Child Development
Complete Study Notes
BSc Psychology • Mahatma Gandhi University
Covers: Introduction • Theories • Prenatal • Physical & Sensory • Language • Emotional • Temperament &
Moral Development
Module 1: Introduction to Child Development
What Is Child Development?
Child development is the scientific study of how children change physically, cognitively, and
socially from conception through adolescence. It is interdisciplinary — drawing from psychology,
biology, education, neuroscience, and medicine.
Real-world example: Doctors need it to track healthy growth. Teachers need it to know
when kids are ready to read. Parents use it to understand why their toddler has
tantrums.
Three Domains of Development
• Physical — changes in body size, motor skills, brain development, health
• Cognitive — changes in thinking, memory, problem-solving, language
• Emotional/Social — managing feelings, forming relationships, learning values
These domains are deeply linked. A sick child (physical) struggles to concentrate (cognitive)
and may withdraw from friends (social).
Periods of Development
Stage / Age Key Features Example / Remember This
Prenatal Most rapid change ever. One The heart starts beating just 3½ weeks after
Conception– cell → full baby in 9 months conception!
Birth
Infancy & First words, first steps, first A 1-year-old's brain is already 70% of adult size
Toddlerhood attachments, brain grows
0–2 years fastest
Early Language explodes, make- The 'why' stage — kids ask 300+ questions a day
Childhood 2– believe play, friendships begin
6 years
Middle School skills, logical thinking, Can now understand that 5 coins ≠ more money
Childhood 6– organized games with rules than 1 big coin
11 years
Adolescence Puberty, identity search, Teens can now argue hypothetically: 'What if laws
11–18 years abstract thinking, didn't exist?'
independence
Emerging Exploring career, love, values Trying different jobs, relationships, lifestyles before
Adulthood before committing to adult 'settling'
18–25 years roles
The Big Debates
Nature vs. Nurture
Nature = genetic inheritance (what you're born with)
Nurture = environment and experience (how you're raised)
Today: most researchers agree it is BOTH, interacting constantly
Example: A child may inherit a tendency for anxiety (nature), but calm parenting can reduce
it (nurture)
Continuous vs. Discontinuous Development
Continuous = gradual, like a ramp — skills build slowly over time
Discontinuous = stages, like stairs — sudden jumps in ability
Example of continuous: vocabulary grows by a few words each week
Example of discontinuous: suddenly understanding object permanence at ~8 months
Module 2: Theories of Development
Freud's Psychosexual Theory
Freud believed personality forms in childhood through 5 stages, each focused on different
erogenous zones. Unresolved conflicts at any stage cause lasting psychological problems.
The Three Parts of Personality
Id, Ego & Superego
Id: 'I want it NOW!' — operates on pleasure principle, present from birth
Ego: 'Let's find a realistic way' — mediates between id and reality
Superego: 'That would be wrong' — internalized moral values/conscience
Example: You're hungry (id wants to grab food). Your ego says wait for dinner. Your
superego says stealing food would be wrong.
The 5 Psychosexual Stages
Stage / Age Key Features Example / Remember This
Oral 0–1 yr Pleasure from sucking, biting, Fixation: excessive talking, smoking, overeating in
tasting. Trust built through adulthood
feeding
Anal 1–3 yrs Toilet training is key. Pleasure Fixation: extreme tidiness (retentive) OR extreme
from controlling bowel messiness (expulsive)
movements
Phallic 3–6 Oedipus/Electra complex. A 4-year-old boy wants to 'marry Mommy' —
yrs Identifies with same-sex normal Oedipal phase!
parent, builds superego
Latency 6–11 Sexual urges dormant. Energy Kids at this age often say 'boys/girls are yucky'
yrs goes to school, hobbies,
same-sex friends
Genital Sexual maturity. Goal: healthy Teens developing genuine romantic interest in
Puberty+ romantic relationships others
Erikson's Psychosocial Theory
Unlike Freud, Erikson saw development continuing across the entire lifespan through 8 stages.
Each stage has a crisis to resolve — success builds a healthy personality.
Stage / Age Key Features Example / Remember This
Trust vs Can I trust my caregivers to Consistently fed & comforted → trust. Neglected
Mistrust 0–1 meet my needs? → mistrust
yr
Autonomy vs Can I do things myself? Letting toddlers choose clothes builds autonomy
Shame 1–3
yrs
Initiative vs Can I try new things and lead Criticizing a child's idea too harshly → guilt, fear of
Guilt 3–6 yrs play? trying
Industry vs Am I good at things compared Getting an F repeatedly → inferiority complex
Inferiority 6– to others?
