GE3451
Environmental Sciences & Sustainability
Anna University | Regulation 2021 | 4th Semester | CY Department
End Semester Exam: 06.05.2026
Compiled: April 2026 | Claude Cowork
Syllabus Overview
Unit Title Key Topics
1 Environment & Biodiversity Ecosystems, Food chains, Biodiversity, Hotspots, Conservation
2 Environmental Pollution Air, Water, Soil, Noise, E-waste, Nuclear hazards
3 Natural Resources Land, Forest, Water, Energy — Renewable vs Non-renewable
4 Social Issues & Laws Environmental Acts, Climate change, Ozone, Acid rain, SDGs
5 Human Population Population growth, Family welfare, HIV/AIDS, Women & child
Tip: GE3451 is a theory subject. Focus on definitions, environmental acts with years, and 13-mark answers for
Units 2 and 4.
UNIT 1 - Environment, Ecosystems & Biodiversity
1.1 Key Definitions
Term Definition
Ecosystem A functional unit where living organisms (biotic) interact with their physical environment
(abiotic) through energy flow and matter cycling.
Biodiversity Variety of life at all levels — genetic, species, and ecosystem diversity.
Hotspot Region with >=1500 endemic plant species AND has lost >=70% of original vegetation.
Ecological Succession Gradual directional change in structure and composition of a community over time. Types:
Primary (bare rock) and Secondary (disturbed land).
Carrying Capacity Maximum population size that an environment can sustainably support.
1.2 Types of Biodiversity
Type Definition Example
Genetic Variety of genes within a species Different rice/wheat varieties
Species Number of different species in an area 1000 bird species in India
Ecosystem Variety of habitats and ecosystems Forests, wetlands, deserts
1.3 India as a Mega-Diversity Nation
India hosts ~7-8% of all recorded species on Earth. It has 89,000+ animal species and 47,000+ plant species.
• 4 Hotspots in India: (1) Western Ghats + Sri Lanka, (2) Eastern Himalayas, (3) Indo-Burma region, (4)
Sundaland (Andaman & Nicobar)
• 4th highest in plant diversity; 7th in reptile diversity worldwide
1.4 Threats to Biodiversity
Threat Description
Habitat loss Deforestation, urbanization — the #1 threat globally
Poaching Illegal hunting/killing of wildlife for trade (tigers, elephants)
Invasive species Non-native species that outcompete native species
Climate change Shifts habitats; many species cannot adapt fast enough
Pollution Contaminates soil, water, air — kills or weakens organisms
1.5 Conservation Methods
In-Situ (On-site) Ex-Situ (Off-site)
National Parks (Jim Corbett, Kaziranga) Zoos
Wildlife Sanctuaries Botanical Gardens
Biosphere Reserves (Nilgiris, Sundarbans) Gene Banks / Seed Banks
Sacred Groves Captive Breeding Programs
1.6 Energy Flow
10% Law (Lindeman): Only 10% of energy is transferred to the next trophic level; 90% is lost as heat.
Food Chain example: Grass -> Grasshopper -> Frog -> Snake -> Eagle
Food Chain vs Food Web: A food chain is linear; a food web is a network of interconnected food chains.
UNIT 2 - Environmental Pollution
2.1 Air Pollution
Definition: Presence of harmful substances in the atmosphere beyond acceptable limits, causing harm to living
organisms and the environment.
Pollutant Main Source Effect
CO (Carbon Monoxide) Vehicles, incomplete combustion Reduces O2 carrying capacity of blood
SO2 (Sulphur Dioxide) Coal burning, industries Acid rain, respiratory illness
NOx (Nitrogen Oxides) Vehicle exhaust, industries Smog formation, acid rain
SPM (Particulate Dust, smoke, construction Lung diseases, reduced visibility
Matter)
CO2 Fossil fuels, deforestation Greenhouse effect, global warming
Lead Leaded petrol, batteries Neurological damage, especially in children
Control Measures:
• Catalytic converters in vehicles to reduce CO and NOx
• Electrostatic precipitators and scrubbers in industrial chimneys
• Use CNG/LPG instead of diesel — cleaner burning fuels
• Plant green belts around industrial and urban areas
2.2 Water Pollution — Key Terms
Term Definition
BOD (Biochemical Oxygen Amount of O2 needed to decompose organic matter. Higher BOD = more polluted
Demand) water.
DO (Dissolved Oxygen) Clean water has high DO; polluted water has low DO. Fish need >5 ppm DO to
survive.
Eutrophication Excess nutrients (N,P) cause algal bloom, deplete O2, kill aquatic life.
Biomagnification Concentration of toxins (e.g., DDT) increases progressively up the food chain.
Sewage Treatment Stages:
• Primary: Physical — screening, sedimentation, removal of large solids
• Secondary: Biological — activated sludge process, trickling filters
• Tertiary: Chemical — chlorination, ozonation, UV disinfection
2.3 Soil & Noise Pollution
Soil Pollution Causes: Pesticides (DDT, BHC), industrial effluents (heavy metals: Cd, Pb, Hg), acid rain, solid
waste dumping.
Remediation: Bioremediation (microbes), phytoremediation (plants), organic farming.
