GEOGRAPHY

Complete Study Guide

Grade 8 Finals Preparation

Ch 4: Weather & Climate | Ch 6: Weathering & Soil | Ch 7: Industries | Ch 9: Energy Resources |

Ch 13: Antarctica

Each chapter: Key Terms | Structured Notes | Data Tables | MCQs | Short & Long Answer Questions
Chapter 4: Weather and Climate
Key Terms
Weather The state of the atmosphere at a particular place and time over a short
period of time
Climate How the atmosphere 'behaves' over relatively long durations (at least 30
years of recording)
Meteorology The scientific study of the Earth's atmosphere and the elements of weather
Meteorologist A trained individual who studies the atmosphere and weather
Weather station A special facility where elements of weather are measured and recorded
Normal Lapse Rate The rate at which temperature decreases with altitude — 6°C per 1,000 m
(NLR) of ascent
Absolute humidity The actual amount of water vapour in a given parcel of air (measured in
gm/cc or kg/mm³)
Relative Humidity The ratio of actual moisture in air to maximum moisture-carrying capacity at
(R.H.) same temperature, expressed as a percentage
Precipitation All forms in which atmospheric moisture falls from the sky — rain, snow,
hail
Isohyet A line on a weather map joining areas of equal rainfall
Isotherm A line on a weather map connecting places with the same temperature at a
given time
Stevenson Screen A wooden box on four legs at 120 cm height used to shelter thermometers
from direct sunlight and rain
Hygrometer Instrument used to measure relative humidity (wet-and-dry-bulb
thermometer)
Barometer Instrument used to measure atmospheric pressure (mercury or aneroid)
Anemometer Instrument used to measure wind speed
Atmospheric pressure The downward force exerted by a column of air on the Earth's surface due
to gravity

1. Elements of Weather and Climate

• Weather and climate analyse the same components — they differ only in the time period of
analysis
• Elements: Temperature, Humidity, Precipitation, Atmospheric Pressure, Winds, Forms of
Condensation
2. Temperature
• Temperature = intensity of heat in a body; measured in degree Celsius (°C) or degree Fahrenheit
(°F)
• Air is heated by convection, conduction, radiation and advection
• Temperature is the most important element — it influences humidity, pressure and winds
• Temperature is INVERSELY related to: (a) Altitude and (b) Latitude

Effect of Altitude — Normal Lapse Rate (NLR)

• As altitude increases, temperature decreases in the troposphere
• This is because density of air gradually falls with altitude
• Rate of decrease: ~6°C for every 1,000 m of ascent
• This is the Normal Lapse Rate (NLR)

Effect of Latitude — Three Thermal Zones

Thermal Zone Latitudinal Extent Characteristic Features
Torrid 0° to 23.5° in both hemispheres Hot and humid zone
Temperate 23.5° to 66.5° in both hemispheres Moderate temperature — pleasant
climate
Frigid 66.5° to 90° in both hemispheres Extremely cold — may be
permafrost, especially near the
poles

3. Humidity
• Humidity = moisture content in the atmosphere at a given temperature and volume
• Air with high water vapour is lighter than dry air → rises upward → leads to saturation and
condensation
Two Types of Humidity
• Absolute Humidity: Actual amount of water vapour in a given parcel of air at any
particular temperature (measured in gm/cc or kg/mm³)
• Relative Humidity (R.H.): Ratio of actual moisture to maximum moisture-carrying
capacity of air at the same temperature — expressed as a percentage
• Higher R.H. = higher chance of precipitation
• An increase in temperature REDUCES R.H. (and vice versa)
• As humidity increases, it slows natural rate of water evaporation — this is why we
sweat

4. Precipitation
• Precipitation = all processes where atmospheric moisture is returned to Earth in solid (snow/hail)
or liquid (rain) form
• It is part of the water cycle (hydrological cycle)
 • Forms of precipitation: rainfall, snowfall, hail

5. Forms of Condensation — Clouds

• Clouds form when droplets of condensed water vapour coalesce around dust particles in the
atmosphere
Four Major Cloud Types
Cloud Type Altitude Description / Weather Significance
Nimbostratus Below 2 km (Low) Thick, dark, black rain clouds; spread in layers; responsible for
continuous rain or snow
Stratus Below 2 km (Low) Sheet-like clouds, uniform, grey and dull; spread over entire
sky; indicates fair weather
Cumulus 3 km to 6 km Woolly, cauliflower-shaped, white or grey; flat base; can grow
(Medium) upward; may cause lightning and thunder
Cirrus 6 km to 12 km Feathery, fibrous; contain tiny ice crystals; resemble tiny wisps
(High) of cotton across sky

• Other forms of condensation (form on surfaces, not fall): Dew, Frost, Fog, Mist

6. Atmospheric Pressure
• Atmospheric pressure = downward force exerted by a column of air on the Earth's surface due to
gravity
• Measured with reference to sea level — normal atmospheric pressure = 1,013 mb on 76 cm
mercury column
• Atmospheric pressure is INVERSELY related to temperature, humidity level and altitude
• Warm air is lighter → rises → creates low pressure zones
• Cold air is denser → creates high pressure zones
• Areas above 1,013 mb = high pressure; below = low pressure
• Pressure zones control air circulation, especially wind movements

7. Winds
• Wind = horizontal movement of air from high pressure to low pressure areas in the lower layers
of atmosphere
• Wind speed is determined by pressure difference between two regions
• Wind speed ranges from gentle breeze to violent storm; measured in knots or km/h
• Winds are named after the direction FROM which they blow (e.g., East to West = Easterly winds)