12 yrs
Identity vs Who am I? What do I believe? Teens trying different friend groups, looks, and
Role values
Confusion
12–18 yrs
Intimacy vs Can I build deep, loving Fear of rejection → emotional isolation
Isolation 18– relationships?
40 yrs
Generativity Am I contributing something Mentoring younger people fulfills generativity
vs Stagnation meaningful?
40–65 yrs
Integrity vs Was my life meaningful? Reviewing life with pride → integrity. With regret →
Despair 65+ despair
yrs
Behaviourism & Social Learning Theory
Classical Conditioning (Pavlov/Watson)
Neutral stimulus paired with natural stimulus eventually triggers same response
Watson's 'Little Albert' experiment: Baby learned to fear white rat after rat was paired with
loud noise
Key idea: emotions like fear are LEARNED from environment, not innate
Operant Conditioning (Skinner)
Behaviours strengthened by rewards (reinforcement) or weakened by punishment
Example: Child cleans room → gets praise → more likely to clean again
Development = continuous; shaped gradually by rewards and punishments
Bandura's Social Learning Theory
Children learn by WATCHING others (observational learning / modelling)
Classic study: children who watched an adult hit a 'Bobo doll' imitated the aggression
Key concept: Self-efficacy — believing in your own ability to succeed shapes behaviour
Revised name: Social-Cognitive Theory (added role of thoughts and self-beliefs)
Module 3: Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development
Jean Piaget believed children are active constructors of knowledge — they don't just absorb
information, they build it through exploration. His is called a constructivist approach.
Key Concepts
Schemas (Schemes)
Mental frameworks for understanding the world
Example: A baby's 'schema' for a ball = round thing that bounces
New experiences either fit into existing schemas or force us to update them
Assimilation vs Accommodation
Assimilation: fitting new info into existing schema
Example: Child sees a donkey and says 'horse!' (fits horse schema)
Accommodation: changing schema when new info doesn't fit
Example: 'That's not a horse — it has different ears, it's a donkey'
Equilibration: the back-and-forth process between the two, driving development
Piaget's 4 Stages
Stage / Age Key Features Example / Remember This
Sensorimotor Learn through senses & Baby cries when toy hidden — doesn't know it still
0–2 years actions. Develop object exists. By 8 months: searches for it!
permanence
Preoperationa Language blooms, make- Child thinks taller glass has more water even after
l 2–7 years believe play, egocentric watching you pour the same amount
thinking, no conservation
Concrete Logical thinking about real Now understands the water is the same — just a
Operational objects. Conservation different shape
7–11 years mastered. Classification &
seriation
Formal Abstract & hypothetical 'If all humans are mortal and Socrates is human,
Operational reasoning. Scientific thinking then Socrates is mortal'
11+ years
Preoperational Stage — Key Limitations
• Egocentrism: can't see things from others' viewpoint
Classic test: Three-mountain task — child picks the photo showing what THEY see, not
what a doll across the table would see.
• Centration: focus on only one feature at a time
Example: Sees the tall glass and focuses only on HEIGHT — ignores the fact that it's
narrower.
• Irreversibility: can't mentally reverse an action
Example: Doesn't understand that the water can be poured back to prove it's the same
amount.
• Animistic thinking: believes inanimate objects are alive
Example: A 4-year-old says 'the sun is sleepy' or 'the chair hurt me on purpose.'
Concrete Operational — New Abilities
• Conservation: understands quantity stays same despite appearance change
• Classification: can sort objects into categories and sub-categories
• Seriation: can arrange items by size, weight, etc.
• Transitive inference: if A > B and B > C, then A > C
Memory trick: Think of a 7-year-old who can now argue logically: 'But that's not FAIR
because...'
Formal Operational — Adolescent Thinking
Hypothetico-Deductive Reasoning
Can start with a hypothesis and test it logically
Example: 'If I study more, I should get better grades. Let me test this.'
Imaginary audience: thinks everyone is watching and judging them
Personal fable: 'Nobody understands me — I'm special and unique'
Module 4: Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory
Vygotsky emphasized that learning is social — children develop through interaction with more
knowledgeable others. Culture and language are the primary engines of development.
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
The ZPD — Most Important Concept!
ZPD = tasks a child CANNOT do alone, but CAN do with help from a more skilled person
Think of it as the 'sweet spot' for learning — not too easy, not too hard
Example: A child can't tie shoelaces alone, but can with a parent guiding each step
Eventually, the child internalizes the skill and does it independently
Scaffolding
Scaffolding = adjusting help to match the child's current level. Like training wheels on a bike —
you support where needed and gradually remove help.
