Dat abases

DATABASES.
What i s a Dat abase?
● I t i s a col l ect i on of i nf or mat i on r el at ed t o a par t i cul ar subj ect or pur pose.
● A col l ect i on of r el at ed dat a or i nf or mat i on gr ouped t oget her under one l ogi cal
st r uct ur e.
● A l ogi cal col l ect i on of r el at ed f i l es gr ouped t oget her by a ser i es of t abl es as
one ent i t y.
Exampl es of dat abases.
You can cr eat e a dat abase f or ; Pr i mar y- - - - - - Dat a t ypes
- Cust omer s’ det ai l s. - Li br ar y r ecor ds.
- Per sonal r ecor ds. - Fl i ght schedul es.
- Empl oyees’ r ecor ds. - A musi c col l ect i on.
- An Addr ess book (or Tel ephone di r ect or y), wher e each per son has t he Name,
Addr ess, Ci t y & Tel ephone no.

DATABASE CONCEPTS.
Def i ni t i on & Backgr ound.
1. Dat abase: A st r uct ur ed col l ect i on of dat a st or ed el ect r oni cal l y. I t 's
or gani zed i n a way t hat al l ows f or ef f i ci ent r et r i eval , updat i ng, and
management of dat a.

A Dat abase i s a common dat a pool , mai nt ai ned t o suppor t t he var i ous act i vi t i es
t aki ng pl ace wi t hi n an or gani zat i on.
The mani pul at i on of dat abase cont ent s t o yi el d i nf or mat i on i s by t he user
pr ogr ams.
The dat abase i s an or gani zed set of dat a i t ems t hat r educes dupl i cat i ons of t he
st or ed f i l es.

I NTEGRATED FI LE SYSTEMS.
These r ef er t o t he t r adi t i onal met hods of st or i ng f i l es, i .e., t he use of paper f i l es.
E.g., Manual & Fl at f i l es.
● I n I nt egr at ed f i l e syst ems, sever al i nt er - i ndependent f i l es ar e mai nt ai ned f or
t he di f f er ent user s’ r equi r ement s.
● The I nt egr at ed f i l e syst ems have t he pr obl ems of dat a dupl i cat i on.
● I n or der t o car r y out any f i l e pr ocessi ng t ask(s), al l t he r el at ed f i l es have t o be
pr ocessed.
● Some i nf or mat i on r esul t i ng f r om sever al f i l es may not be avai l abl e, gi vi ng
t he over al l st at e of af f ai r s of t he syst em.
2. DATABASE MAI NTENANCE.
A Dat abase cannot be cr eat ed f ul l y at once. I t s cr eat i on and mai nt enance i s a
gr adual and cont i nuous pr ocedur e. The cr eat i on & t he mai nt enance of dat abases i s
under t he i nf l uence of a set of user pr ogr ams known as t he Dat abase Management
Syst ems (DBMS).

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Thr ough t he DBMS, user s communi cat e t hei r r equi r ement s t o t he dat abase usi ng
Dat a Descr i pt i on Languages (DDL’s) & Dat a Mani pul at i on Languages (DML’s).
I n f act , t he DBMS pr ovi de an i nt er f ace bet ween t he user ’s pr ogr ams and t he cont ent s
of t he dat abase.
Dur i ng t he cr eat i on & subsequent mai nt enance of t he dat abase, t he DDL’s & DML’s ar e
used t o:
(i). Add new f i l es t o t he dat abase.
(ii). I ncor por at e f i el ds ont o t he exi st i ng r ecor ds i n t he dat abase.
(iii). Del et e t he obsol et e (out dat ed) r ecor ds.
(iv). Car r y out adj ust ment s on (or amend) t he exi st i ng r ecor ds.
(v). Expand t he dat abase capaci t y, f or i t t o cat er f or t he gr owt h i n t he vol ume f or
enhanced appl i cat i on r equi r ement s.
(vi). Li nk up al l t he dat a i t ems i n t he dat abase l ogi cal l y.

