribed to a component or to
their simple interactions, but result from the totality of interactions between many
components such as programs, data, hardware, and the operating systems.
 There can be no meaningful system testing until there has been thorough component
and integration testing.
 System bugs are infrequent (1.7%) but very important because they are often found
only after the system has been fielded.

TEST AND TEST DESIGN BUGS:

 Testing: testers have no immunity to bugs. Tests require complicated scenarios and
databases.
 They require code or the equivalent to execute and consequently they can have bugs.
 Test criteria: if the specification is correct, it is correctly interpreted and implemented,
and a proper test has been designed; but the criterion by which the software's behavior
is
judged may be incorrect or impossible. So, a proper test criteria has to be designed.
The more complicated the criteria, the likelier they are to have bugs.

Remedies: The remedies of test bugs are:

1. Test Debugging: The first remedy for test bugs is testing and debugging the tests. Test
debugging, when compared to program debugging, is easier because tests, when properly
designed are simpler than programs and do not have to make concessions to efficiency.
2. Test Quality Assurance: Programmers have the right to ask how quality in independent testing
is monitored.
3. Test Execution Automation: The history of software bug removal and prevention is
indistinguishable from the history of programming automation aids. Assemblers, loaders,
compilers are developed to reduce the incidence of programming and operation errors. Test
execution bugs are virtually eliminated by various test execution automation tools.
4. Test Design Automation: Just as much of software development has been automated, much
test design can be and has been automated. For a given productivity rate, automation reduces the
bug count - be it for software or be it for tests.

FLOW GRAPHS AND PATH TESTING

BASICS OF PATH TESTING:

Path Testing:
o Path Testing is the name given to a family of test techniques based on
judiciously selecting a set of test paths through the program.
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o If the set of paths are properly chosen then we have achieved some measure of
test thoroughness. For example, pick enough paths to assure that every source
statement has been executed at least once.
o Path testing techniques are the oldest of all structural test techniques.
o Path testing is most applicable to new software for unit testing. It is a
structural technique.
o It requires complete knowledge of the program's structure.
o It is most often used by programmers to unit test their own code.
o The effectiveness of path testing rapidly deteriorates as the size of the
software aggregate under test increases.

The Bug Assumption:

o The bug assumption for the path testing strategies is that something has
gone wrong with the software that makes it take a different path than
intended.
o As an example "GOTO X" where "GOTO Y" had been intended.
o Structured programming languages prevent many of the bugs targeted by path
testing: as a consequence the effectiveness for path testing for these languages
is reduced and for old code in COBOL, ALP, FORTRAN and Basic, the path testing
is indispensable.

 Control Flow Graphs:

o The control flow graph is a graphical representation of a program's control
structure. It uses the elements named process blocks, decisions, and
junctions.
o The flow graph is similar to the earlier flowchart, with which it is not to be confused.
o Flow Graph Elements: A flow graph contains four different types of elements.
(1) Process Block (2) Decisions (3) Junctions (4) Case Statements
1. Process Block:
 A process block is a sequence of program statements
uninterrupted by either decisions or junctions.
 It is a sequence of statements such that if any one of statement
of the block is executed, then all statement thereof are
executed.
 Formally, a process block is a piece of straight line code of one
statement or hundreds of statements.
 A process has one entry and one exit. It can consists of a single
statement or instruction, a sequence of statements or
instructions, a
single entry/exit subroutine, a macro or function call, or a sequence of
these.

2. Decisions:
 A decision is a program point at which the control flow
can diverge.
16

 Machine language conditional branch and conditional

skip instructions are examples of decisions.
 Most of the decisions are two-way but some are three
way branches in control flow.
3. Case Statements:
 A case statement is a multi-way branch or decisions.
 Examples of case statement are a jump table in assembly
language, and the PASCAL case statement.
 From the point of view of test design, there are no
differences between Decisions and Case Statements
4. Junctions:
 A junction is a point in the program where the control flow
can merge.
 Examples of junctions are: the target of a jump or skip
instruction in ALP, a label that is a target of GOTO.

Figure 2.1: Flow graph Elements

Control Flow Graphs Vs Flowcharts:
o A program's flow chart resembles a control flow graph.
o In flow graphs, we don't show the details of what is in a process block.
o In flow charts every part of the process block is drawn.
o The flowchart focuses on process steps, where as the flow graph focuses on control
flow of the program.
o The act of drawing a control flow graph is a useful tool that can help us clarify the
17

control flow and data flow issues.

Notational Evolution:
The control flow graph is simplified representation of the program's [Link] notation
changes made in creation of control flow graphs:
o The process boxes weren't really needed. There is an implied process on every line
joining junctions and decisions.
o We don't need to know the specifics of the decisions, just the fact that there is a branch.
o The specific target label names aren't important-just the fact that they exist. So we can
replace them by simple numbers.
o To understand this, we will go through an example (Figure 2.2) written in a FORTRAN
like programming language called Programming Design Language (PDL). The program's
corresponding flowchart (Figure 2.3) and flowgraph (Figure 2.4) were also provided
below for better understanding.
o The first step in translating the program to a flowchart is shown in Figure 2.3, where we
have the typical one-for-one classical flowchart. Note that complexity has increased,
clarity has decreased, and that we had to add auxiliary labels (LOOP, XX, and YY), which
have no actual program counterpart. In Figure 2.4 we merged the process steps and
replaced them with the single process box.

o We now have a control flow graph. But this representation is still too busy. We simplify
the notation further to achieve Figure 2.5, where for the first time we can really see
what the control flow looks like.

Figure 2.2: Program Example (PDL)

18

Figure 2.3: One-to-one flowchart for example program in Figure 2.2

19

Figure 2.4: Control Flow graph for example in Figure 2.2

Figure 2.5: Simplified Flow graph Notation

Figure 2.6: Even Simplified Flow graph Notation

The final transformation is shown in Figure 2.6, where we've dropped the node numbers to
achieve an even simpler representation. The way to work with control flow graphs is to use
the simplest possible representation - that is, no more information than you need to correlate
back to the source program or PDL.

LINKED LIST REPRESENTATION:

Although graphical representations of flow graphs are revealing, the details of the control flow inside a
20

program they are often inconvenient.

In linked list representation, each node has a name and there is an entry on the list for each link

in the flow graph. Only the information pertinent to the control flow is shown.
Linked List representation of Flow Graph:

Figure 2.7: Linked List Control Flow graph Notation

FLOWGRAPH - PROGRAM CORRESPONDENCE:

A flow graph is a pictorial representation of a program and not the program itself, just as a topographic
map.
You can’t always associate the parts of a program in a unique way with flow graph parts because
many program structures, such as if-then-else constructs, consists of a combination of decisions,
junctions, and processes.
The translation from a flow graph element to a statement and vice versa is not always unique. (See
Figure 2.8)

Figure 2.8: Alternative Flow graphs for same logic

(Statement "IF (A=0) AND(B=1) THEN . . .").
An improper translation from flow graph to code during coding can lead to bugs, and improper
translation during the test design lead to missing test cases and causes undiscovered bugs.
21

FLOWGRAPH AND FLOWCHART GENERATION:

Flowcharts can be
1. Handwritten by the programmer.
2. Automatically produced by a flowcharting program based on a mechanical analysis
of the source code.
3. Semi automatically produced by a flow charting program based in part on
structural analysis of the source code and in part on directions given by the
programmer.
There are relatively few control flow graph generators.

PATH TESTING - PATHS, NODES AND LINKS:

Path: A path through a program is a sequence of instructions or statements that starts

at an entry, junction, or decision and ends at another, or possibly the same junction,
decision, or exit.
o A path may go through several junctions, processes, or decisions, one or
more times.
o Paths consist of segments.
o The segment is a link - a single process that lies between two nodes.
o A path segment is succession of consecutive links that belongs to some path.
o The length of path measured by the number of links in it and not by the number
of the instructions or statements executed along that path.
o The name of a path is the name of the nodes along the path.