8. Weather vs. Climate

Difference Between Weather and Climate
 Weather Climate
Condition of atmosphere at a place for a short General weather conditions observed for a long
period period of time
Prevails over a small area Prevails over a large area
Temporary and subject to frequent change Permanent and stable for a long period
Varies on a daily or even hourly basis Minimum 30 years of recording needed to
determine climate

9. Measuring the Weather — Weather Station Instruments

• A weather station measures: temperature, rainfall, humidity, air pressure, wind direction, velocity,
sunshine, cloud cover
• Instruments should have good exposure — placed away from buildings, fences, trees
• Wind instruments should be well clear of walls to avoid 'eddies' that distort readings
• Readings should be taken at the same time each day

Stevenson Screen
• A wooden box standing on four legs at a height of ~120 cm
• Sides are slatted to allow free entry of air
• Roof is made of double-boarding to prevent Sun's heat from reaching inside
• Painted white to reflect solar energy; placed on grass-covered surface
• Inside: maximum-minimum thermometer and wet-and-dry bulb thermometer
(hygrometer)
• Outside: rain gauge, wind vane, anemometer

All Instruments at a Glance

Instrument Measures Key Details
Maximum Highest temperature of Mercury expands and pushes index up; index stays
thermometer the day at max; reset with magnet
Minimum Lowest temperature of Alcohol contracts and pulls index down; read same
thermometer the day way as max thermometer
Six's thermometer Both max and min Combines both thermometers in one device
temperature
Thermograph Continuous temperature Self-recording instrument
reading
Rain gauge / Rainfall (in mm) Cylinder with funnel, collecting jar; top of funnel 30
Pluviograph cm above ground; tapered glass jar measures
accurately
Hygrometer (wet-dry Relative humidity Dry-bulb = actual air temp; wet-bulb = lower temp
bulb) due to evaporation of water; difference gives RH
 Mercury barometer Atmospheric pressure Mercury in hollow tube; air pressure forces mercury
up the tube; height = 760 mm at sea level
Aneroid barometer Atmospheric pressure Vacuum metal cylinder; spring contracts/expands
with pressure changes; pointer moves across
calibrated scale
Wind vane Wind direction Horizontal rotating arm on vertical shaft; pointer
faces the wind; N/S/E/W marked on arms
Anemometer Wind speed 3-4 metal cups on rotating arms; cups rotate in
wind; faster rotation = higher speed; speed in km/h

10. Temperature Calculations

Important Formulas
• Mean daily temperature = (Maximum temperature + Minimum temperature) ÷ 2
• Example: (35°C + 25°C) ÷ 2 = 30°C
• Mean monthly temperature = Sum of daily mean temperatures ÷ Number of days in
month
• Mean annual temperature = Sum of mean monthly temperatures ÷ 12
• Diurnal temperature range = Maximum temperature − Minimum temperature
• Example: 35°C − 25°C = 10°C
• Mean annual temperature range = Highest mean monthly temperature − Lowest mean
monthly temperature
• Example: Lagos has mean max = 27.5°C (March), mean min = 24.5°C (August); so
mean annual temperature range = 3°C

11. Isohyets and Isotherms

• Weather maps are used to represent properties of Earth in a visual manner
• Isohyet: a line on a weather map joining areas of EQUAL RAINFALL
• Isotherm: a line on a weather map connecting places with the SAME TEMPERATURE at a given
time
• Each point on an isotherm corresponds to one temperature reading or an average over a period
of time

Problem Set — Chapter 4

A. Objective Questions (MCQ)
1. The Normal Lapse Rate (NLR) means temperature decreases by: (a) 6°C per 100 m (b) 6°C per
1,000 m (c) 3°C per 1,000 m (d) 10°C per 1,000 m
2. Relative humidity is measured using: (a) barometer (b) anemometer (c) hygrometer (d)
thermograph
3. Which cloud type is most likely to cause continuous rain? (a) Cirrus (b) Cumulus (c) Stratus (d)
Nimbostratus
 4. Normal atmospheric pressure at sea level is: (a) 1,000 mb (b) 1,013 mb (c) 760 mb (d) 1,030
mb
5. An isohyet connects places with: (a) equal temperature (b) equal pressure (c) equal rainfall (d)
equal humidity
6. The Stevenson screen is placed at a height of: (a) 1 m (b) 0.5 m (c) 120 cm (d) 2 m

B. Short Answer Questions

7. Distinguish between weather and climate. Give one example of each for Mumbai.
8. What is the Normal Lapse Rate? Calculate the expected temperature at 3,000 m altitude if the
temperature at sea level is 30°C.
9. What is relative humidity? How does it relate to precipitation?
10. Name and describe the four major types of clouds, including their altitude and weather
significance.
11. What is a Stevenson screen? Why is it painted white and placed on a grass-covered surface?
12. If the maximum temperature of a day is 38°C and the minimum is 22°C, find the (a) mean daily
temperature and (b) diurnal temperature range.