Dat a Di ct i onar y.
Al l def i ni t i ons of el ement s i n t he syst em ar e descr i bed i n det ai l i n a Dat a
di ct i onar y.
The el ement s of t he syst em t hat ar e def i ned ar e: Dat af l ow, Pr ocesses, and Dat a st or es.
I f a dat abase admi ni st r at or want s t o know t he def i ni t i on of a dat a i t em name or
t he cont ent of a par t i cul ar dat af l ow, t he i nf or mat i on shoul d be avai l abl e i n t he
di ct i onar y.
Not es.
● Dat abases ar e used f or sever al pur poses, e.g., i n Account i ng –used f or
mai nt enance of t he cust omer f i l es wi t hi n t he base.
● Dat abase syst ems ar e i nst al l ed & coor di nat ed by a Dat abase Admi ni st r at or , who
has t he over al l aut hor i t y t o est abl i sh and cont r ol dat a def i ni t i ons and
st andar ds.
● Dat abase st or age r equi r es a l ar ge Di r ect Access st or age (e.g., t he di sk)
mai nt ai ned on- l i ne.
● The dat abase cont ent s shoul d be backed up, af t er ever y updat e or mai nt enance
r un, t o suppl ement t he dat abase cont ent s i n case of l oss. The backup medi a t o be
used i s chosen by t he or gani zat i on.
Dat a Bank.
A Dat a Bank can be def i ned as a col l ect i on of dat a, usual l y f or sever al user s, and
avai l abl e t o sever al or gani zat i ons.
A Dat a Bank i s t her ef or e, a col l ect i on of dat abases.
Not es.
● The Dat abase i s or gani zat i onal , whi l e a Dat a Bank i s mul t i - or gani zat i onal i n
use.
● The Dat abase & t he Dat a Bank have si mi l ar const r uct i on and pur pose. The onl y
di f f er ence i s t hat , t he t er m Dat a Bank i s used t o descr i be a l ar ger capaci t y base,
whose cont ent s ar e most l y of hi st or i cal r ef er ences (i .e., t he Dat a Bank f or ms t he
basi s f or dat a or i nf or mat i on t hat i s usual l y gener at ed per i odi cal l y). On t he
ot her hand, t he cont ent s of t he Dat abase ar e used f r equent l y t o gener at e
i nf or mat i on t hat i nf l uences t he deci si ons of t he concer ned or gani zat i on.

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2 . DBMS (Dat abase Management Syst em): - Sof t war e t hat manages dat abases,
pr ovi di ng t ool s f or dat a st or age, r et r i eval , secur i t y, and mor e. Exampl es i ncl ude
MySQL, Post gr eSQL, and Or acl e.

3 . Tabl e: - A f undament al dat abase st r uct ur e wher e dat a i s st or ed. Tabl es consi st of
r ows and col umns, wi t h each r ow r epr esent i ng a r ecor d and each col umn r epr esent i ng
a f i el d.

4 . Recor d (Row): - A si ngl e ent r y or dat a poi nt i n a dat abase t abl e. Each r ecor d
t ypi cal l y cont ai ns i nf or mat i on about a speci f i c ent i t y or i t em.

5 . Fi el d (Col umn): - A si ngl e dat a el ement wi t hi n a dat abase t abl e. I t r epr esent s a
speci f i c at t r i but e or char act er i st i c of t he ent i t i es descr i bed i n t he t abl e.

6 . Pr i mar y Key:
- A uni que i dent i f i er f or each r ecor d i n a t abl e. I t ensur es t hat no t wo
r ecor ds have t he same key val ue, hel pi ng wi t h dat a i nt egr i t y and ef f i ci ent
dat a r et r i eval .

7 . For ei gn Key:
- A f i el d i n one t abl e t hat r ef er s t o t he pr i mar y key i n anot her t abl e. I t
est abl i shes r el at i onshi ps bet ween t abl es and ensur es r ef er ent i al i nt egr i t y.