FUNDAMENTAL PATH SELECTION CRITERIA:

There are many paths between the entry and exit of a typical routine.
Every decision doubles the number of potential paths. And every loop multiplies the number of
potential paths by the number of different iteration values possible for the loop.
Defining complete testing:
1. Exercise every path from entry to exit.
2. Exercise every statement or instruction at least once.
3. Exercise every branch and case statement, in each direction at least once.
If prescription 1 is followed then 2 and 3 are automatically followed. But it is impractical for
most routines. It can be done for the routines that have no loops, in which it is equivalent to
2 and 3 prescriptions.
22

EXAMPLE: Here is the correct version.

For X negative, the output is X + A, while for X greater than or equal to zero, the output is X
+ 2A. Following prescription 2 and executing every statement, but not every branch, would
not reveal the bug in the following incorrect version:

A negative value produces the correct answer. Every statement can be executed, but if the test
cases do not force each branch to be taken, the bug can remain hidden. The next example uses
a test based on executing each branch but does not force the execution of all statements:

The hidden loop around label 100 is not revealed by tests based on prescription 3 alone
because no test forces the execution of statement 100 and the following GOTO statement.
Furthermore, label 100 is not flagged by the compiler as an unreferenced label and the
subsequent GOTO does not refer to an undefined label.

A Static Analysis (that is, an analysis based on examining the source code or structure) cannot
determine whether a piece of code is or is not reachable. There could be subroutine calls with
parameters that are subroutine labels, or in the above example there could be a GOTO that
targeted label 100 but could never achieve a value that would send the program to that label.

Only a Dynamic Analysis (that is, an analysis based on the code's behavior while running -
which is to say, to all intents and purposes, testing) can determine whether code is reachable or
not and therefore distinguish between the ideal structure we think we have and the actual,
buggy structure.
23

PATH TESTING CRITERIA:

Any testing strategy based on paths must at least both exercise every instruction and take
branches in all directions.
A set of tests that does this is not complete in an absolute sense, but it is complete in the sense that
anything less must leave something untested.
So we have explored three different testing criteria or strategies out of a potentially infinite family of
strategies.

i. Path Testing (Pinf):

1. Execute all possible control flow paths through the program: typically, this is
restricted to all possible entry/exit paths through the program.
2. If we achieve this prescription, we are said to have achieved 100% path coverage.
This is the strongest criterion in the path testing strategy family: it is generally
impossible to achieve.

ii. Statement Testing (P1):

1. Execute all statements in the program at least once under some test. If we do
enough tests to achieve this, we are said to have achieved 100% statement
coverage.
2. An alternate equivalent characterization is to say that we have achieved 100% node
coverage. We denote this by C1.
3. This is the weakest criterion in the family: testing less than this for new software is
unconscionable (unprincipled or cannot be accepted) and should be criminalized.

iii. Branch Testing (P2):

1. Execute enough tests to assure that every branch alternative has been exercised at least
once under some test.
2. If we do enough tests to achieve this prescription, then we have achieved 100% branch
coverage.
3. An alternative characterization is to say that we have achieved 100% link coverage.
4. For structured software, branch testing and therefore branch coverage strictly includes
statement coverage.
5. We denote branch coverage by C2.

Commonsense and Strategies:

Branch and statement coverage are accepted today as the minimum mandatory testing
requirement.
The question "why not use a judicious sampling of paths?, what is wrong with leaving
some code, untested?" is ineffectual in the view of common sense and experience since:
(1.) Not testing a piece of a code leaves a residue of bugs in the program in proportion
to the size of the untested code and the probability of bugs. (2.) The high probability
paths are always thoroughly tested if only to demonstrate that the system works
24

properly.
Which paths to be tested? You must pick enough paths to achieve C1+C2. The question
of what is the fewest number of such paths is interesting to the designer of test tools
that help automate the path testing, but it is not crucial to the pragmatic (practical)
design of tests. It is better to make many simple paths than a few complicated paths.

Path Selection Example:

Figure 2.9: An example flow graph to explain path selection

Practical Suggestions in Path Testing:

1. Draw the control flow graph on a single sheet of paper.

2. Make several copies - as many as you will need for coverage (C1+C2) and several more.
3. Use a yellow highlighting marker to trace paths. Copy the paths onto master sheets.
4. Continue tracing paths until all lines on the master sheet are covered, indicating that
you appear to have achieved C1+C2.
5. As you trace the paths, create a table that shows the paths, the coverage status of each
process, and each decision.
6. The above paths lead to the following table considering Figure 2.9:
25

7. After you have traced a covering path set on the master sheet and filled in the table
for every path, check the following:
1. Does every decision have a YES and a NO in its column? (C2)
2. Has every case of all case statements been marked? (C2)
3. Is every three - way branch (less, equal, greater) covered? (C2)
4. Is every link (process) covered at least once? (C1)
8. Revised Path Selection Rules:
 Pick the simplest, functionally sensible entry/exit path.
 Pick additional paths as small variation from previous paths. Pick paths that do not
have loops rather than paths that do. Favor short paths that make sense over paths
that don't.
 Pick additional paths that have no obvious functional meaning only if it's necessary to
provide coverage.
 Be comfortable with your chosen paths. Play your hunches (guesses) and give your
intuition free reign as long as you achieve C1+C2.
 Don't follow rules slavishly (blindly) - except for coverage.

LOOPS:

Cases for a single loop: A Single loop can be covered with two cases: Looping and Not looping.
But, experience shows that many loop-related bugs are not discovered by C1+C2. Bugs hide
themselves in corners and congregate at boundaries - in the cases of loops, at or around the
minimum or maximum number of times the loop can be iterated. The minimum number of
iterations is often zero, but it need not be.

CASE 1: Single loop, Zero minimum, N maximum, No excluded values

1. Try bypassing the loop (zero iterations). If you can't, you either have a bug, or zero is not
the minimum and you have the wrong case.
2. Could the loop-control variable be negative? Could it appear to specify a negative number
of iterations? What happens to such a value?
3. One pass through the loop.
4. Two passes through the loop.
5. A typical number of iterations, unless covered by a previous test.
6. One less than the maximum number of iterations.
7. The maximum number of iterations.
8. Attempt one more than the maximum number of iterations. What prevents the loop-
control variable from having this value? What will happen with this value if it is forced?

CASE 2: Single loop, Non-zero minimum, No excluded values

1. Try one less than the expected minimum. What happens if the loop control variable's
value is less than the minimum? What prevents the value from being less than the
minimum?
26

2. The minimum number of iterations.

3. One more than the minimum number of iterations.
4. Once, unless covered by a previous test.
5. Twice, unless covered by a previous test.
6. A typical value.
7. One less than the maximum value.
8. The maximum number of iterations.
9. Attempt one more than the maximum number of iterations.

CASE 3: Single loops with excluded values

Treat single loops with excluded values as two sets of tests consisting of loops without
excluded values, such as case 1 and 2 above.
Example, the total range of the loop control variable was 1 to 20, but that values 7, 8,9,10
were excluded. The two sets of tests are 1-6 and 11-20.
The test cases to attempt would be 0,1,2,4,6,7 for the first range and 10,11,15,19,20,21
for the second range.

Kinds of Loops: There are only three kinds of loops with respect to path testing:

Nested Loops:
The number of tests to be performed on nested loops will be the exponent of the tests
performed on single [Link] we cannot always afford to test all combinations of nested
loops' iterations values. Here's a tactic used to discard some of these values:
1. Start at the inner most loop. Set all the outer loops to their minimum values.
2. Test the minimum, minimum+1, typical, maximum-1 , and maximum for the
innermost loop, while holding the outer loops at their minimum iteration parameter
values. Expand the tests as required for out of range and excluded values.
3. If you've done the outmost loop, GOTO step 5, else move out one loop and set it up as
in step 2 with all other loops set to typical values.
4. Continue outward in this manner until all loops have been covered.
5. Do all the cases for all loops in the nest simultaneously.