C. Long Answer / Essay Questions

13. Describe all the instruments found at a weather station. For each, state what it measures and
how it works.
14. What are the elements of weather and climate? Describe temperature and humidity in detail,
including factors that affect them.
15. Distinguish between isohyets and isotherms. How are they useful in representing weather
phenomena on maps?
Chapter 6: Weathering and Soil Formation
Key Terms
Gradation The process of levelling of the Earth's surface
Denudation / Lowering of highlands; 'laying bare' or 'wearing away' of elevated surfaces
Degradation
Aggradation Raising of lowlands through deposition of sediments
Weathering Degradation achieved by immobile agents (in situ breakdown of rocks)
Erosion Degradation achieved by mobile agents (ex situ — movement of broken
material)
In situ Breakdown of rocks at the same location as the parent rock
Physical/Mechanical Physical disintegration of large rocks into smaller fragments without change
Weathering in chemical composition
Chemical Weathering Weathering that brings about a change in the chemical composition of rocks
Biological Weathering Weathering caused by living organisms (plants, animals, humans)
Thermal action The most important tool for mechanical weathering; alternate expansion
and contraction due to diurnal temperature range
Exfoliation Layer-by-layer peeling of rocks made of homogeneous minerals, due to
high diurnal temperature range
Frost action Freezing and thawing of water in rock cracks causing them to expand and
break
Oxidation Chemical weathering process where minerals combine with atmospheric
oxygen to form easily-degraded compounds
Carbonation Chemical weathering where rainwater + CO₂ forms weak carbonic acid that
dissolves limestone/dolomite rocks
Hydration Chemical weathering where rock-forming minerals react with hydrogen in
atmosphere, becoming soft and weakened
Karst landscape Landscape formed due to carbonation of limestone rocks with etched
cavities and deep cracks
Soil profile A vertical section of soil from the ground surface to the underlying rocks,
showing horizontal layers/horizons
Humus Decomposed organic matter in soil; mostly found in the surface (A) horizon
Soil conservation Protection of soil against erosion
Badlands Land rendered unfit for cultivation due to extensive soil erosion; e.g.,
Chambal Valley, MP

1. Gradation — Levelling the Earth's Surface

• All landforms are constantly exposed to external natural forces — mobile (rivers, wind, glaciers,
seas) and immobile (atmospheric conditions)
 • These agents break down highlands and raise lowlands to level the Earth's surface — this
process is Gradation
• Denudation and degradation are NOT the same: denudation = laying bare; degradation =
wearing away/flattening of elevated surfaces
• Degradation by immobile agents = Weathering (in situ breakdown)
• Degradation by mobile agents = Erosion (ex situ breakdown and transport)

2. Weathering
• Weathering = all natural processes of denudation causing physical disintegration and chemical
decomposition
• Since agents are immobile, disintegration occurs at the same place as the parent rock — in situ
• Takes place gradually over a long time (unlike earthquakes and volcanic eruptions which are
sudden)
Factors Affecting Weathering
• Temperature (especially high diurnal range)
• Local climate and mineral composition of rocks
• Structure of rocks and vegetation cover
• Amount of exposed or bare rock surface
• Acids, salts, plants, animals, and human activities

3. Physical / Mechanical Weathering

• Physical disintegration of large rocks into smaller fragments
• No change in chemical composition of rocks
• Occurs due to differential rates of expansion and contraction of rock layers
• Most important tool: thermal action (alternate expansion and contraction due to high diurnal
temperature range)
• Facilitated by dry air; requires a high diurnal range of temperature

Types of Physical Weathering

a) Block Disintegration
• Large rock breaks into smaller fragments along cracks and joints on its surface
• Due to differential rates of expansion and contraction of heterogeneous rocks
• Caused by high diurnal range of temperature

b) Granular Disintegration
• Minerals in a rock react differentially to temperature — some expand and contract
more than others
• Rock breaks into very tiny fragments collecting at the base
• Rock surface becomes pitted and irregular
• Most common in desert regions with high diurnal temperature range

c) Exfoliation
 • Rare — occurs when a rock is made of homogeneous minerals
• Rock breaks down in layers like peels of an onion
• Due to high diurnal temperature range
• Example: Enchanted Rock in the USA

d) Frost Action of Water

• In mid-latitude areas, high temperature during day, freezing at night
• Water trapped in cracks freezes into ice at night → expands → cracks deepen →
rocks break into smaller fragments
• Alternate freezing and thawing over time breaks down rocks
• Most common in polar, mountainous and temperate regions

4. Chemical Weathering
• Brings about a change in the chemical composition of rocks
• Minerals in rock react with atmospheric gases (oxygen, CO₂, hydrogen) to form compounds that
are easily degraded

Types of Chemical Weathering

a) Oxidation
• Rock-forming minerals combine with atmospheric oxygen → easily-degraded
compounds
• Example: oxygen in rocks combines with gaseous oxygen → iron oxides (rust) →
rocks change to reddish-brown
• Gives rise to reddish-brown soil

b) Carbonation
• Rainwater + atmospheric CO₂ → weak carbonic acid
• If this falls on limestone (calcium carbonate) or dolomite rocks → water-soluble
bicarbonates formed
• Rock surfaces get etched out, forming deep cavities and cracks → Karst landscapes

c) Hydration
• Rock-forming minerals react with hydrogen in atmosphere → become soft and
weaken the rocks
• Example: hydrogen in water + mineral feldspar → soft rock Kaolin (powdery, soluble
in water)

d) Solution
• Some rock-forming minerals directly dissolve in water on rock surfaces or within
cracks
• Water-soluble minerals (silica, rock salt, gypsum) get etched out → pores inside
parent rocks → rock breaks down
5. Biological Weathering
• Caused by living organisms — mobile agents — but they facilitate in situ breakdown, so they are
facilitators rather than direct agents
• Roots of plants grow through rock layers → crack and loosen them; strong penetrating roots
widen cracks
• Burrowing animals (rodents, rabbits, earthworms) make homes in rock crevices → loosens and
weathers rocks
• Human activities: dynamites for road construction, large dams, deep and underground mining →
accelerate weathering

6. Soil Formation
• Soil = loose, unconsolidated mineral layer forming a thin layer on the Earth's surface (the crust)
• Comprised of fine fragments of rocks (sediments), organic matter (humus), water and air
• Soil formation is a long-drawn-out process — can only be achieved naturally
• Soil is one of the most precious natural resources — fast getting depleted
• In soil formation: rocks continuously broken into smaller fragments → sediments settle in layers
→ soil formed
Factors Controlling Soil Formation
• Nature of parent rock
• Climatic conditions
• Terrain
• Organic content
• Time