Classroom example: Teacher first models how to write an essay, then does one
together with the class, then the student tries alone with feedback.
Private Speech
• Piaget called it 'egocentric speech' (thought it was pointless)
• Vygotsky said it's SELF-GUIDANCE — children talk themselves through problems
You've seen this: A 5-year-old doing a puzzle muttering 'put the blue piece here... no...
try this one...' That's private speech at work!
• With age, private speech becomes internalized as silent inner speech
Piaget vs Vygotsky — Quick Comparison
Stage / Age Key Features Example / Remember This
Source of Piaget: Individual exploration Vygotsky: Social interaction with others
learning of environment
Role of Piaget: Thought comes first, Vygotsky: Language shapes and drives thought
language then language
Private Piaget: Egocentric, immature, Vygotsky: Self-regulation tool, very useful
speech useless
Teacher's role Piaget: Provide rich Vygotsky: Guide, scaffold, collaborate actively
environment, let child discover
Module 5: Prenatal Development
Three Periods of Prenatal Development
Stage / Age Key Features Example / Remember This
Period of the Fertilized egg divides rapidly. A fertilized egg is smaller than a grain of salt — yet
Zygote Weeks Implants in uterine wall. contains all your DNA!
1–2 Placenta begins forming
Period of the All major organs and body Heart beats by week 3.5. Arms and legs appear by
Embryo structures form. Most week 5. Most critical period!
Weeks 3–8 vulnerable to teratogens!
Period of the Growth and refinement. Brain Fetuses can recognize their mother's voice and
Fetus Weeks develops rapidly. Can hear favourite music played in the womb!
9–Birth sounds by month 5
Teratogens — Things That Harm Prenatal Development
A teratogen is any environmental agent that causes damage during the prenatal period. Harm
depends on: dose, timing, heredity, and other factors.
Major Teratogens to Know
Thalidomide (1960s sedative): caused severe limb deformities when taken weeks 4–6
Alcohol: causes Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD) — most preventable cause of
intellectual disability
Tobacco: low birth weight, miscarriage, ADHD, breathing problems
Cocaine/heroin: prematurity, low birth weight, developmental delays
Rubella virus: deafness, heart defects, brain damage — especially if in first trimester
Radiation: brain damage, increased cancer risk
Remember: timing matters most — the embryonic period (weeks 3–8) is most sensitive
Preterm and Low Birth Weight Infants
• Low birth weight = under 2.5 kg (5.5 lbs) at birth
• Preterm = born 3+ weeks early (before 37 weeks)
• Risks: learning disabilities, ADHD, brain damage, respiratory issues
Kangaroo Care
Skin-to-skin contact between parent and preterm infant
Proven to stabilize heart rate, temperature, and breathing
Promotes weight gain and reduces pain responses
Simple, free, and incredibly effective!
Module 6: Physical & Sensory Development
Two Patterns of Physical Growth
Cephalocaudal (Head to Tail)
Growth proceeds from the head downward
The brain and head develop first, then trunk, then legs
Example: Babies can hold their head up before they can sit, and sit before they can walk
Proximodistal (Centre to Periphery)
Growth proceeds from the centre of the body outward
Trunk develops before arms, arms before hands, hands before fingers
Example: A baby can wave its whole arm before it can use individual fingers
Motor Development Sequence
• Gross motor = large muscle movements (crawling, walking, jumping)
• Fine motor = small muscle movements (grasping, writing, buttoning)
Stage / Age Key Features Example / Remember This
Prereaching Poorly coordinated swipes Like a newborn swinging its arm vaguely toward
Newborn toward objects. Disappears ~7 your face
weeks
Ulnar Grasp 4 Holds object in palm using all Baby holds a rattle in whole hand like a fist
months fingers (excluding thumb)
Pincer Grasp Can pick up small objects with Now can pick up a pea or cheerio! Major fine
9–12 months thumb + forefinger motor milestone
Newborn Reflexes
Reflexes are automatic responses to stimuli. They are genetically programmed for survival.
Most disappear within months as voluntary control develops.
Stage / Age Key Features Example / Remember This
Rooting Turn head toward cheek touch, Survival: helps baby find food
seek nipple
Sucking Suck rhythmically when finger Disappears ~4 months, replaced by voluntary
placed in mouth sucking
Moro (Startle) Spread arms, then pull them in Evolutionary: may have helped ancestors cling to
when startled mother
Palmar Grasp Grips finger placed in palm Disappears ~3 months, leads to voluntary
tightly grasping
Stepping Step-like movements when Prepares infant for voluntary walking
held upright with feet touching
surface
Sensory Development
Vision
• Least developed sense at birth. Newborns see clearly only at ~20–25 cm (breast-feeding
distance!)