Concatenated Loops:
Concatenated loops fall between single and nested loops with respect to test cases. Two
loops are concatenated if it's possible to reach one after exiting the other while still on a
path from entrance to exit.
If the loops cannot be on the same path, then they are not concatenated and can be
treated as individual loops.

Horrible Loops:
A horrible loop is a combination of nested loops, the use of code that jumps into and out
of loops, intersecting loops, hidden loops, and cross connected loops.
Makes iteration value selection for test cases an awesome and ugly task, which is another
reason such structures should be avoided.
27

Figure 2.10: Example of Loop types

Loop Testing Time:

Any kind of loop can lead to long testing time, especially if all the extreme value cases are to
attempted
(Max-1, Max, Max+1).
This situation is obviously worse for nested and dependent concatenated loops.
Consider nested loops in which testing the combination of extreme values lead to long
test times. Several options to deal with:
Prove that the combined extreme cases are hypothetically possible, they are not possible
in the real world
28

Put in limits or checks that prevent the combined extreme cases. Then you have to test
the software that implements such safety measures.

PREDICATES, PATH PREDICATES AND ACHIEVABLE PATHS:

PREDICATE: The logical function evaluated at a decision is called Predicate. The direction taken
at a decision depends on the value of decision variable. Some examples are: A>0, x+y>=90.......

PATH PREDICATE: A predicate associated with a path is called a Path Predicate. For example, "x
is greater than zero", "x+y>=90", "w is either negative or equal to 10 is true" is a sequence of
predicates whose truth values will cause the routine to take a specific path.

MULTIWAY BRANCHES:
The path taken through a multiway branch such as a computed GOTO's, case statement, or
jump tables cannot be directly expressed in TRUE/FALSE terms.
Although, it is possible to describe such alternatives by using multi valued logic, an
expedient (practical approach) is to express multiway branches as an equivalent set of
if..then..else statements.
For example a three way case statement can be written as: If case=1 DO A1 ELSE (IF Case=2
DO A2 ELSE DO A3 ENDIF)ENDIF.

INPUTS:
In testing, the word input is not restricted to direct inputs, such as variables in a subroutine
call, but includes all data objects referenced by the routine whose values are fixed prior to
entering it.
For example, inputs in a calling sequence, objects in a data structure, values left in
registers, or any combination of object types.
The input for a particular test is mapped as a one dimensional array called as an Input
Vector.

PREDICATE INTERPRETATION:
The simplest predicate depends only on input variables.
For example if x1,x2 are inputs, the predicate might be x1+x2>=7, given the values of x1
and x2 the direction taken through the decision is based on the predicate is determined at
input time and does not depend on processing.
Another example, assume a predicate x1+y>=0 that along a path prior to reaching this
predicate we had the assignment statement y=x2+7. although our predicate depends on
processing, we can substitute the symbolic expression for y to obtain an equivalent
predicate x1+x2+7>=0.
The act of symbolic substitution of operations along the path in order to express the
predicate solely in terms of the input vector is called predicate interpretation.
Sometimes the interpretation may depend on the path; for
29

example, INPUT X
ON X GOTO A, B, C, ...
A: Z := 7 @ GOTO HEM B:
Z := - 7 @ GOTO HEM C: Z
:= 0 @ GOTO HEM
.........
HEM: DO SOMETHING
.........
HEN: IF Y + Z > 0 GOTO ELL ELSE GOTO EMM
The predicate interpretation at HEN depends on the path we took through the first multiway
branch. It yields for the three cases respectively, if Y+7>0, Y-7>0, Y>0.
The path predicates are the specific form of the predicates of the decisions along the
selected path after interpretation.

INDEPENDENCE OF VARIABLES AND PREDICATES:

The path predicates take on truth values based on the values of input variables, either
directly or indirectly.
If a variable's value does not change as a result of processing, that variable is independent
of the processing.
If the variable's value can change as a result of the processing, the variable is process
dependent.
A predicate whose truth value can change as a result of the processing is said to be
process dependent and one whose truth value does not change as a result of the
processing is process independent.
Process dependence of a predicate does not always follow from dependence of the input
variables on which that predicate is based.
CORRELATION OF VARIABLES AND PREDICATES:
Two variables are correlated if every combination of their values cannot be
independently specified. Variables whose values can be specified independently
without restriction are called uncorrelated.
A pair of predicates whose outcomes depend on one or more variables in common are said to
be correlated predicates.
For example, the predicate X==Y is followed by another predicate X+Y == 8. If we select X and
Y values to satisfy the first predicate, we might have forced the 2nd predicate's truth value to
change.
Every path through a routine is achievable only if all the predicates in that routine are
uncorrelated.
PATH PREDICATE EXPRESSIONS:
A path predicate expression is a set of boolean expressions, all of which must be satisfied
to achieve the selected path.
Example:
X1+3X2+17>=0
X3=17 X4-
X1>=14X2
30

Any set of input values that satisfy all of the conditions of the path predicate expression
will force the routine to the path.
Sometimes a predicate can have an OR in it.
Example:
A: X5 > 0 E: X6 < 0
B: X1 + 3X2 + 17 B: X1 + 3X2 + 17
>= 0 >= 0
C: X3 = 17 C: X3 = 17
D: X4 - X1 >= D: X4 - X1 >=
14X2 14X2
Boolean algebra notation to denote the boolean expression:
ABCD+EBCD=(A+E)BCD

PREDICATE COVERAGE:
Compound Predicate: Predicates of the form A OR B, A AND B and more complicated
Boolean expressions are called as compound predicates.
Sometimes even a simple predicate becomes compound after interpretation. Example: the
predicate if (x=17) whose opposite branch is if [Link].17 which is equivalent to x>17. Or.
X<17.
Predicate coverage is being the achieving of all possible combinations of truth values
corresponding to the selected path have been explored under some test.
As achieving the desired direction at a given decision could still hide bugs in the associated
predicates

TESTING BLINDNESS:
Testing Blindness is a pathological (harmful) situation in which the desired path is achieved
for the wrong reason.
There are three types of Testing Blindness:

Assignment Blindness:
o Assignment blindness occurs when the buggy predicate appears to work correctly
because the specific value chosen for an assignment statement works with both the
correct and incorrect predicate.
o For Example:
Correct Buggy
X = 7 X = 7
........ ........
if Y > 0 if X+Y > 0
then ... then ...
o If the test case sets Y=1 the desired path is taken in either case, but there is still a bug.
Equality Blindness:
o Equality blindness occurs when the path selected by a prior predicate results in a value
31

that works both for the correct and buggy predicate.

o For Example:
Correct Buggy
if Y = 2 then if Y = 2 then
........ ........
if X+Y > 3 if X > 1
then ... then ...
o The first predicate if y=2 forces the rest of the path, so that for any positive value of x. the
path taken at the second predicate will be the same for the correct and buggy version.

Self Blindness:
o Self blindness occurs when the buggy predicate is a multiple of the correct predicate and as
a result is indistinguishable along that path.
o For Example:

Correct Buggy
X=A X=A
........ ........
if X-1 > 0 if X+A-2 > 0
then ... then ...
1. The assignment (x=a) makes the predicates multiples of each other, so the direction taken is
the same for the correct and buggy version.