7. Soil Profile
• Soil profile = vertical section of soil from ground surface to underlying rocks
• Shows horizontal layers called horizons
Four Main Horizons of Soil Profile
Horizon Name Description
O (Organic) Organic Layer Contains thin layer of plant residues, mostly in non-decomposed
form
A (Surface) Surface Layer Rich in organic matter; most humus found here; contains clay, silt
and sand
B (Subsoil) Subsoil Contains finer rocks, silt and clay; low in humus content
C Weathered Rock Contains sedimentary deposits; also called substratum; hard rocks
(Substratum that don't support plant growth
)
R (Bedrock) Bedrock/Parent Lowest layer; also called parent rock
Rock
 • Topsoil is very fine; the organic layer contains a thin layer of plant residues

8. Soil Erosion and Conservation

• Soil erosion: agents like water, wind, and ice displace or wear away top layers of soil; involves
transportation and deposition of weathered rock material
Types of Soil Erosion
• Sheet erosion: Heavy rainfall washes away top layer of soil in large, exposed areas
• Gully erosion: Rainwater flows down slopes → formation of deep, narrow furrows
• Erosion causes loss of soil fertility → continuous erosion creates badlands unfit for
cultivation
• Causes of erosion: deforestation, overgrazing, floods, improper farming practices

Methods of Soil Conservation

• Proper farming methods: levelling of fields, terracing of hill slopes, construction of mud
walls or buds, ploughing fields in circles
• Afforestation: Planting trees to bind soil and reduce erosion
• Controlled grazing: Preventing overgrazing that removes vegetation cover
• Plugging gullies: Filling gullies to prevent further erosion
• Crop rotation: Rotating crops to maintain soil fertility
• Van Mahotsav: Programme initiated by Government of India in 1950 — annual tree
planting initiative to reduce soil erosion

Problem Set — Chapter 6

A. Objective Questions (MCQ)
16. Weathering is degradation by: (a) mobile agents (b) immobile agents (c) both mobile and
immobile agents (d) rivers and wind
17. The process where rocks peel off in layers like an onion is: (a) block disintegration (b) granular
disintegration (c) exfoliation (d) frost action
18. Karst landscapes are formed due to: (a) oxidation (b) carbonation (c) hydration (d) solution
19. The surface layer of soil (A horizon) is: (a) bedrock (b) subsoil (c) rich in humus (d) substratum
20. Which of the following is a method of soil conservation? (a) Overgrazing (b) Deforestation (c)
Terracing of hill slopes (d) Gully erosion
21. Normal Lapse Rate causes temperature to decrease at a rate of 6°C per: (a) 100 m (b) 500 m
(c) 1,000 m (d) 2,000 m

B. Short Answer Questions

22. Distinguish between weathering and erosion. Why is weathering called an 'in situ' process?
23. Explain block disintegration and granular disintegration. In what regions are they most
common?
 24. What is carbonation? How does it lead to the formation of karst landscapes?
25. Describe the soil profile. Name the four main horizons and give one characteristic of each.
26. What are the two types of soil erosion? What activities cause soil erosion?

C. Long Answer / Essay Questions

27. Explain the three types of weathering — physical, chemical and biological — with examples of
each sub-type.
28. What is soil formation? Describe the factors that control soil formation and the layers of a typical
soil profile.
29. Why is soil conservation important? Describe any five methods of soil conservation with
reference to India.
Chapter 7: Need and Classification of Industries
Key Terms
Industry A group of factories or businesses that offer a particular type of goods or
services; from Latin 'industria' meaning 'hard work'
Primary activities Activities involving production of raw material and food (agriculture,
lumbering, mining, hunting)
Secondary activities Processing of primary goods to manufacture finished products of greater
value (manufacturing, engineering)
Tertiary activities Provision of services to consumers (banking, transportation, sales,
advertising)
Quaternary activities Intellectual and cultural activities including education and scientific research
Large-scale industry Industries with large capital investments, many employees, advanced
technologies and modern machinery
Small-scale industry Industries with less people and capital (usually under ₹5 crore); work
performed by hand with small machines
Cottage industry Small-scale industry using hereditary craftsmanship; located in villages;
work done in workers' homes
Agro-based industry Industry obtaining raw material from agricultural products (plant-based or
animal-based)
Mineral-based Industry using minerals as raw materials; iron ore smelted and used for iron
industry and steel industry
Industrial pollution Any form of pollution caused by industrial practices
Effluents Liquid waste discharged from factories into water bodies
Cooling towers Installed to cool down hot water discharge from industrial processes before
releasing into the environment

1. Need for Industries

• Things in the natural environment can be converted into useful products that make lives better
and comfortable
• Human beings perform activities to produce goods and attain wealth — these are economic
activities
• Economic activities are categorised as primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary
• Products manufactured on large scale in factories to fulfil ever-increasing demand → group of
such factories = industry
• Industrial Revolution began in 18th century England — era when machines replaced traditional
hand-production methods
2. Types of Industries — Classification Based on Size
Size Classification
Type Capital & Scale Characteristics Examples
Large-scale Large capital, large Many employees; advanced Textile, iron and steel,
infrastructure technologies; heavy and bulky raw cement industries
materials; superior-quality goods
Small-scale Less than ₹5 crore Less people; work by hand with small Furniture, electronics,
capital machines; not very sophisticated sports equipment,
bicycles, toys
Cottage Very small; Few workers (may be family Pottery, handicrafts,
hereditary members); local raw materials; work handloom, stone
craftsmanship in workers' homes; located in villages carving