8 . I ndex:
- A dat a st r uct ur e t hat i mpr oves t he speed of dat a r et r i eval oper at i ons on a
dat abase t abl e. I t wor ks l i ke t he i ndex of a book, al l owi ng you t o qui ckl y
l ocat e speci f i c r ecor ds.

9 . SQL (St r uct ur ed Quer y Language):

- A domai n- speci f i c l anguage used t o manage and mani pul at e r el at i onal
dat abases. I t al l ows f or quer yi ng, updat i ng, and managi ng dat a.

1 0 . Quer y:
- A r equest f or i nf or mat i on f r om a dat abase. Quer i es ar e wr i t t en i n SQL
and used t o r et r i eve speci f i c dat a based on def i ned cr i t er i a.

1 1 . Nor mal i zat i on:

- A pr ocess of or gani zi ng dat a i n a dat abase t o r educe dat a r edundancy and
i mpr ove dat a i nt egr i t y. I t i nvol ves br eaki ng down l ar ge t abl es i nt o smal l er ,
r el at ed t abl es.

1 2 . ACI D (At omi ci t y, Consi st ency, I sol at i on, Dur abi l i t y):
- A set of pr oper t i es t hat ensur e t he r el i abi l i t y and i nt egr i t y of dat abase
t r ansact i ons. ACI D t r ansact i ons ar e essent i al f or mai nt ai ni ng dat a
consi st ency.

1 3 . NoSQL Dat abase:

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- A t ype of dat abase t hat does not r el y on t he t r adi t i onal t abul ar

r el at i onal model . I t i s of t en used f or handl i ng unst r uct ur ed or semi -
st r uct ur ed dat a.

1 4 . Schema:
- A bl uepr i nt or st r uct ur e t hat def i nes t he or gani zat i on of dat a i n a
dat abase. I t i ncl udes t he t abl es, f i el ds, r el at i onshi ps, and const r ai nt s.

1 5 . Backup and Rest or e:

- The pr ocess of cr eat i ng copi es (backups) of a dat abase t o saf eguar d
agai nst dat a l oss and t he subsequent pr ocess of r est or i ng dat a f r om t hese
backups.

1 6 . Concur r ency Cont r ol :

- Techni ques and mechani sms used t o ensur e t hat mul t i pl e user s or
t r ansact i ons can access and modi f y a dat abase concur r ent l y wi t hout causi ng
dat a i nconsi st ency or conf l i ct s.

1 7 . Dat a War ehouse:

- A speci al i zed dat abase used f or st or i ng and managi ng l ar ge vol umes of
hi st or i cal dat a f or busi ness i nt el l i gence and anal yt i cs pur poses.

1 8 . ETL (Ext r act , Tr ansf or m, Load):

- A pr ocess used t o ext r act dat a f r om var i ous sour ces, t r ansf or m i t i nt o a
sui t abl e f or mat , and t hen l oad i t i nt o a dat a war ehouse f or anal ysi s.

1 9 . Repl i cat i on:

- The pr ocess of cr eat i ng and mai nt ai ni ng dupl i cat e copi es of a dat abase
t o i mpr ove dat a avai l abi l i t y, f aul t t ol er ance, and l oad bal anci ng.

2 0 . Dat a Mi gr at i on:
- The pr ocess of t r ansf er r i ng dat a f r om one dat abase syst em or st or age
pl at f or m t o anot her , of t en i nvol vi ng schema conver si ons and dat a
t r ansf or mat i ons.

These t er ms pr ovi de a f oundat i onal under st andi ng of dat abase concept s and ar e
essent i al f or wor ki ng wi t h dat abases ef f ect i vel y, whet her you'r e a devel oper ,
dat abase admi ni st r at or , or dat a anal yst .

TYPES OF DATABASE MODELS.