• By 2 months: can focus as well as adults. By 4 months: full colour vision
• Prefer faces from birth — hardwired social orientation
Visual cliff experiment: Crawling babies refuse to cross a glass surface over a 'drop'
— shows depth perception is already developed by crawling age.
Hearing
• Well-developed at birth — babies prefer their mother's voice immediately (heard in
womb!)
• Can distinguish speech sounds of any human language at birth
Amazing fact: Newborns prefer their native language over foreign languages — they
learned the rhythm and sound in the womb!
Touch, Taste & Smell
• Most sensitive to touch around mouth and palms — first areas active prenatally
• Show facial expressions for sweet (relax), sour (purse lips), bitter (arch mouth)
• Can recognize their mother's smell within hours of birth
Brain Development
The Developing Brain
Neurons form synaptic connections at explosive rates in infancy
Synaptic pruning: unused connections are eliminated — 'use it or lose it!'
Myelination: coating of nerve fibers that speeds up transmission, continues into adulthood
Sensitive periods: windows when certain experiences are especially critical
Experience-expectant growth: brain expects ordinary experiences (seeing, hearing,
touching)
Experience-dependent growth: brain refined by specific learning experiences unique to each
person
Module 7: Language Development
Components of Language
• Phonology — sound system (e.g., /b/ vs /p/)
• Semantics — word meanings and vocabulary
• Grammar — rules for arranging words (syntax + morphology)
• Pragmatics — social rules of language use (taking turns, being polite)
Theories of Language Acquisition
Chomsky's Nativist Theory
Language is innate — we are born with a Language Acquisition Device (LAD)
LAD contains 'Universal Grammar' — rules shared by all human languages
Evidence: all children worldwide acquire language in the same sequence and roughly same
timeline
Criticism: doesn't explain how social interaction shapes language learning
Interactionist Perspective
Language develops through interaction of innate capacities AND social experience
Key: caregivers use Infant-Directed Speech (IDS) — high pitched, slow, clear, repetitive
Joint attention: caregiver and baby attend to the same object → baby learns its name
Connectionist models: children learn by detecting statistical patterns in speech
Language Development Timeline
Stage / Age Key Features Example / Remember This
0–2 months Cooing — vowel-like sounds Baby goes 'ooooh, aaah' in response to voices
6 months Babbling — consonant-vowel 'babababa', 'mamama', 'dadadada'
combos
8–10 months Babbling takes on native French babies sound different from English
language intonation babies!
12 months First words! ~10 words 'Mama', 'Dada', 'no', 'bye-bye'
comprehended
18–24 months Vocabulary spurt. Two-word 'More milk', 'Daddy gone', 'Big dog'
combinations (telegraphic
speech)
2–5 years Grammar rules mastered, 'I goed to the park', 'Two foots' — applying rules
though overgeneralisation too broadly
errors occur
6–10 years ~10,000 words. Complex Can now understand jokes and puns!
grammar. Metalinguistic
awareness
Key Language Concepts
• Fast-mapping: learning a new word after just 1–2 exposures
Example: Show a 2-year-old a 'whisk' once and they remember the word days later!
• Overextension: using a word too broadly — calling all men 'Daddy'
• Underextension: using a word too narrowly — only calling their own dog 'doggie'
• Overregularisation: applying grammar rules to irregular words — 'goed', 'mouses', 'feets'
• Private speech (Vygotsky): talking to yourself to guide your own thinking
Module 8: Emotional & Social Development
Basic Emotions in Infancy
Stage / Age Key Features Example / Remember This
Happiness First social smiles at 6–10 Smile appears first in response to high-pitched
Birth+ weeks. Laughter at 3–4 voices and faces
months
Anger 4–6 Increases through Baby cries when a toy is taken — shows
months toddlerhood. Shows awareness of cause and effect!
intentionality
Fear 6–12 Stranger anxiety (6–8 months). Baby cries when left with unfamiliar person —
months Separation anxiety (6–24 attachment is forming
months)
Self- Shame, pride, guilt, Toddler hides face after knocking something over
Conscious embarrassment — require self- = shame emerging
Emotions 18 awareness
months+
Attachment Theory
Attachment is the deep emotional bond between infant and caregiver. John Bowlby argued it is
an evolved survival mechanism — infants are biologically programmed to stay close to
caregivers for protection.