3. Types of Industries — Classification Based on Raw Materials

Raw Material Classification
Industry Type Raw Material Source Examples
Agro-based (Plant- Crops farmed by farmers Sugar cane → sugar industry; jute plants →
based) jute industry; cotton → cotton textile industry;
vegetables → food processing
Agro-based Animals — hides, wool, silk, Leather industry (hides); woollen textiles
(Animal-based) milk (sheep wool); silk textiles (silkworms); dairy
industry (milk from cows)
Forest-based Forests — wood pulp, Paper industry (wood pulp); pharmaceutical
medicinal plants industry (medicinal plants)
Marine-based Seas and oceans Sea food processing industries; fish oil
manufacturing industries
Mineral-based Minerals from Earth's crust Iron and steel industry (iron ore); shipbuilding;
aircraft and automobile industries
Chemical-based Chemicals Paints, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics

• Bangladesh is the largest exporter of jute textiles; India stands second

4. Factors for Establishment of an Industry

Five Key Factors

1. Availability of Raw Materials

• Most industries are located near the source of raw materials — saves time and cost of
transportation
• Example: Sugar factories located near sugarcane farms; iron and steel near iron ore
 and coal sources

2. Power
• Types: wind, coal, gas, oil, electricity
• Availability of cheap power is one of the major factors in industrial development
• Before steam engine, water and wind were major power sources; in 19th century
heavy industries near coal fields
• Introduction of electricity, gas, oil has reduced dependency on location →
decentralisation of industries

3. Transport Facilities
• Industries highly dependent on water, road and rail transport
• Industrial activity is widespread at junctions of waterways, railways and roadways
• Availability, cost, and frequency of transport affect location
• Example: cotton textile industry concentrated around Mumbai due to cheap transport
options

4. Availability of Labour
• Industries require adequate supply of cheap and skilled labour
• Desirability of labour centres depends on ratio of labour cost to total production cost
• Many small-scale industries depend on availability of skilled artisan or craftsmen
• Examples: glasswork in Ferozabad; silk sarees in Varanasi; carpets in Mirzapur;
brasswork in Moradabad

5. Access to Markets
• Perishable or bulky goods cannot be transported over long distances → industries
concentrated near ready markets
• Availability of a market nearby also reduces transport costs
• Industries manufacturing bakery items, ice, tins, cans, etc. are located near markets

5. Industrial Pollution
• Industrial development has led to an increase in factories, full-scale industries and manufacturing
units
• Industrial waste is increasing — solid waste dumped on land or in water; liquid waste released
into water bodies; harmful gases released into atmosphere
Causes of Industrial Pollution
• Lack of policies to control pollution
• Unplanned industrial growth
• Use of outdated technologies
• Presence of large number of small-scale industries
• Inefficient waste disposal
• Leaching of resources from nature

Four Types of Industrial Pollution

 1. Air Pollution
• Toxic fumes from chimneys, poisonous gases, pollen, microscopic dust particles
pollute atmosphere
• Solution: air filters, smoke racks, scrubbers, electrostatic precipitators; replace thermal
power with hydel/gas power

2. Land Pollution
• Solid industrial waste disposal → choking of drainage, spread of diseases, major
environmental hazard
• Solution: Industrial waste should be properly treated, segregated and carefully
disposed of

3. Water Pollution
• Hot water, effluents and other waste water contaminate ground and surface water
• Solution: Cooling towers to cool hot water discharge; effluents treated before disposal;
industrial water recycled and reused

4. Noise Pollution
• Old, obsolete machines and industrial infrastructure create excessive noise →
adversely affects workforce productivity
• Solution: Machines properly maintained, kept lubricated; old ones replaced;
generators fitted with silencers

Prevention of Industrial Pollution

• Selection of Industry Site: All climatic and topographical characteristics studied before
setting up an industry
• Plantation: Planting trees reduces dust, smoke and other air pollutants
• Treatment of Industrial Waste: Oils, solids, harmful gases removed from waste water
before disposal
• Stringent Government Action: Pollution control boards specify rules and limits;
violating industries must be penalised
• Implementation of Environmental Protection Act: Industries must adhere to
Environmental Protection Law

Problem Set — Chapter 7

A. Objective Questions (MCQ)
30. Activities like banking, transportation and sales belong to: (a) primary activities (b) secondary
activities (c) tertiary activities (d) quaternary activities
31. A cottage industry uses: (a) modern machinery (b) hereditary craftsmanship and local raw
materials (c) large capital investment (d) advanced technology
32. Iron and steel industry is an example of: (a) agro-based industry (b) forest-based industry (c)
mineral-based industry (d) chemical-based industry
 33. The Industrial Revolution began in the: (a) 17th century in France (b) 19th century in Germany
(c) 18th century in England (d) 20th century in USA
34. Cooling towers are installed to: (a) reduce air pollution (b) cool down hot water discharge
before releasing it (c) generate electricity (d) reduce noise pollution
35. Bangladesh is the largest exporter of: (a) silk textiles (b) cotton textiles (c) jute textiles (d)
woollen textiles

B. Short Answer Questions

36. Distinguish between large-scale, small-scale and cottage industries with examples.
37. Classify industries based on raw materials. Give two examples for each category.
38. Why do most agro-based industries locate near farms? Give two specific examples.
39. What are the four types of industrial pollution? Suggest one solution for each.
40. What is the Environmental Protection Act? Why is strict government action necessary to control
industrial pollution?