Dat abase model s ar e abst r act r epr esent at i ons of how dat a i s or gani zed and st or ed i n
a dat abase management syst em (DBMS). These model s def i ne t he st r uct ur e and
r el at i onshi ps bet ween dat a el ement s wi t hi n a dat abase, and t hey ser ve as a
f r amewor k f or desi gni ng, cr eat i ng, and managi ng dat abases.
i. Hi er ar chi cal dat abase model .
● I t i s a dat a st r uct ur e wher e t he dat a i s or gani zed l i ke a f ami l y t r ee or an
or gani zat i on char t .
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● I n a Hi er ar chi cal dat abase, t he r ecor ds ar e st or ed i n mul t i pl e l evel s. Uni t s

f ur t her down t he syst em ar e subor di nat e t o t he ones above.
● I n ot her wor ds, t he dat abase has br anches made up of par ent and chi l d
r ecor ds. Each par ent r ecor d can have mul t i pl e chi l d r ecor ds, but each chi l d
can have onl y one par ent .
● I n t he hi er ar chi cal model , dat a i s or gani zed i n a t r ee- l i ke st r uct ur e. Thi nk
of i t l i ke an or gani zat i onal char t wher e t her e's a si ngl e r oot el ement (t he
CEO), and i t br anches out i nt o var i ous depar t ment s (chi l d el ement s), whi ch
can have sub- depar t ment s (gr andchi l d el ement s). Each chi l d can have onl y one
par ent .

Component s of Dat a hi er ar chy.

Dat abases (l ogi cal col l ect i on of r el at ed f i l es).

Fi l es (col l ect i on of r el at ed r ecor ds).

Recor ds (col l ect i on of r el at ed f i el ds).

Fi el ds (Fact s, at t r i but es –a set of r el at ed char act er s).

Char act er s (Al phabet s, number s & speci al char act er s or symbol s).
- Advant ages:
- Si mpl i ci t y: I t 's easy t o under st and and i mpl ement .
- Ef f i ci ent f or Par ent - Chi l d Dat a: I t 's ef f i ci ent when you have dat a wi t h cl ear
par ent - chi l d r el at i onshi ps, l i ke an or gani zat i on's hi er ar chy.
- Di sadvant ages:
- Li mi t ed Fl exi bi l i t y: St r uggl es wi t h r epr esent i ng many- t o- many r el at i onshi ps,
whi ch ar e common i n r eal - wor l d scenar i os.
- Compl ex Dat a St r uct ur es: Not sui t abl e f or compl ex dat a st r uct ur es t hat don't
f i t neat l y i nt o a hi er ar chy.

ii. Net wor k dat abase model .

● A Net wor k dat abase model r epr esent s many- t o- many r el at i onshi ps bet ween
dat a. I t al l ows a dat a el ement or r ecor d t o be r el at ed t o mor e t han one ot her
dat a el ement or r ecor d. For exampl e, an empl oyee can be associ at ed wi t h mor e
t han one depar t ment .
● The net wor k model ext ends t he hi er ar chi cal model by al l owi ng mul t i pl e
par ent - chi l d r el at i onshi ps, cr eat i ng a mor e i nt er connect ed st r uct ur e. Thi nk
of i t l i ke a cor por at e st r uct ur e wher e empl oyees can r epor t t o mor e t han one
manager .
Advant ages:
Fl exi bi l i t y: Of f er s mor e f l exi bi l i t y t han t he hi er ar chi cal model ,
maki ng i t bet t er f or r epr esent i ng compl ex r el at i onshi ps.
Many- t o- Many Rel at i onshi ps: Suppor t s many- t o- many r el at i onshi ps,
whi ch ar e common i n var i ous appl i cat i ons.
Di sadvant ages:
Compl exi t y: Desi gni ng and i mpl ement i ng t he net wor k model can be
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compl ex.
Less St andar di zed: I t 's not as wi del y used and st andar di zed as ot her
model s l i ke t he r el at i onal model .

iii. Rel at i onal dat abase model .