PATH SENSITIZING:

o Review: achievable and unachievable paths:

1. We want to select and test enough paths to achieve a satisfactory notion of test
completeness such as C1+C2.
2. Extract the programs control flow graph and select a set of tentative covering paths.
3. For any path in that set, interpret the predicates along the path as needed to express them
in terms of the input vector. In general individual predicates are compound or may
become compound as a result of interpretation.
4. Trace the path through, multiplying the individual compound predicates to achieve a
boolean expression such as
(A+BC) (D+E) (FGH) (IJ) (K) (l) (L).
5. Multiply out the expression to achieve a sum of products form:
ADFGHIJKL+AEFGHIJKL+BCDFGHIJKL+BCEFGHIJKL
6. Each product term denotes a set of inequalities that if solved will yield an input vector that
will drive the routine along the designated path.
7. Solve any one of the inequality sets for the chosen path and you have found a set of input
values for the path.
8. If you can find a solution, then the path is achievable.
9. If you can’t find a solution to any of the sets of inequalities, the path is un achievable.
10. The act of finding a set of solutions to the path predicate expression is called PATH
SENSITIZATION.
32

o HEURISTIC PROCEDURES FOR SENSITIZING PATHS:

1. This is a workable approach, instead of selecting the paths without considering how to
sensitize, attempt to choose a covering path set that is easy to sensitize and pick hard to
sensitize paths only as you must to achieve coverage.
2. Identify all variables that affect the decision.
3. Classify the predicates as dependent or independent.
4. Start the path selection with un correlated, independent predicates.
5. If coverage has not been achieved using independent uncorrelated predicates, extend the
path set using correlated predicates.
6. If coverage has not been achieved extend the cases to those that involve dependent
predicates.
7. Last, use correlated, dependent predicates.

PATH INSTRUMENTATION:

1. Path instrumentation is what we have to do to confirm that the outcome was achieved by
the intended path.
2. Co-incidental Correctness: The coincidental correctness stands for achieving the desired
outcome for wrong reason.

Figure 2.11: Coincidental Correctness

The above figure is an example of a routine that, for the (unfortunately) chosen input value (X
= 16), yields the same outcome (Y = 2) no matter which case we select. Therefore, the tests
chosen this way will not tell us whether we have achieved coverage. For example, the five
cases could be totally jumbled and still the outcome would be the same. Path Instrumentation
is what we have to do to confirm that the outcome was achieved by the intended path.
The types of instrumentation methods include:
33

1. Interpretive Trace Program:

o An interpretive trace program is one that executes every statement in order and
records the intermediate values of all calculations, the statement labels traversed etc.
o If we run the tested routine under a trace, then we have all the information we need to
confirm the outcome and, furthermore, to confirm that it was achieved by the intended
path.
o The trouble with traces is that they give us far more information than we need. In fact,
the typical trace program provides so much information that confirming the path from
its massive output dump is more work than simulating the computer by hand to
confirm the path.

2. Traversal Marker or Link Marker:

o A simple and effective form of instrumentation is called a traversal marker or link marker.
o Name every link by a lower case letter.
o Instrument the links so that the link's name is recorded when the link is executed.
o The succession of letters produced in going from the routine's entry to its exit should, if
there are no bugs, exactly correspond to the path name.

Figure 2.12: Single Link Marker Instrumentation

o Why Single Link Markers aren't enough: Unfortunately, a single link marker may not do
the trick because links can be chewed by open bugs.

Figure 2.13: Why Single Link Markers aren't enough.

34

We intended to traverse the ikm path, but because of a rampaging GOTO in the middle of
the m link, we go to process B. If coincidental correctness is against us, the outcomes will
be the same and we won't know about the bug.

Two Link Marker Method:

The solution to the problem of single link marker method is to implement two markers
per link: one at the beginning of each link and on at the end.
The two link markers now specify the path name and confirm both the beginning and end of the
link.

Figure 2.14: Double Link Marker Instrumentation

Link Counter: A less disruptive (and less informative) instrumentation method is based
on counters. Instead of a unique link name to be pushed into a string when the link is
traversed, we simply increment a link counter. We now confirm that the path length is as
expected. The same problem that led us to double link markers also leads us to double
link counters.
Need of Black box and White box testing

1. Black Box Testing is a software testing method in which the internal structure/design/implementation
of the item being tested is not known to the tester. Only the external design and structure are tested.
2. White Box Testing is a software testing method in which the internal
structure/design/implementation of the item being tested is known to the tester. Implementation and
impact of the code are tested.

Black box testing and white box testing are two different approaches to software testing, and
their differences are as follows:

Black box testing is a testing technique in which the internal workings of the software are not known to
the tester. The tester only focuses on the input and output of the software. Whereas, White box testing
35

is a testing technique in which the tester has knowledge of the internal workings of the software, and can
test individual code snippets, algorithms and methods.
Testing objectives: Black box testing is mainly focused on testing the functionality of the software,
ensuring that it meets the requirements and specifications. White box testing is mainly focused on
ensuring that the internal code of the software is correct and efficient.
Knowledge level: Black box testing does not require any knowledge of the internal workings of the
software, and can be performed by testers who are not familiar with programming languages. White box
testing requires knowledge of programming languages, software architecture and design patterns.
Testing methods: Black box testing uses methods like equivalence partitioning, boundary value analysis,
and error guessing to create test cases. Whereas, white box testing uses methods like control flow
testing, data flow testing and statement coverage.
Scope: Black box testing is generally used for testing the software at the functional level. White box
testing is used for testing the software at the unit level, integration level and system level.
Advantages and disadvantages:
Black box testing is easy to use, requires no programming knowledge and is effective in detecting
functional issues. However, it may miss some important internal defects that are not related to
functionality. White box testing is effective in detecting internal defects, and ensures that the code is
efficient and maintainable. However, it requires programming knowledge and can be time-consuming.
In conclusion, both black box testing and white box testing are important for software testing, and the
choice of approach depends on the testing objectives, the testing stage, and the available resources.
Differences between Black Box Testing vs White Box Testing:
Black Box Testing White Box Testing

It is a way of testing the software in which the

It is a way of software testing in which the
tester has knowledge about the internal
internal structure or the program or the code
structure or the code or the program of the
is hidden and nothing is known about it.
software.

Implementation of code is not needed for Code implementation is necessary for white
black box testing. box testing.

It is mostly done by software testers. It is mostly done by software developers.

No knowledge of implementation is needed. Knowledge of implementation is required.

It can be referred to as outer or external

It is the inner or the internal software testing.
software testing.

It is a functional test of the software. It is a structural test of the software.

This testing can be initiated based on the This type of testing of software is started after a
36

Black Box Testing White Box Testing

requirement specifications document. detail design document.

It is mandatory to have knowledge of

No knowledge of programming is required.
programming.

It is the behavior testing of the software. It is the logic testing of the software.

It is applicable to the higher levels of testing It is generally applicable to the lower levels of
of software. software testing.

It is also called closed testing. It is also called as clear box testing.

It is least time consuming. It is most time consuming.

It is not suitable or preferred for algorithm

It is suitable for algorithm testing.
testing.

Can be done by trial and error ways and Data domains along with inner or internal
methods. boundaries can be better tested.

Example: Search something on google by

Example: By input to check and verify loops
using keywords

Black-box test design techniques-

White-box test design techniques-
 Decision table testing
 Control flow testing
 All-pairs testing
 Data flow testing
 Equivalence partitioning
 Branch testing
 Error guessing

Types of Black Box Testing: Types of White Box Testing:

 Functional Testing  Path Testing
 Non-functional testing  Loop Testing
 Regression Testing  Condition testing

It is less exhaustive as compared to white It is comparatively more exhaustive than black

box testing. box testing.
37

UNIT II
TRANSACTION FLOW TESTING AND DATA FLOW TESTING
Transaction Flow Testing:-transaction flows, transaction flow testing
techniques. Dataflow testing:- Basics of dataflow testing, strategies in
dataflow testing, application of dataflow testing, Validation activities: Unit
testing, Integration Testing.