C. Long Answer / Essay Questions

41. Discuss the five major factors that determine the location and establishment of an industry, with
examples.
42. What is industrial pollution? Explain its main causes and the various types of pollution caused
by industries.
43. Explain the different ways industries are classified. Use a table to distinguish between the types
based on size and raw materials.
Chapter 9: Energy and Power Resources
Key Terms
Energy source Something that a person or organisation can use to produce heat, power or
electricity
Fuel A naturally-occurring substance that stores energy
Renewable energy Energy sources that originate in nature and can be replenished; can be
used repeatedly
Non-renewable energy Energy sources that are finite and may run out in the future if used at a fast
rate
Solar power Energy derived from sunlight; converted to electric current using solar
panels (semi-conducting materials)
Hydropower Energy produced from falling or flowing water under the force of gravity;
generated at hydroelectric plants
Wind power Energy obtained from wind; a windmill converts wind energy to electrical
energy via a turbine
Geothermal energy Heat from the Earth; obtained from hot springs, steam or hot water
underground
Coal A black/brownish-black sedimentary rock with large amounts of carbon;
formed from plant matter buried under sediments for millions of years
Petroleum A liquid fossil fuel (crude oil); refined to produce petrol, diesel and kerosene
Fossil fuels Non-renewable fuels (coal, petroleum) formed from remains of plants and
animals over millions of years
Anthracite Best quality coal with 86-97% carbon; mostly used in the metal industry
Bituminous Coal with 45-86% carbon; used to generate electricity and in iron/steel
industry
Lignite Poor quality coal with 25-35% carbon; low heating values; used in electricity
production
Peat Under-developed form of coal; low carbon percentage; high water content;
produces less heat and more smoke
Magma Extremely high temperatures of molten rock found deep underground;
source for geothermal energy

1. Sources of Energy
• Energy = ability to do work; important for all activities from household to complex industrial
processes
• An energy source = something used to produce heat, power or electricity
• Fuel = naturally-occurring substance that stores energy
• Energy sources are of two types: Renewable and Non-renewable
2. Renewable Energy Sources
Renewable vs. Non-renewable
Renewable Non-renewable
Originate in nature and can be replenished Finite — may run out if used at fast rate
Can be used repeatedly Cannot be replenished in a human lifetime
Examples: solar, wind, hydropower, geothermal Examples: coal, petroleum
Non-polluting (mostly) Harmful to environment when extracted and
burned

Solar Power
• Derived from solar energy — freely available from sunlight
• One of the most important non-conventional sources of energy because it is non-
polluting
• Solar panels made of thin semi-conducting materials absorb sunlight → converted to
electric current
• Uses: cooking, heating water, street lighting, water pumping, desalinating salty water,
charging electronics, traffic signals, railway signals

Hydropower
• Energy produced from falling or flowing water under the force of gravity
• Generated at hydroelectric plants (also called water power or hydroelectric power)
• Flowing water from rivers, dams, lakes turns wheels of large turbines → generates
electricity
• Hydropower is also generated from tides — tidal power
• India is the 3rd largest country in number of dams and 5th largest producer of hydro-
electric power
• India has more than 4,800 completed dams

Major Hydroelectric Projects in India

Project River State Capacity
Koyna Hydroelectric Koyna River Maharashtra 1,960 MW — largest completed
Project hydroelectric power plant in India
Tehri Hydroelectric Bhagirathi Uttarakhand 1,000 MW — highest dam in India
Complex River
Srisailam Krishna River Andhra Pradesh & 1,670 MW — third-largest dam in
Hydroelectric Project Telangana India
Nathpa Jhakri Satluj River Himachal Pradesh 1,500 MW
Hydroelectric Project
Sardar Sarovar Narmada River Gujarat 1,450 MW — part of Narmada
 Valley Project

Wind Power
• The difference in pressure between areas on Earth's surface causes winds
• A windmill is a machine that converts wind energy into electricity — three large blades
attached to a turbine connected to a generator
• When wind blows, it turns blades → turbine converts wind energy to electrical energy
• Leading producers of wind power: China, USA, Germany, Spain, India

Geothermal Energy
• Heat from the Earth — clean and sustainable
• Sources range from shallow ground to hot water and hot rock a few miles beneath
Earth's surface, and down to the high temperatures of magma
• Mostly, energy is derived from hot springs
• A geothermal power plant taps into steam or hot water reservoirs underground; heat
drives an electrical generator
• India has geothermal plants at Parvati Valley, Manikaran (Himachal Pradesh) and Leh

3. Non-Renewable Energy Sources

• Fossil fuels are widely used non-renewable sources
• Process of extracting these resources is harmful to environment
• Combustion releases harmful gases like sulphur dioxide and carbon monoxide → acid rain,
global warming → pollution

Coal
• Black or brownish-black sedimentary rock containing large amounts of carbon
• Formed when plant matter is buried under layers of sediments for millions of years
• Intense pressure and heat transform plant matter into coal
• Amount of carbon in coal determines amount of heat it produces
• Commercial coal mining in India started in 1774 in Raniganj, West Bengal (by M/s
Sumner and Suetonius Grant Heatly of East India Company)
Type Carbon Content Quality Uses
Anthracite 86–97% Best quality Metal industry
Bituminous 45–86% Medium quality Electricity generation; iron and
steel industry; fuel in cars
Lignite 25–35% Poor quality; low heating Electricity production
Peat Low % Under-developed; high Produces less heat and more
water content smoke on burning
 Petroleum
• Liquid fossil fuel — also known as crude oil
• Takes millions of years to produce from remains of plants and animals
• Found in underground rock formations
• Refined to produce petrol, diesel and kerosene
• Used as a fuel in cars
• Top crude oil producers in the world: Saudi Arabia, USA, Russia, China and Iran

4. Conservation of Energy and Power Resources

• With rapid increase in population and industrialisation, demand for energy is rising
• Energy resources are limited — overuse may exhaust them in a few years
• Conservation of energy = aimed to reduce demand, protect and restore supplies and increase
use of alternative energy