● A Rel at i onal dat abase i s a set of dat a wher e al l t he i t ems ar e r el at ed.
● The dat a el ement s i n a Rel at i onal dat abase ar e st or ed or or gani zed i n
t abl es. A Tabl e consi st s of r ows & col umns. Each col umn r epr esent s a Fi el d,
whi l e a r ow r epr esent s a Recor d. The r ecor ds ar e gr ouped under f i el ds.
● Dat a i n t he r el at i onal model i s or gani zed i nt o t abl es (r el at i ons). Each
t abl e r epr esent s an ent i t y, and r el at i onshi ps bet ween ent i t i es ar e est abl i shed
usi ng keys. Thi nk of i t l i ke a set of spr eadsheet s wher e each t abl e r epr esent s a
di f f er ent cat egor y of dat a (e.g., cust omer s, or der s).
~ A Rel at i onal dat abase i s f l exi bl e and easy t o under st and.
~ A Rel at i onal dat abase syst em, has t he abi l i t y t o qui ckl y f i nd & br i ng
i nf or mat i on st or ed i n separ at e t abl es t oget her usi ng quer i es, f or ms, & r epor t s.
Thi s means t hat , a dat a el ement i n any one t abl e can be r el at ed t o any pi ece of
dat a i n anot her t abl e as l ong as bot h t abl es shar e common dat a el ement s.
Exampl es of Rel at i onal dat abase syst ems;
(i). Mi cr osof t Access.
(ii). Fi l eMaker Pr o.
(iii). Appr oach.

● Advant ages:
Si mpl i ci t y: I t 's user - f r i endl y and wi del y adopt ed.
Dat a I nt egr i t y: Mai nt ai ns dat a i nt egr i t y t hr ough const r ai nt s l i ke f or ei gn
keys.
St andar di zat i on: I t 's hi ghl y st andar di zed (SQL) and wel l - suppor t ed.
● Di sadvant ages:
Per f or mance: May not per f or m wel l wi t h compl ex quer i es i nvol vi ng
l ar ge dat aset s.
Li mi t ed f or Compl ex Dat a: Less sui t abl e f or hi er ar chi cal or nest ed dat a
st r uct ur es.
iv. Obj ect - Or i ent ed Model :
The obj ect - or i ent ed model r epr esent s dat a as obj ect s wi t h at t r i but es and behavi or s,
si mi l ar t o how obj ect s wor k i n obj ect - or i ent ed pr ogr ammi ng. Thi nk of i t l i ke
model i ng r eal - wor l d obj ect s l i ke car s, wher e each car obj ect has pr oper t i es l i ke
make, model , and met hods l i ke st ar t () and st op.
● Advant ages:
Real - Wor l d Model i ng: Sui t abl e f or model i ng r eal - wor l d ent i t i es and t hei r
behavi or s.
OO Concept s: Suppor t s obj ect - or i ent ed concept s l i ke i nher i t ance,
encapsul at i on, and pol ymor phi sm.

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● Di sadvant ages:
Compl exi t y: I mpl ement i ng t hi s model can be compl ex.
Ef f i ci ency: Not as ef f i ci ent as t he r el at i onal model f or si mpl e dat a st or age
and r et r i eval t asks.
v. Document Model (NoSQL):
NoSQL dat abases use a document model wher e dat a i s st or ed as semi - st r uct ur ed
document s (e.g., JSON or XML). Thi nk of i t l i ke st or i ng dat a as f l exi bl e document s
wher e each document can have i t s own st r uct ur e.
● Advant ages:
Fl exi bi l i t y: I t can adapt t o changi ng dat a r equi r ement s wi t h i t s f l exi bl e
schema.
Unst r uct ur ed Dat a: Wel l - sui t ed f or handl i ng unst r uct ur ed or semi -
st r uct ur ed dat a l i ke soci al medi a post s.
● Di sadvant ages:
Consi st ency: Lack of st r ong consi st ency i n some NoSQL dat abases may not be
sui t abl e f or appl i cat i ons r equi r i ng st r i ct dat a consi st ency.
Compl ex Quer i es: May not per f or m wel l wi t h compl ex quer i es i nvol vi ng
mul t i pl e col l ect i ons.