Noise Level Source Effect
< 45 dB Library, quiet room Comfortable
60 dB Normal conversation Acceptable
85 dB Heavy traffic Hearing damage begins
> 120 dB Jet engine / loud concerts Pain threshold
2.4 E-Waste & Nuclear Hazards
• E-waste: Discarded electronics — mobiles, computers, TVs. Hazardous materials: Lead, Mercury, Cadmium,
Beryllium.
• E-waste management: Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR), authorised recyclers, e-waste collection
centres.
• Nuclear hazards: Radioactive waste from power plants, medical equipment. Effects: radiation sickness,
cancer, genetic mutations.
UNIT 3 - Natural Resources
3.1 Renewable vs Non-Renewable Resources
Renewable Resources Non-Renewable Resources
Solar energy Coal
Wind energy Petroleum / Crude oil
Hydropower Natural gas
Biomass Nuclear fuels (Uranium — limited)
Replenish naturally on human timescale Take millions of years to form
Sustainable if managed properly Will eventually be exhausted
3.2 Forest & Water Resources
• India's forest cover: ~21.67% (government target: 33% of geographical area)
• Forests: Carbon sink, watershed protection, biodiversity habitat, livelihood source
• Deforestation effects: Soil erosion, flooding, loss of biodiversity, climate change, tribal displacement
• Only 2.5% of Earth's water is freshwater; only 0.3% is accessible (rivers, lakes)
• Water scarcity causes: Over-extraction of groundwater, pollution, population growth
• Water conflict example: Cauvery river dispute — Tamil Nadu vs Karnataka
3.3 Non-Conventional Energy Sources
Source Working Principle Advantage
Solar Photovoltaic cells convert sunlight to electricity Abundant, clean, no emissions
Wind Wind turbines convert kinetic energy to electricity Clean, low operating cost
Hydro Flowing water spins turbines Reliable, no fuel cost
Tidal Ocean tidal movement drives turbines Predictable, renewable
Geothermal Earth's internal heat generates steam for turbines Continuous, very low emissions
Biomass Burning organic material produces heat/electricity Waste utilization, carbon neutral
UNIT 4 - Social Issues & The Environment
4.1 Environmental Laws — MUST MEMORIZE
Tip: Memory trick: W - W - F - A - E = 1972, 1974, 1980, 1981, 1986
Act Year Purpose
Wildlife Protection Act 1972 Protection of wild animals, plants, and their habitats
Water (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act 1974 Prevent and control water pollution; establish PCBs
Forest Conservation Act 1980 Regulate diversion of forest land for non-forest use
Air (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act 1981 Control and prevent air pollution
Environment Protection Act (EPA) 1986 Umbrella legislation enacted after Bhopal Gas Tragedy
4.2 EPA 1986 — Key Points (13-mark favourite)
• Enacted after Bhopal Gas Tragedy (1984) — worst industrial disaster in history
• Central Government can set environmental standards, inspect, and take samples
• Covers air, water, land, and noise pollution comprehensively
• Penalties: Imprisonment up to 5 years + fine up to Rs.1 lakh; continuing offence: Rs.5,000/day
• Establishes Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) — mandatory for large projects
4.3 Global Warming & Climate Change
Greenhouse Effect: GHGs (CO2, CH4, N2O, CFCs) trap solar radiation, warming the Earth. Enhanced
greenhouse effect causes global warming.
Greenhouse Gas Source GWP (vs CO2)
CO2 (Carbon Dioxide) Fossil fuels, deforestation 1 (baseline)
CH4 (Methane) Livestock, landfills, natural gas 25x
N2O (Nitrous Oxide) Fertilizers, combustion 298x
CFCs Refrigerants, aerosols Very high
Effects: Rising sea levels, extreme weather events, species extinction, crop failure, spread of tropical diseases.
4.4 Ozone Depletion
• Ozone layer is in the stratosphere (15-35 km altitude); absorbs harmful UV-B radiation
• Cause: CFCs release Cl radicals which destroy ozone: Cl + O3 -> ClO + O2
• Ozone hole mainly over Antarctica (largest in September/October)
• Effects: Increased UV-B -> skin cancer, cataracts, immune suppression, damage to marine ecosystems
• Montreal Protocol (1987): International treaty to phase out ozone-depleting substances
4.5 Acid Rain
Formation: SO2 + H2O -> H2SO3; NOx + H2O -> HNO3. Normal rain pH: 5.6; Acid rain: below 5.6
• Damages forests, kills fish, corrodes buildings (Taj Mahal damage is a classic example)
• Leaches heavy metals from soil into groundwater
• Control: Reduce SO2/NOx emissions; add lime (CaO) to acidified lakes
4.6 Sustainable Development & Water Conservation
Sustainable Development (Brundtland 1987): "Development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs."