Methods of Energy Conservation

Prohibit Wastage
• Turn off lights, fans and other electronic devices when not in use
• Avoid opening refrigerator frequently; defrost regularly (frost increases energy
consumption)
• Use washing machines and dishwashers only when fully loaded
• Replace ordinary bulbs with LED or CFL — consume ~80% less energy than ordinary
bulbs
• Replace open cooking utensils with pressure cookers — reduces energy usage and
cooking time

Use Alternative Energy Resources

• Use renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, tidal energy
• Government should promote their use on a large scale

Recycle Resources
• Promote recycling and reuse of waste — paper, metals, plastics
• Most recycling processes require less energy than manufacturing new products
• Wherever possible, repair and reuse things

Problem Set — Chapter 9

A. Objective Questions (MCQ)
44. Which of the following is a renewable source of energy? (a) Coal (b) Petroleum (c) Solar
energy (d) Natural gas
45. The best quality of coal with 86-97% carbon is: (a) Peat (b) Lignite (c) Bituminous (d)
Anthracite
 46. India is the _____ largest producer of hydro-electric power in the world. (a) 2nd (b) 3rd (c) 5th
(d) 7th
47. Geothermal energy in India is found in: (a) Rajasthan (b) Manikaran, Himachal Pradesh (c)
Kerala (d) Tamil Nadu
48. Which country is the leading producer of wind power? (a) India (b) Germany (c) China (d)
USA
49. Petroleum is also known as: (a) natural gas (b) crude oil (c) kerosene (d) coal tar

B. Short Answer Questions

50. Distinguish between renewable and non-renewable sources of energy. Give two examples of
each.
51. How does solar power work? What are its various uses?
52. Describe the formation of coal. Name the four types of coal and state their carbon content.
53. Name any three major hydroelectric projects in India, stating the river, state and capacity of
each.
54. Suggest five ways in which individuals can conserve energy at home.

C. Long Answer / Essay Questions

55. Describe the four renewable energy sources — solar, hydro, wind and geothermal — in detail.
Include how each works and give examples from India.
56. Why are fossil fuels considered non-renewable? What are the environmental problems
associated with their use? Why is conservation of energy resources important?
57. Write a detailed account of hydroelectric power in India. Name at least five major hydroelectric
projects, their rivers, states and capacities.
Chapter 13: Antarctica — The Uninhabited Continent
Key Terms
Antarctica Fifth-largest continent in the world; name means 'opposite to the Arctic'
White continent / Nicknames for Antarctica — 98% covered by ice; coldest, driest and
Frozen continent windiest continent
Human void zone A region with no permanent human settlement; Antarctica has no
indigenous human population
Antarctic Ice Sheet Almost 98% of Antarctica is covered by ice sheets; varies between 3 million
km² in summer to 19 million km² in winter
Ice shelf Floating ice sheets connected to the continent; e.g., Ross Ice Shelf, Ronne
Filchner Ice Shelf
Glacier A large piece of ice moving over the Earth's surface; the Lambert Glacier in
Antarctica is the world's largest valley glacier
Blizzard Intense cold and strong winds accompanying snowfall in Antarctica
Polar Desert Antarctica receives only 5-10 cm of snowfall and no rain — referred to as
the Polar Desert
Aurora Australis A unique natural electric phenomenon (southern lights) — solar winds
create a glow in the night sky
Diamond dust A cloud at ground-level composed of tiny ice crystals; observed in
Antarctica
Antarctic Treaty Signed by 12 countries in 1959; came into force 1961; prohibits military
activities, mineral mining, nuclear explosions and waste disposal; supports
independent scientific research
Lake Vostok The largest known lake of Antarctica, about 15,690 km²; buried under 4 km
of ice

1. Location and Basic Facts

Key Facts about Antarctica
Feature Detail
Total area (including ice sheet) 14,200,000 km²
Population 1,000–5,000 individuals (research workers only)
Highest point on land Mt Vinson Massif (4,892 m above sea level)
Lowest point on land Bentley Subglacial Trench (2,555 m below sea level)
Average elevation About 2,200 m above sea level
Ice cover 98% of the continent covered by ice; average thickness 1.9 km
Discovery First discovered in 1773 by British explorer Captain James
 Cook (discovered nearby islands)
Official discovery 19 January 1840, Charles Wilkes (USA Exploring Expedition)
discovered the continent itself

• Antarctica is located almost wholly within the Antarctic Circle with the South Pole at its centre
• Covers about 20% of the Southern Hemisphere
• The world's highest continent — average elevation ~2,200 m above sea level
• Surrounded by the Southern Ocean on all sides; Weddell Sea and Ross Sea form bays on the
continent
• Roughly circular continent, centred on the South Pole
• The name Antarctica was coined by John George Bartholomew, a Scottish cartographer in the
1890s

2. Boundaries and Political Status

• There are no countries in Antarctica; however, the following nations claim different parts of it:
Countries Claiming Parts of Antarctica
Country Territory Claimed
United Kingdom British Antarctic Territory
New Zealand Ross Dependency
France Adélie Land
Norway Peter I Island, Queen Maud Land
Australia Australian Antarctic Territory
Chile Chilean Antarctic Territory
Argentina Argentine Antarctica

The Antarctic Treaty (1959)

• Signed by 12 countries in 1959; came into force 1961; total 54 parties by 2016
• Prohibits: military activities, mineral mining, nuclear explosions, nuclear waste
disposal
• Supports: independent scientific research
• Undertakes: protection of the continent's eco zone

3. Physical Features
Antarctic Ice Sheet
• Almost 98% of Antarctica is covered by ice sheets
• Summer: ice surface ~3 million km²; Winter: increases to ~19 million km²
 • Ice grows at coastal ice shelves — mainly the Ross Ice Shelf and Ronne Filchner Ice
Shelf
• Ice shelves are floating ice sheets connected to the continent
• Glacial ice moves from interior to ice shelves at the rate of between 10 m and 1,000 m
every year