vi. Col umnar Dat abase Model :

I n t hi s model , dat a i s st or ed i n col umns r at her t han r ows. I t 's opt i mi zed f or
anal yt i cal quer i es and dat a war ehousi ng. Thi nk of i t l i ke or gani zi ng dat a by
at t r i but es r at her t han by r ows.
● Advant ages:
Anal yt i cal Pr ocessi ng: Excel l ent f or anal yt i cal pr ocessi ng and
aggr egat i ons, such as busi ness i nt el l i gence and r epor t i ng.
Read Per f or mance: Of f er s hi gh per f or mance f or r ead- heavy wor kl oads.
● Di sadvant ages:
Tr ansact i onal Dat a: Less sui t abl e f or t r ansact i onal or ever yday dat a
pr ocessi ng t asks.
Management Compl exi t y: Managi ng and mai nt ai ni ng t hi s model can be
compl ex.

vii. Gr aph Dat abase Model :

Gr aph dat abases r epr esent dat a as nodes and edges i n a gr aph. Thi nk of i t l i ke
model i ng a soci al net wor k, wher e i ndi vi dual s ar e nodes, and r el at i onshi ps bet ween
t hem ar e edges i n t he gr aph.

● Advant ages:
Rel at i onshi p- Based Quer i es: Ef f i ci ent f or compl ex r el at i onshi p- based
quer i es, maki ng i t i deal f or use cases l i ke soci al net wor ks and
r ecommendat i on syst ems.
Hi ghl y Connect ed Dat a: Excel l ent f or model i ng and t r aver si ng hi ghl y
connect ed dat a st r uct ur es.
● Di sadvant ages:
Speci f i c Use Cases: Li mi t ed t o use cases i nvol vi ng gr aph- l i ke st r uct ur es;
may not be ef f i ci ent f or non- gr aph- based quer i es.
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Compl exi t y: Quer yi ng and mai nt ai ni ng a gr aph dat abase can be compl ex.

The choi ce of a dat abase model shoul d al i gn wi t h your speci f i c dat a r equi r ement s,
per f or mance needs, and compl exi t y consi der at i ons. Of t en, moder n syst ems use a
combi nat i on of t hese model s t o handl e di f f er ent aspect s of t hei r dat a management .

DATA BASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS (DBMS).

● These ar e pr ogr ams used t o st or e & manage f i l es or r ecor ds cont ai ni ng r el at ed
i nf or mat i on.
● A col l ect i on of pr ogr ams r equi r ed t o st or e & r et r i eve dat a f r om a dat abase.
● A DBMS i s a t ool t hat al l ows one t o cr eat e, mai nt ai n, updat e and st or e t he dat a
wi t hi n a dat abase.
A DBMS i s a compl ex sof t war e, whi ch cr eat es, expands & mai nt ai ns t he dat abase, and
i t al so pr ovi des t he i nt er f ace bet ween t he user and t he dat a i n t he dat abase.
A DBMS enabl es t he user t o cr eat e l i st s of i nf or mat i on i n a comput er , anal yse t hem,
add new i nf or mat i on, del et e ol d i nf or mat i on, and so on. I t al l ows user s t o
ef f i ci ent l y st or e i nf or mat i on i n an or der l y manner f or qui ck r et r i eval .
A DBMS can al so be used as a pr ogr ammi ng t ool t o wr i t e cust om- made pr ogr ams.

CLASSI FI CATI ON OF DATABASE SOFTWARE.