Ainsworth's Strange Situation — 4 Attachment Types
Stage / Age Key Features Example / Remember This
Secure ~60% Uses caregiver as safe base. The gold standard! Linked to warm, sensitive
Distressed when caregiver parenting
leaves but easily comforted on
return
Avoidant Indifferent to caregiver. Shows May reflect parents who consistently rebuff
~15% little distress at separation. emotional needs
Ignores on return
Resistant Clingy before separation. Very Parents who are inconsistent — sometimes warm,
~10% distressed during. sometimes unavailable
Angry/ambivalent on return
Disorganized No consistent strategy. Often linked to abuse or frightening caregiver
~15% Confused, contradictory behaviour
behaviour
Emotional Self-Regulation
The ability to manage one's emotional state to achieve goals. Develops gradually from infancy
through adolescence.
• Infants: rely on caregivers to soothe them (rocking, holding, soft talking)
• Toddlers: start using words to express feelings; tantrums when regulation fails
• Preschoolers: talk about feelings; use distraction and self-talk strategies
• School-age: problem-centred coping (change the situation) vs emotion-centred coping
(manage feelings when situation can't change)
Good parenting tip: Name your child's emotions ('You seem really angry that he took
your toy'). This builds emotional vocabulary and regulation ability.
Module 9: Temperament & Moral Development
Temperament
Temperament = stable, biologically-based individual differences in reactivity (how
easily/intensely you react) and self-regulation (how well you manage reactions).
Stage / Age Key Features Example / Remember This
Easy 40% Regular routines, positive The baby who sleeps through the night at 3
mood, adapts readily to months!
change
Difficult 10% Irregular routines, slow to Every outing is an ordeal. High risk for adjustment
adapt, intense negative problems later
reactions
Slow-to- Mild reactions, initially Clings to parent at birthday party, but joins in after
warm-up 15% withdraws from new things, an hour
eventually adjusts
35% don't fit neatly into any category — they show unique blends of traits.
Goodness of Fit
The match between a child's temperament and their environment matters most
A 'difficult' child with patient, structured parents can thrive
The same child with harsh, impatient parents may develop serious problems
Parenting style should be tailored to the child's temperament
Piaget's Theory of Moral Development
Stage / Age Key Features Example / Remember This
Heteronomou Rules are fixed, from authority, John broke 10 cups accidentally = naughtier than
s Morality 5–8 must be obeyed strictly. Judge Henry who broke 1 cup while stealing (more
years actions by OUTCOME only damage = more wrong!)
Morality of Rules are flexible, socially Now says Henry is naughtier because he MEANT
Cooperation agreed, based on to steal — intentions matter more than damage
9–10 years+ INTENTIONS. Understand
fairness and reciprocity
Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development
Kohlberg expanded Piaget's work by interviewing people of all ages using moral dilemmas. He
identified 6 stages across 3 levels.
The Heinz Dilemma: Heinz's wife is dying. He can't afford medicine. Should he steal it?
— There's no right answer. Kohlberg judged the REASONING, not the decision.
Level 1: Preconventional (most children under 9)
Stage 1 — Punishment & Obedience: 'I won't steal because I'll get caught and punished'
Stage 2 — Instrumental Purpose: 'I'll help you if you help me' (self-interest)
Level 2: Conventional (most adolescents & adults)
Stage 3 — Good Boy/Girl: 'I should be nice to get approval from others'
Stage 4 — Social Order: 'We must obey laws to keep society functioning'
Level 3: Postconventional (rare; principled adults)
Stage 5 — Social Contract: 'Laws should be flexible and serve human welfare'
Stage 6 — Universal Principles: 'I follow my own conscience based on universal ethics'
Example of Stage 6: Nelson Mandela breaking unjust laws based on universal principles of
justice
Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems Theory
Development is shaped by nested layers of environment — from immediate family to the
broader culture. Each layer influences the child.
Stage / Age Key Features Example / Remember This
Microsystem Direct environment: family, A loving family directly shapes a child's security
school, peers, neighbourhood and confidence
Mesosystem Connections between When parents attend school events, home and
microsystems school reinforce each other
Exosystem Settings that affect child Parent loses job → stress at home → child's
indirectly wellbeing affected
Macrosystem Cultural values, laws, customs, Countries with generous parental leave have
economic conditions better infant-parent attachment rates
Chronosyste Changes over time — Growing up during COVID affected children's
m historical events, life social development globally
transitions
— End of Notes —
Good luck with your exams!