Mountain Ranges
• Notable mountain ranges: Transantarctic Mountains, the Antarctandes, and the
Sentinel Range
• Transantarctic Mountains: longest mountain range in Antarctica — run north to south
~3,500 km; split continent into West Antarctica (Lesser Antarctica) and East Antarctica
(Greater Antarctica)
• Mt Vinson: Highest peak of Antarctica (4,892 m) — part of Sentinel Range of
Ellsworth Mountains; also called Vinson Massif; 1,200 km from South Pole
• Other high peaks: Mount Tyree (4,852 m) and Mount Shinn (4,661 m)
• Mt Erebus (3,794 m) on Ross Island — active volcano; southernmost active volcano
on Earth
• Mountain valleys are barren, windy and frozen — referred to as oases

Lakes and Rivers

• A large portion of the world's freshwater is in the form of ice in Antarctica
• Non-frozen water found in lakes beneath the ice
• Lake Vostok: largest known lake of Antarctica, about 15,690 km²; buried under 4 km
of ice
• Other lakes: Vanda, Brownworth, Fryxell, Bonney and Hoare — located in McMurdo
dry valleys
• Onyx River: important river of Antarctica; about 32 km long; flows into Lake Vanda

Plateaus and Flat Terrain

• Average elevation of Antarctica is about 2,440 metres — greater than any other
continent
• Most land areas outside mountain ranges are plateaus covered in thick ice
• Named plateaus: Hollick-Kenyon and Rockefeller Plateaus in West Antarctica; Polar
Plateau over the South Pole in East Antarctica
• Lambert Glacier: located in East Antarctica; world's largest valley glacier; lies over
many mountain peaks rising to 1,017 metres
• Polar ice cap in Antarctica moves ~10 metres every year
• Other important glaciers: Skelton, Rennick, Recovery, Beardmore
• Large sections of ice break away from Lambert Glacier → form part of floating Amery
Ice Shelf
4. Climate
• Antarctica only has TWO seasons: summer (October to February) and winter (April to
September)
• Experiences extremely cold and long winters
• Antarctica's winter occurs from April to September (southern hemisphere — opposite to northern
hemisphere)
Temperature Details
• Winter (April–September): coastal regions −10°C to −30°C; mountainous regions drop
to −60°C
• Summer (October–February): Sun almost always in the sky; coastal areas −0°C to
9°C; mountains below −20°C
• During summer (daylight months), solar radiation in Antarctica is MORE than
equatorial regions — but temperature rarely rises above freezing point
• Vostok Research Station, Russia, recorded −89.2°C in 1983; satellite data recorded
−93.2°C in August 2010
• Antarctica receives only 5–10 cm of snowfall; receives NO rain → referred to as the
Polar Desert

Unique Natural Phenomena

• Aurora Australis ('southern lights'): Solar winds passing through Earth's atmosphere
create a glow in the night sky
• Diamond dust: A cloud at ground-level composed of tiny ice crystals
• From mid-September to mid-March: continuous daylight
• From mid-March to mid-September: continuous darkness

5. Human Void Zone

• Antarctica has NO indigenous human population — 'human void zone'
• No permanent human settlement due to extreme climatic conditions: ice sheets, icebergs,
blizzards
• Governments of many countries maintain permanent research stations — widely distributed
throughout the continent; constructed on rocks or ice
• Population of research workers: ~5,000 in summer; ~1,000 in winter

Flora, Fauna and Tourism

• Limited scope of vegetation — only a few species: lichen, mosses, terrestrial algae
• Marine fauna: penguins, blue whales, orcas, colossal squids, fur seals
• Bird species near edges: albatross, prions, gulls, cormorants, petrels
• Tourism started with sea tourism in late 1960s
• Aerial tours by Australia and New Zealand from 1977–1979; resumed in 1990s
• Summer tour season: November to March; companies require a permit from Antarctic
Treaty
• Antarctica plays a key role in Earth's heat balance — ice is more reflective than land
 or water

Problem Set — Chapter 13

A. Objective Questions (MCQ)
58. Antarctica means: (a) land of ice (b) opposite to the Arctic (c) the white land (d) southern
continent
59. The highest point in Antarctica is: (a) Mount Erebus (b) Mount Tyree (c) Mount Vinson Massif
(d) Mount Shinn
60. The Antarctic Treaty was signed in: (a) 1950 (b) 1955 (c) 1959 (d) 1961
61. Antarctica is referred to as the Polar Desert because: (a) it is hot and dry (b) it receives no rain
and only 5-10 cm snowfall (c) it has no mountains (d) it has no ice
62. The largest valley glacier in the world located in Antarctica is: (a) Beardmore Glacier (b)
Rennick Glacier (c) Lambert Glacier (d) Skelton Glacier
63. Antarctica's winter occurs from: (a) December to February (b) June to August (c) April to
September (d) October to March

B. Short Answer Questions

64. Why is Antarctica called the 'white continent' and the 'Polar Desert'?
65. What is the Antarctic Treaty? Name five things it prohibits or supports.
66. Describe the ice sheet of Antarctica. What are ice shelves and how do they form?
67. What are the Aurora Australis and diamond dust? When is continuous daylight/darkness
experienced in Antarctica?
68. Why is Antarctica called a 'human void zone'? Who lives there and how many people?

C. Long Answer / Essay Questions

69. Describe the physical features of Antarctica — including ice sheet, mountain ranges, lakes,
rivers, plateaus and glaciers.
70. Describe the climate of Antarctica. How does its location in the Southern Hemisphere affect its
seasons? What unique natural phenomena are observed there?
71. Name seven countries that claim parts of Antarctica and their territories. What is the significance
of the Antarctic Treaty for the protection of this continent?