Dat abase sof t war e i s gener al l y cl assi f i ed i nt o 2 :
1. PC- based dat abase sof t war e (or Per sonal I nf or mat i on Manager s –PI Ms).
2. Cor por at e- based dat abase sof t war e.
PC- based dat abase sof t war e.
The PC- based dat abase pr ogr ams ar e usual l y desi gned f or i ndi vi dual user s or smal l
busi nesses.
They pr ovi de many gener al f eat ur es f or or gani zi ng & anal yzi ng dat a. For exampl e,
t hey al l ow user s t o cr eat e dat abase f i l es, ent er dat a, or gani ze t hat dat a i n var i ous
ways, and al so cr eat e r epor t s.
They do not have st r i ct secur i t y f eat ur es, compl i cat ed backup & r ecover y pr ocedur es.
Exampl es of PC- based syst ems;
Mi cr osof t Access. FoxPr o.
Dbase I I I Pl us Par adox.
Cor por at e dat abase sof t war e.
They ar e desi gned f or bi g cor por at i ons t hat handl e l ar ge amount s of dat a.
I ssues such as secur i t y, dat a i nt egr i t y (r el i abi l i t y), backup and r ecover y ar e t aken
ser i ousl y t o pr event l oss of i nf or mat i on.

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 Dat abases

Exampl es of Cor por at e- based syst ems;

Or acl e. I nf or mi x I ngr ess.
Pr ogr ess. Sybase. SQL Ser ver .

Common f eat ur es of a dat abase packages.

(i). Have f aci l i t i es f or Cr eat i ng dat abases.
(ii). Have f aci l i t i es f or Updat i ng r ecor ds or dat abases.
Usi ng a DBMS, you can def i ne r el at i onshi ps bet ween r ecor ds & f i l es
mai nt ai ned i n a dat abase. I n t hi s case, a t r ansact i on i n one f i l e of t he
dat abase can al so cause a ser i es of updat es i n par t s of ot her t abl es. Thus, t he
dat a i s i nput onl y once t o t he dat abase and i s made avai l abl e t o t he many f i l es
composi ng i t .
(iii). Have f aci l i t i es f or gener at i ng Repor t s.
(iv). Have a Fi nd or Sear ch f aci l i t y t hat enabl es t he user t o scan t hr ough t he
r ecor ds i n t he dat abase so as t o f i nd i nf or mat i on he/she needs.
(v). Al l ow Sor t i ng t hat enabl es t he user t o or gani ze & ar r ange t he r ecor ds wi t hi n
t he dat abase.
(vi). Cont ai n Quer y & Fi l t er f aci l i t i es t hat speci f y t he i nf or mat i on you want
t he dat abase t o sear ch or sor t .
(vii). Have a dat a Val i dat i ng f aci l i t y.

FUNCTI ONS OF A DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM.

The DBMS i s a set of sof t war e, whi ch have sever al f unct i ons i n r el at i on t o t he
dat abase as l i st ed bel ow:
1. Cr eat es or const r uct s t he dat abase cont ent s t hr ough t he Dat a Mani pul at i on
Languages.
2. I nt er f aces (l i nks) t he user t o t he dat abase cont ent s t hr ough Dat a Mani pul at i on
Languages.
3. Ensur es t he gr owt h of t he dat abase cont ent s t hr ough addi t i on of new f i el ds &
r ecor ds ont o t he dat abase.
4. Mai nt ai ns t he cont ent s of t he dat abase. Thi s i nvol ves addi ng new r ecor ds or
f i l es i nt o t he dat abase, modi f yi ng t he al r eady exi st i ng r ecor ds & del et i ng of t he
out dat ed r ecor ds.
5. I t hel ps t he user t o sor t t hr ough t he r ecor ds & compi l e l i st s based on any
cr i t er i a he/she woul d l i ke t o est abl i sh.
6. Manages t he st or age space f or t he dat a wi t hi n t he dat abase & keeps t r ack of al l
t he dat a i n t he dat abase.
7. I t pr ovi des f l exi bl e pr ocessi ng met hods f or t he cont ent s of t he dat abase.
8. Pr ot ect s t he cont ent s of t he dat abase agai nst al l sor t s of damage or mi suse, e.g.
i l l egal access.
9. Moni t or s t he usage of t he dat abase cont ent s t o det er mi ne t he r ar el y used dat a
and t hose t hat ar e f r equent l y used, so t hat t hey can be made r eadi l y avai l abl e,
whenever need ar i ses.
10. I t mai nt ai ns a di ct i onar y of t he dat a wi t hi n t he dat abase & manages t he dat a
descr i pt i ons i n t he di ct i onar y.