INTRODUCTION

o A transaction is a unit of work seen from a system user's point of view.

o A transaction consists of a sequence of operations, some of which are performed
by a system, persons or devices that are outside of the system.
o Transaction begins with Birth-that is they are created as a result of some external
act.
o At the conclusion of the transaction's processing, the transaction is no longer in
the system.
o Example of a transaction: A transaction for an online information retrieval
system might consist of the following steps or tasks:
 Accept input (tentative birth)
 Validate input (birth)
 Transmit acknowledgement to requester
 Do input processing
 Search file
 Request directions from user
 Accept input
 Validate input
 Process request
 Update file
 Transmit output
 Record transaction in log and clean up (death)

TRANSACTION FLOW GRAPHS:

o Transaction flows are introduced as a representation of a system's processing.

o The methods that were applied to control flow graphs are then used for
functional testing.
o Transaction flows and transaction flow testing are to the independent system
tester what control flows are path testing are to the programmer.
o The transaction flow graph is to create a behavioral model of the program that
leads to functional testing.
o The transaction flowgraph is a model of the structure of the system's behavior
(functionality).
o An example of a Transaction Flow is as follows:
38

Figure 3.1: An Example of a Transaction Flow

USAGE:
o Transaction flows are indispensable for specifying requirements of complicated
systems, especially online systems.
o A big system such as an air traffic control or airline reservation system, has not
hundreds, but thousands of different transaction flows.
o The flows are represented by relatively simple flowgraphs, many of which have a
single straight-through path.
o Loops are infrequent compared to control flowgraphs.
o The most common loop is used to request a retry after user input errors. An ATM
system, for example, allows the user to try, say three times, and will take the
card away the fourth time.

COMPLICATIONS:
o In simple cases, the transactions have a unique identity from the time they're
created to the time they're completed.
o In many systems the transactions can give birth to others, and transactions can
also merge.
o Births: There are three different possible interpretations of the decision symbol,
or nodes with two or more out links. It can be a Decision, Biosis or a Mitosis.
1. Decision: Here the transaction will take one alternative or the other
alternative but not both. (See Figure 3.2 (a))
2. Biosis: Here the incoming transaction gives birth to a new transaction,
and both transaction continue on their separate paths, and the parent
retains it identity. (See Figure 3.2 (b))
3. Mitosis: Here the parent transaction is destroyed and two new
transactions are created.(See Figure 3.2 (c))
39

Figure 3.2: Nodes with multiple outlinks

Mergers: Transaction flow junction points are potentially as troublesome as transaction flow
splits. There are three types of junctions: (1) Ordinary Junction (2) Absorption (3) Conjugation
1 Ordinary Junction: An ordinary junction which is similar to the junction in a control flow
graph. A transaction can arrive either on one link or the other. (See Figure 3.3 (a))
2 Absorption: In absorption case, the predator transaction absorbs prey transaction. The
prey gone but the predator retains its identity. (See Figure 3.3 (b))
3 Conjugation: In conjugation case, the two parent transactions merge to form a new
daughter. In keeping with the biological flavor this case is called as conjugation.(See Figure
3.3 (c))

Figure 3.3: Transaction Flow Junctions and Mergers

We have no problem with ordinary decisions and junctions. Births, absorptions, and
conjugations are as problematic for the software designer as they are for the software modeler
and the test designer; as a consequence, such points have more than their share of bugs. The
common problems are: lost daughters, wrongful deaths, and illegitimate births.

TRANSACTION FLOW TESTING TECHNIQUES:

GET THE TRANSACTIONS FLOWS:

o Complicated systems that process a lot of different, complicated transactions
should have explicit representations of the transactions flows, or the equivalent.
o Transaction flows are like control flow graphs, and consequently we should
expect to have them in increasing levels of detail.
o The system's design documentation should contain an overview section that
details the main transaction flows.
o Detailed transaction flows are a mandatory pre requisite to the rational design
of a system's functional test.

INSPECTIONS, REVIEWS AND WALKTHROUGHS:

o Transaction flows are natural agenda for system reviews or inspections.
40

o In conducting the walkthroughs, you should:

Discuss enough transaction types to account for 98%-99% of the

transaction the system is expected to process.
Discuss paths through flows in functional rather than technical terms.
Ask the designers to relate every flow to the specification and to show
how that transaction, directly or indirectly, follows from the
requirements.
o Make transaction flow testing the corner stone of system functional testing just
as path testing is the corner stone of unit testing.
o Select additional flow paths for loops, extreme values, and domain boundaries.
o Design more test cases to validate all births and deaths.
o Publish and distribute the selected test paths through the transaction flows as
early as possible so that they will exert the maximum beneficial effect on the
project.

PATH SELECTION:
o Select a set of covering paths (c1+c2) using the analogous criteria you used for
structural path testing.
o Select a covering set of paths based on functionally sensible transactions as you
would for control flow graphs.
o Try to find the most tortuous, longest, strangest path from the entry to the exit
of the transaction flow.

PATH SENSITIZATION:
o Most of the normal paths are very easy to sensitize-80% - 95% transaction flow
coverage (c1+c2) is usually easy to achieve.
o The remaining small percentage is often very difficult.
o Sensitization is the act of defining the transaction. If there are sensitization
problems on the easy paths, then bet on either a bug in transaction flows or a
design bug.

PATH INSTRUMENTATION:
o Instrumentation plays a bigger role in transaction flow testing than in unit path
testing.
o The information of the path taken for a given transaction must be kept with that
transaction and can be recorded by a central transaction dispatcher or by the
individual processing modules.
o In some systems, such traces are provided by the operating systems or a running
log.

BASICS OF DATA FLOW TESTING:

DATA FLOW TESTING:

o Data flow testing is the name given to a family of test strategies based on
selecting paths through the program's control flow in order to explore sequences
41

of events related to the status of data objects.

o For example, pick enough paths to assure that every data object has been
initialized prior to use or that all defined objects have been used for something.
o Motivation: It is our belief that, just as one would not feel confident about a
program without executing every statement in it as part of some test, one should
not feel confident about a program without having seen the effect of using the value produced by
each and every computation.

DATA FLOW MACHINES:

o There are two types of data flow machines with different architectures. (1) Von
Neumann machines (2) Multi-instruction, multi-data machines (MIMD).
o Von Neumann Machine Architecture:
Most computers today are von-neumann machines.
This architecture features interchangeable storage of instructions and
data in the same memory units.
The Von Neumann machine Architecture executes one instruction at a
time in the following, micro instruction sequence:
 Fetch instruction from memory
 Interpret instruction
 Fetch operands
 Process or Execute
 Store result
 Increment program counter
 GOTO 1
o Multi-instruction, Multi-data machines (MIMD) Architecture:
These machines can fetch several instructions and objects in parallel.
They can also do arithmetic and logical operations simultaneously on
different data objects.
The decision of how to sequence them depends on the compiler.

BUG ASSUMPTION:
The bug assumption for data-flow testing strategies is that control flow is generally
correct and that something has gone wrong with the software so that data objects are
not available when they should be, or silly things are being done to data objects.
o Also, if there is a control-flow problem, we expect it to have symptoms that can
be detected by data-flow analysis.
o Although we'll be doing data-flow testing, we won't be using data flow graphs as
such. Rather, we'll use an ordinary control flow graph annotated to show what
happens to the data objects of interest at the moment.

DATA FLOW GRAPHS:

o The data flow graph is a graph consisting of nodes and directed links.
o We will use a control graph to show what happens to data objects of interest at
that moment.
o Our objective is to expose deviations between the data flows we have and the
data flows we want.
42

Figure 3.4: Example of a data flow graph

o Data Object State and Usage:

Data Objects can be created, killed and used.
They can be used in two distinct ways: (1) In a Calculation (2) As a part of
a Control Flow Predicate.
The following symbols denote these possibilities:
1. Defined: d - defined, created, initialized etc
2. Killed or undefined: k - killed, undefined, released etc
3. Usage: u - used for something (c - used in Calculations, p - used in
a predicate)
1. Defined (d):
 An object is defined explicitly when it appears in a data
declaration.
 Or implicitly when it appears on the left hand side of the
assignment.
 It is also to be used to mean that a file has been opened.
 A dynamically allocated object has been allocated.
 Something is pushed on to the stack.
 A record written.
2. Killed or Undefined (k):
 An object is killed on undefined when it is released or otherwise
made unavailable.
43

 When its contents are no longer known with certitude (with

absolute certainty / perfectness).
 Release of dynamically allocated objects back to the availability
pool.
 Return of records.
 The old top of the stack after it is popped.
 An assignment statement can kill and redefine immediately. For
example, if A had been previously defined and we do a new
assignment such as A : = 17, we have killed A's previous value and
redefined A
3. Usage (u):
 A variable is used for computation (c) when it appears on the right
hand side of an assignment statement.
 A file record is read or written.
 It is used in a Predicate (p) when it appears directly in a predicate.