• 3 Pillars: Economic growth + Social equity + Environmental protection
• 17 UN SDGs adopted in 2015, target year 2030
• Rainwater Harvesting: Rooftop runoff -> storage tank -> recharge pit to replenish groundwater
• Watershed Management: Integrated management of land and water in a catchment area
• Drip Irrigation: Delivers water directly to roots — reduces agricultural water wastage by 30-50%
UNIT 5 - Human Population & Environment
5.1 Population Growth
• World population: ~8 billion (2023); India: ~1.44 billion (2nd largest globally)
• Exponential growth: J-shaped curve — unlimited resources, no predators
• Logistic growth: S-shaped curve — growth slows as carrying capacity is approached
5.2 Demographic Transition Theory
Stage Birth Rate Death Rate Population Growth
Stage 1 (Pre-industrial) High High Stable / Low growth
Stage 2 (Developing) High Falling Rapid growth
Stage 3 (Transitional) Falling Low Slowing growth
Stage 4 (Developed) Low Low Stable / Zero growth
5.3 Family Welfare Programs in India
• National Family Welfare Programme — launched 1952 (world's first national family planning program)
• Objectives: Reduce birth rate, lower infant mortality, improve maternal health
• Methods: Contraceptives, sterilization, IUDs, awareness campaigns
5.4 Environment and Human Health
Pollution Type Associated Diseases
Air (SO2, SPM, CO) Asthma, bronchitis, lung cancer, cardiovascular disease
Water (bacteria, chemicals) Cholera, typhoid, dysentery, fluorosis, arsenic poisoning
Noise (>85 dB) Stress, hypertension, sleep disturbance, hearing loss
Soil (pesticides) Cancer, neurological disorders, endocrine disruption
Radiation (nuclear) Leukemia, thyroid cancer, genetic mutations, birth defects
5.5 HIV/AIDS
• HIV: Human Immunodeficiency Virus | AIDS: Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
• Transmission: Unprotected sex, contaminated needles/blood, mother to child
• NOT spread by: Casual contact, sharing food/water, mosquitoes, hugging
• Prevention (ABCDE): Abstinence, Be faithful, Condom use, Don't share needles, Early testing
• India has ~2.3 million people living with HIV (3rd largest globally)
QUICK REFERENCE - 2-Mark Definitions
Term Definition (write exactly this in exam)
Ecosystem A functional unit of biotic and abiotic components interacting through energy flow and
matter cycling.
Biodiversity The variety of life at genetic, species, and ecosystem levels in a given area.
Hotspot A region containing at least 1500 endemic plant species and having lost at least 70% of
original vegetation.
BOD The amount of dissolved oxygen needed by microorganisms to decompose organic
matter in water.
Eutrophication Enrichment of water with excess nutrients causing algal blooms, oxygen depletion, and
aquatic life death.
Watershed A land area that drains all precipitation into a common outlet such as a river or lake.
Biomagnification Progressive increase in toxin concentration (e.g., DDT) as it moves up the food chain.
Ozone layer Protective layer of O3 in stratosphere (15-35 km) that absorbs harmful UV-B radiation.
Acid rain Precipitation with pH below 5.6 caused by SO2 and NOx dissolving in atmospheric
moisture.
Sustainable development Development that meets present needs without compromising future generations' ability
to meet their own needs.
EPA 1986 Environment Protection Act 1986 — umbrella legislation for environmental protection after
Bhopal Gas Tragedy.
Renewable energy Energy from sources naturally replenished on a human timescale: solar, wind, hydro,
biomass.
Deforestation Permanent removal of forest cover for agriculture, urbanization, or logging.
Carrying capacity Maximum population size that an ecosystem can sustain without environmental
degradation.
E-waste Discarded electrical and electronic equipment containing hazardous materials like lead,
mercury, and cadmium.
LIKELY EXAM QUESTIONS (13 Marks)
Unit 1 - Environment & Biodiversity
Q1. Define ecosystem. Explain the structure and functions of a forest ecosystem with a neat diagram.
Q2. What is biodiversity? Explain types, values, threats, and conservation methods.
Q3. Explain India as a mega-diversity nation with reference to biodiversity hotspots.
Unit 2 - Environmental Pollution
Q1. Explain the causes, effects, and control measures of air pollution.
Q2. What is water pollution? Explain sources, effects, and treatment methods.
Q3. Write notes on: (a) E-waste management (b) Nuclear hazards and waste disposal.
Unit 3 - Natural Resources
Q1. Compare renewable and non-renewable energy. Explain any two non-conventional energy sources.
Q2. Explain causes, effects, and conservation measures for deforestation.
Q3. Discuss water resources — scarcity, water conflicts, and conservation techniques.
Unit 4 - Social Issues & Environment
Q1. Explain the salient features of the Environment Protection Act 1986. What are the penalties?
Q2. Explain global warming: causes, effects, and mitigation strategies.
Q3. Write about: (a) Ozone depletion and Montreal Protocol (b) Acid rain — formation, effects, control.
Q4. Explain rainwater harvesting and watershed management with examples.
Unit 5 - Human Population
Q1. Explain demographic transition theory with a neat diagram. Discuss relevance to India.
Q2. What are the impacts of rapid population growth on the environment and natural resources?
Q3. Write notes on: (a) Family welfare programs in India (b) HIV/AIDS — transmission, prevention, awareness.
Compiled for GE3451 (Regulation 2021) | CY Dept | Exam: 06.05.2026 | April 2026