DATA FLOW ANOMALIES:

An anomaly is denoted by a two-character sequence of actions. For example, ku means that the
object is killed and then used, where as dd means that the object is defined twice without an
intervening usage.
What is an anomaly is depend on the application.
There are nine possible two-letter combinations for d, k and u. some are bugs, some are
suspicious, and some are okay.

1 dd :- probably harmless but suspicious. Why define the object twice without an intervening
usage?
2 dk :- probably a bug. Why define the object without using it?
3 du :- the normal case. The object is defined and then used.
4 kd :- normal situation. An object is killed and then redefined.
5 kk :- harmless but probably buggy. Did you want to be sure it was really killed?
6 ku :- a bug. the object doesnot exist.
7 ud :- usually not a bug because the language permits reassignment at almost any time.
8 uk :- normal situation.
9 uu :- normal situation.

In addition to the two letter situations, there are six single letter [Link] will use a
leading dash to mean that nothing of interest (d,k,u) occurs prior to the action noted along the
entry-exit path of interest.
A trailing dash to mean that nothing happens after the point of interest to the exit.
They possible anomalies are:
1 -k :- possibly anomalous because from the entrance to this point on the path, the
variable had not been defined. We are killing a variable that does not exist.
2 -d :- okay. This is just the first definition along this path.
3 -u :- possibly anomalous. Not anomalous if the variable is global and has been
previously defined.
44

4 k- :- not anomalous. The last thing done on this path was to kill the variable.
5 d- :- possibly anomalous. The variable was defined and not used on this path. But
this could be a global definition.
6 u- :- not anomalous. The variable was used but not killed on this path. Although
this sequence is not anomalous, it signals a frequent kind of bug. If d and k mean
dynamic storage allocation and return respectively, this could be an instance in
which a dynamically allocated object was not returned to the pool after use.

DATA FLOW ANOMALY STATE GRAPH:

Data flow anomaly model prescribes that an object can be in one of four distinct states:
0. K :- undefined, previously killed, doesnot exist
1. D :- defined but not yet used for anything
2. U :- has been used for computation or in predicate
3. A :- anomalous
These capital letters (K, D, U, A) denote the state of the variable and should not be confused
with the program action, denoted by lower case letters.
Unforgiving Data - Flow Anomaly Flow Graph: Unforgiving model, in which once a variable becomes
anomalous it can never return to a state of grace.

Figure 3.5: Unforgiving Data Flow Anomaly State Graph

Assume that the variable starts in the K state - that is, it has not been defined or does not exist.
If an attempt is made to use it or to kill it (e.g., say that we're talking about opening, closing,
and using files and that 'killing' means closing), the object's state becomes anomalous (state A)
and, once it is anomalous, no action can return the variable to a working state.

If it is defined (d), it goes into the D, or defined but not yet used, state. If it has been defined (D)
and redefined (d) or killed without use (k), it becomes anomalous, while usage (u) brings it to
the U state. If in U, redefinition (d) brings it to D, u keeps it in U, and k kills it.

Forgiving Data - Flow Anomaly Flow Graph: Forgiving model is an alternate model where
redemption (recover) from the anomalous state is possible
45

Figure 3.6: Forgiving Data Flow Anomaly State Graph

This graph has three normal and three anomalous states and he considers the kk sequence not
to be anomalous. The difference between this state graph and Figure 3.5 is that redemption is
possible. A proper action from any of the three anomalous states returns the variable to a useful
working state.

The point of showing you this alternative anomaly state graph is to demonstrate that the
specifics of an anomaly depends on such things as language, application, context, or even your
frame of mind. In principle, you must create a new definition of data flow anomaly (e.g., a new
state graph) in each situation. You must at least verify that the anomaly definition behind the
theory or imbedded in a data flow anomaly test tool is appropriate to your situation.

STATIC Vs DYNAMIC ANOMALY DETECTION:

Static analysis is analysis done on source code without actually executing it. For example: source
code syntax error detection is the static analysis result.

Dynamic analysis is done on the fly as the program is being executed and is based on
intermediate values that result from the program's execution. For example: a division by zero
warning is the dynamic result.

If a problem, such as a data flow anomaly, can be detected by static analysis methods, then it
doesn’t belongs in testing - it belongs in the language processor.
There is actually a lot more static analysis for data flow analysis for data flow anomalies going
on in current language processors.

For example, language processors which force variable declarations can detect (-u) and (ku)
[Link] still there are many things for which current notions of static analysis are
INADEQUATE.

Why Static Analysis isn't enough? There are many things for which current notions of static
46

analysis are inadequate. They are:

Dead Variables: Although it is often possible to prove that a variable is dead or alive at a
given point in the program, the general problem is unsolvable.

Arrays: Arrays are problematic in that the array is defined or killed as a single object, but
reference is to specific locations within the array. Array pointers are usually dynamically
calculated, so there's no way to do a static analysis to validate the pointer value. In many
languages, dynamically allocated arrays contain garbage unless explicitly initialized and
therefore, -u anomalies are possible.

Records and Pointers: The array problem and the difficulty with pointers is a special case of
multipart data structures. We have the same problem with records and the pointers to
them. Also, in many applications we create files and their names dynamically and there's no
way to determine, without execution, whether such objects are in the proper state on a
given path or, for that matter, whether they exist at all.

Dynamic Subroutine and Function Names in a Call: subroutine or function name is a

dynamic variable in a call. What is passed, or a combination of subroutine names and data
objects, is constructed on a specific path. There's no way, without executing the path, to
determine whether the call is correct or not.

False Anomalies: Anomalies are specific to paths. Even a "clear bug" such as ku may not be
a bug if the path along which the anomaly exist is unachievable. Such "anomalies" are false
anomalies. Unfortunately, the problem of determining whether a path is or is not
achievable is unsolvable.

Recoverable Anomalies and Alternate State Graphs: What constitutes an anomaly depends
on context, application, and semantics. How does the compiler know which model I have in
mind? It can't because the definition of "anomaly" is not fundamental. The language
processor must have a built-in anomaly definition with which you may or may not (with
good reason) agree.

Concurrency, Interrupts, System Issues: As soon as we get away from the simple single-
task uniprocessor environment and start thinking in terms of systems, most anomaly issues
become vastly more complicated.
How often do we define or create data objects at an interrupt level so that they can be
processed by a lower- priority routine? Interrupts can make the "correct" anomalous and
the "anomalous" correct. True concurrency (as in an MIMD machine) and pseudo
concurrency (as in multiprocessing) systems can do the same to us. Much of integration and
system testing is aimed at detecting data-flow anomalies that cannot be detected in the
context of a single routine.
Although static analysis methods have limits, they are worth using and a continuing trend in
language processor design has been better static analysis methods, especially for data flow
anomaly detection. That's good because it means there's less for us to do as testers and we
have far too much to do as it is.
47

DATA FLOW MODEL:

The data flow model is based on the program's control flow graph - Don't confuse that with the
program's data flow graph.
Here we annotate each link with symbols (for example, d, k, u, c, and p) or sequences of
symbols (for example, dd, du, ddd) that denote the sequence of data operations on that link
with respect to the variable of interest. Such annotations are called link weights.
The control flow graph structure is same for every variable: it is the weights that change.

Components of the model:

1. To every statement there is a node, whose name is unique. Every node has at least one
outlink and at least one inlink except for exit nodes and entry nodes.
2. Exit nodes are dummy nodes placed at the outgoing arrowheads of exit statements (e.g.,
END, RETURN), to complete the graph. Similarly, entry nodes are dummy nodes placed
at entry statements (e.g., BEGIN) for the same reason.
3. The outlink of simple statements (statements with only one outlink) are weighted by the
proper sequence of data-flow actions for that statement. Note that the sequence can
consist of more than one letter. For example, the assignment statement A:= A + B in
most languages is weighted by cd or possibly ckd for variable A. Languages that permit
multiple simultaneous assignments and/or compound statements can have anomalies
within the statement. The sequence must correspond to the order in which the object
code will be executed for that variable.
4. Predicate nodes (e.g., IF-THEN-ELSE, DO WHILE, CASE) are weighted with the p - use(s)
on every outlink, appropriate to that outlink.
5. Every sequence of simple statements (e.g., a sequence of nodes with one inlink and one
outlink) can be replaced by a pair of nodes that has, as weights on the link between
them, the concatenation of link weights.
6. If there are several data-flow actions on a given link for a given variable, then the weight
of the link is denoted by the sequence of actions on that link for that variable.
7. Conversely, a link with several data-flow actions on it can be replaced by a succession of
equivalent links, each of which has at most one data-flow action for any variable.
Let us consider the example:

Figure 3.7: Program Example (PDL)

48

Figure 3.8: Unannotated flow graph for example program in Figure 3.7

Figure 3.9: Control flow graph annotated for X and Y data flows.

Figure 3.10: Control flow graph annotated for Z data flow.

Figure 3.11: Control flow graph annotated for V data flow.

49

STRATEGIES OF DATA FLOW TESTING:

INTRODUCTION:

o Data Flow Testing Strategies are structural strategies.

o In contrast to the path-testing strategies, data-flow strategies take into account
what happens to data objects on the links in addition to the raw connectivity of
the graph.
o In other words, data flow strategies require data-flow link weights (d,k,u,c,p).
o Data Flow Testing Strategies are based on selecting test path segments (also
called sub paths) that satisfy some characteristic of data flows for all data
objects.
o For example, all sub paths that contain a d (or u, k, du, dk).
o A strategy X is stronger than another strategy Y if all test cases produced under Y
are included in those produced under X - conversely for weaker.

TERMINOLOGY:
1. Definition-Clear Path Segment, with respect to variable X, is a connected
sequence of links such that X is (possibly) defined on the first link and not
redefined or killed on any subsequent link of that path segment. ll paths in
Figure
3.9 are definition clear because variables X and Y are defined only on the first link (1,3) and not
thereafter. In Figure 3.10, we have a more complicated situation. The following path segments are
definition-clear: (1,3,4), (1,3,5), (5,6,7,4), (7,8,9,6,7), (7,8,9,10), (7,8,10), (7,8,10,11). Subpath
(1,3,4,5) is not definition-clear because the variable is defined on (1,3) and again on (4,5). For
practice, try finding all the definition-clear subpaths for this routine (i.e., for all variables).
2. Loop-Free Path Segment is a path segment for which every node in it is visited
atmost once. For Example, path (4,5,6,7,8,10) in Figure 3.10 is loop free, but path
(10,11,4,5,6,7,8,10,11,12) is not because nodes 10 and 11 are each visited twice.
3. Simple path segment is a path segment in which at most one node is visited
twice. For example, in Figure 3.10, (7,4,5,6,7) is a simple path segment. A simple
path segment is either loop-free or if there is a loop, only one node is involved.
4. A du path from node i to k is a path segment such that if the last link has a
computational use of X, then the path is simple and definition-clear; if the
penultimate (last but one) node is j - that is, the path is (i,p,q,...,r,s,t,j,k) and link
(j,k) has a predicate use - then the path from i to j is both loop-free and
definition- clear.

STRATEGIES: The structural test strategies discussed below are based on the program's control
flow graph. They differ in the extent to which predicate uses and/or computational uses of
variables are included in the test set. Various types of data flow testing strategies in decreasing
order of their effectiveness are:
All - du Paths (ADUP): The all-du-paths (ADUP) strategy is the strongest data-flow testing
strategy discussed here. It requires that every du path from every definition of every variable to
every some test.
50

For variable X and Y:In Figure 3.9, because variables X and Y are used only on link (1,3), any
test that starts at the entry satisfies this criterion (for variables X and Y, but not for all
variables as required by the strategy).

For variable Z: The situation for variable Z (Figure 3.10) is more complicated because the
variable is redefined in many places. For the definition on link (1,3) we must exercise paths
that include subpaths (1,3,4) and (1,3,5). The definition on link (4,5) is covered by any path
that includes (5,6), such as subpath (1,3,4,5,6, ...). The (5,6) definition requires paths that
include subpaths (5,6,7,4) and (5,6,7,8).

For variable V: Variable V (Figure 3.11) is defined only once on link (1,3). Because V has a
predicate use at node 12 and the subsequent path to the end must be forced for both
directions at node 12, the all-du-paths strategy for this variable requires that we exercise all
loop-free entry/exit paths and at least one path that includes the loop caused by (11,4).

Note that we must test paths that include both subpaths (3,4,5) and (3,5) even though
neither of these has V definitions. They must be included because they provide alternate du
paths to the V use on link (5,6). Although (7,4) is not used in the test set for variable V, it will
be included in the test set that covers the predicate uses of array variable V() and U.

The all-du-paths strategy is a strong criterion, but it does not take as many tests as it might
seem at first because any one test simultaneously satisfies the criterion for several definitions
and uses of several different variables.

All Uses Startegy (AU):The all uses strategy is that at least one definition clear path from every
definition of every variable to every use of that definition be exercised under some test.

Just as we reduced our ambitions by stepping down from all paths (P) to branch coverage (C2),
say, we can reduce the number of test cases by asking that the test set should include at least
one path segment from every definition to every use that can be reached by that definition.

For variable V: In Figure 3.11, ADUP requires that we include subpaths (3,4,5) and (3,5) in some
test because subsequent uses of V, such as on link (5,6), can be reached by either alternative. In
AU either (3,4,5) or (3,5) can be used to start paths, but we don't have to use both. Similarly, we
can skip the (8,10) link if we've included the (8,9,10) subpath.

Note the hole. We must include (8,9,10) in some test cases because that's the only way to
reach the c use at link (9,10) - but suppose our bug for variable V is on link (8,10) after all? Find
a covering set of paths under AU for Figure 3.11.

All p-uses/some c-uses strategy (APU+C) : For every variable and every definition of that
variable, include at least one definition free path from the definition to every predicate use; if
there are definitions of the variables that are not covered by the above prescription, then add
computational use test cases as required to cover every definition.
51

For variable Z:In Figure 3.10, for APU+C we can select paths that all take the upper link (12,13)
and therefore we do not cover the c-use of Z: but that's okay according to the strategy's definition
because every definition is covered.

Links (1,3), (4,5), (5,6), and (7,8) must be included because they contain definitions for variable
Z. Links (3,4), (3,5), (8,9), (8,10), (9,6), and (9,10) must be included because they contain
predicate uses of Z. Find a covering set of test cases under APU+C for all variables inthis
example - it only takes two tests.

For variable V:In Figure 3.11, APU+C is achieved for V by (1,3,5,6,7,8,10,11,4,5,6,7,8,10,11,12[upper],

13,2) and (1,3,5,6,7,8,10,11,12[lower], 13,2). Note
that the c-use at (9,10) need not be included under the APU+C criterion.

All c-uses/some p-uses strategy (ACU+P) : The all c-uses/some p-uses strategy (ACU+P) is to
first ensure coverage by computational use cases and if any definition is not covered by the
previously selected paths, add such predicate use cases as are needed to assure that every
definition is included in some test.

For variable Z: In Figure 3.10, ACU+P coverage is achieved for Z by path (1,3,4,5,6,7,8,10,
11,12,13[lower], 2), but the predicate uses of several definitions are not covered. Specifically,
the (1,3) definition is not covered for the (3,5) p-use, the (7,8) definition is not covered for the
(8,9), (9,6) and (9, 10) p-uses.

The above examples imply that APU+C is stronger than branch coverage but ACU+P may
be weaker than, or incomparable to, branch coverage.

All Definitions Strategy (AD) : The all definitions strategy asks only every definition of every
variable be covered by atleast one use of that variable, be that use a computational use or a
predicate
use
.

For variable Z: Path (1,3,4,5,6,7,8, . . .) satisfies this criterion for variable Z, whereas any
entry/exit pathsatisfies it for variable V.
From the definition of this strategy we would expect it to be weaker than both ACU+P and APU+C.

1. All Predicate Uses (APU), All Computational Uses (ACU) Strategies : The all predicate uses
strategy is derived from APU+C strategy by dropping the requirement that we include a c- use
for the variable if there are no p-uses for the variable. The all computational uses strategy is
derived from ACU+P strategy by dropping the requirement that we include a p-use for the
variable if there are no c-uses for the variable.

It is intuitively obvious that ACU should be weaker than ACU+P and that APU should be weaker than
APU+C.
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ORDERING THE STRATEGIES:

Figure 3.12compares path-flow and data-flow testing strategies. The arrows denote that the
strategy at the arrow's tail is stronger than the strategy at the arrow's head

Figure 3.12: Relative Strength of Structural Test Strategies.

o The right-hand side of this graph, along the path from "all paths" to "all
statements" is the more interesting hierarchy for practical applications.
o Note that although ACU+P is stronger than ACU, both are incomparable to the
predicate-biased strategies. Note also that "all definitions" is not comparable to
ACU or APU.

SLICING AND DICING:

o A (static) program slice is a part of a program (e.g., a selected set of statements)

defined with respect to a given variable X (where X is a simple variable or a data
vector) and a statement i: it is the set of all statements that could (potentially,
under static analysis) affect the value of X at statement i - where the influence of
a faulty statement could result from an improper computational use or predicate
use of some other variables at prior statements.
o If X is incorrect at statement i, it follows that the bug must be in the program slice
for X with respect to i
o A program dice is a part of a slice in which all statements which are known to be
correct have been removed.
o In other words, a dice is obtained from a slice by incorporating information
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obtained through testing or experiment (e.g., debugging).

o The debugger first limits her scope to those prior statements that could have
caused the faulty value at statement i (the slice) and then eliminates from
further consideration those statements that testing has shown to be correct.
o Debugging can be modeled as an iterative procedure in which slices are further
refined by dicing, where the dicing information is obtained from ad hoc tests
aimed primarily at eliminating possibilities. Debugging ends when the dice has
been reduced to the one faulty statement.

o Dynamic slicing is a refinement of static slicing in which only statements on

achievable paths to the statement in question are included.
Unit Testing – Software Testing
Unit testing is a type of software testing that focuses on individual units or components of a software
system. The purpose of unit testing is to validate that each unit of the software works as intended and
meets the requirements. Unit testing is typically performed by developers, and it is performed early in the
development process before the code is integrated and tested as a whole system.
Unit tests are automated and are run each time the code is changed to ensure that new code does not
break existing functionality. Unit tests are designed to validate the smallest possible unit of code, such as a
function or a method, and test it in isolation from the rest of the system. This allows developers to quickly
identify and fix any issues early in the development process, improving the overall quality of the software
and reducing the time required for later testing.
Prerequisite – Types of Software Testing
Unit Testing is a software testing technique using which individual units of software i.e. group of computer
program modules, usage procedures, and operating procedures are tested to determine whether they are
suitable for use or not. It is a testing method using which every independent module is tested to determine
if there is an issue by the developer himself. It is correlated with the functional correctness of the
independent modules. Unit Testing is defined as a type of software testing where individual components of
a software are tested. Unit Testing of the software product is carried out during the development of an
application. An individual component may be either an individual function or a procedure. Unit Testing is
typically performed by the developer. In SDLC or V Model, Unit testing is the first level of testing done
before integration testing. Unit testing is a type of testing technique that is usually performed by
developers. Although due to the reluctance of developers to test, quality assurance engineers also do unit
testing.
Objective of Unit Testing:
The objective of Unit Testing is:
1. To isolate a section of code.
2. To verify the correctness of the code.
3. To test every function and procedure.
4. To fix bugs early in the development cycle and to save costs.
5. To help the developers understand the code base and enable them to make changes quickly.
6. To help with code reuse.
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Types of Unit Testing:

There are 2 types of Unit Testing: Manual, and Automated.
Workflow of Unit Testing:

Unit Testing Techniques:

There are 3 types of Unit Testing Techniques. They are
1. Black Box Testing: This testing technique is used in covering the unit tests for input, user interface, and
output parts.
2. White Box Testing: This technique is used in testing the functional behavior of the system by giving the
input and checking the functionality output including the internal design structure and code of the
modules.
3. Gray Box Testing: This technique is used in executing the relevant test cases, test methods, and test
functions, and analyzing the code performance for the modules.
Unit Testing Tools:
Here are some commonly used Unit Testing tools:
1. Jtest
2. Junit
3. NUnit
4. EMMA
5. PHPUnit
Advantages of Unit Testing:
1. Unit Testing allows developers to learn what functionality is provided by a unit and how to use it to gain
a basic understanding of the unit API.
2. Unit testing allows the programmer to refine code and make sure the module works properly.
3. Unit testing enables testing parts of the project without waiting for others to be completed.
4. Early Detection of Issues: Unit testing allows developers to detect and fix issues early in the
development process before they become larger and more difficult to fix.
5. Improved Code Quality: Unit testing helps to ensure that each unit of code works as intended and meets
the requirements, improving the overall quality of the software.
6. Increased Confidence: Unit testing provides developers with confidence in their code, as they can
validate that each unit of the software is functioning as expected.
7. Faster Development: Unit testing enables developers to work faster and more efficiently, as they can
validate changes to the code without having to wait for the full system to be tested.
8. Better Documentation: Unit testing provides clear and concise documentation of the code and its
behavior, making it easier for other developers to understand and maintain the software.
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9. Facilitation of Refactoring: Unit testing enables developers to safely make changes to the code, as they
can validate that their changes do not break existing functionality.
10. Reduced Time and Cost: Unit testing can reduce the time and cost required for later testing, as it helps
to identify and fix issues early in the development process.
Disadvantages of Unit Testing:
1. The process is time-consuming for writing the unit test cases.
2. Unit Testing will not cover all the errors in the module because there is a chance of having errors in the
modules while doing integration testing.
3. Unit Testing is not efficient for checking the errors in the UI(User Interface) part of the module.
4. It requires more time for maintenance when the source code is changed frequently.
5. It cannot cover the non-functional testing parameters such as scalability, the performance of the
system, etc.
6. Time and Effort: Unit testing requires a significant investment of time and effort to create and maintain
the test cases, especially for complex systems.
7. Dependence on Developers: The success of unit testing depends on the developers, who must write
clear, concise, and comprehensive test cases to validate the code.
8. Difficulty in Testing Complex Units: Unit testing can be challenging when dealing with complex units, as
it can be difficult to isolate and test individual units in isolation from the rest of the system.
9. Difficulty in Testing Interactions: Unit testing may not be sufficient for testing interactions between
units, as it only focuses on individual units.
10. Difficulty in Testing User Interfaces: Unit testing may not be suitable for testing user interfaces, as it
typically focuses on the functionality of individual units.
11. Over-reliance on Automation: Over-reliance on automated unit tests can lead to a false sense of
security, as automated tests may not uncover all possible issues or bugs.
12. Maintenance Overhead: Unit testing requires ongoing maintenance and updates, as the code and test
cases must be kept up-to-date with changes to the software.