Not e. Dat abase Management Syst em (DBMS) i s used f or dat abase;

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 Dat abases

√Cr eat i on.

√Mani pul at i on.
√Cont r ol , and
√Repor t gener at i on.

ADVANTAGES OF USI NG A DBMS.

1. Dat abase syst ems can be used t o st or e dat a, r et r i eve and gener at e r epor t s.
2. I t i s easy t o mai nt ai n t he dat a st or ed wi t hi n a dat abase.
3. A DBMS i s abl e t o handl e l ar ge amount s of dat a.
4. Dat a i s st or ed i n an or gani zed f or mat , i .e. under di f f er ent f i el dnames.
5. Wi t h moder n equi pment , dat a can easi l y be r ecor ded.
6. Dat a i s qui ckl y & easi l y accessed or r et r i eved, as i t i s pr oper l y or gani zed.
7. I t hel ps i n l i nki ng many dat abase t abl es and sour ci ng of dat a f r om t hese t abl es.
8. I t i s qui t e easy t o updat e t he dat a st or ed wi t hi n a dat abase.
A dat abase i s a col l ect i on of f i l es gr ouped t oget her by a ser i es of t abl es as one
ent i t y. These t abl es ser ve as an i ndex f or def i ni ng r el at i onshi ps bet ween r ecor ds
and f i l es mai nt ai ned i n t he dat abase. Thi s makes updat i ng of t he dat a i n t he
r el at ed t abl es ver y easy.
9. Use of a dat abase t ool r educes dupl i cat i on of t he st or ed f i l es, and t he
r epr ocessi ng of t he same dat a i t ems. I n addi t i on, sever al i ndependent f i l es ar e
mai nt ai ned f or t he di f f er ent user r equi r ement s.
10. I t i s used t o quer y & di spl ay r ecor ds sat i sf yi ng a gi ven condi t i on.
11. I t i s easy t o anal yse i nf or mat i on st or ed i n a dat abase & t o pr epar e summar y
r epor t s & char t s.
12. I t cost savi ng. Thi s r esul t s f r om t he shar i ng of r ecor ds, r educed pr ocessi ng
t i mes, r educed use of sof t war e and har dwar e, mor e ef f i ci ent use of dat a
pr ocessi ng per sonnel , and an over al l i mpr ovement i n t he f l ow of dat a.
13. Use of I nt egr at ed syst ems i s gr eat l y f aci l i t at ed.
An I nt egr at ed syst em –A t ot al syst em appr oach t hat uni f i es al l t he aspect s of
t he or gani zat i on. Faci l i t i es ar e shar ed acr oss t he compl et e or gani zat i on.
14. A l ot of pr ogr ammi ng t i me i s saved because t he DBMS can be used t o const r uct &
pr ocess f i l es as wel l as r et r i eve dat a.
15. I nf or mat i on suppl i ed t o manager s i s mor e val uabl e, because i t i s based on a
wi despr ead col l ect i on of dat a (i nst ead of f i l es, whi ch cont ai n onl y t he dat a
needed f or one appl i cat i on).
16. The dat abase al so mai nt ai ns an ext ensi ve I nvent or y Cont r ol f i l e. Thi s f i l e
gi ves an account of al l t he par t s & equi pment t hr oughout t he mai nt enance
syst em. I t al so def i nes t he st at us of each par t and i t s l ocat i on.
17. I t enabl es t i mel y & accur at e r epor t i ng of dat a t o al l t he mai nt enance cent r es.
The same dat a i s avai l abl e and di st r i but ed t o ever yone.
18. The dat abase mai nt ai ns f i l es r el at ed t o any wor k assi gned t o out si de ser vi ce
cent r es.
Many par t s ar e r epai r ed by t he vendor s f r om whom t hey ar e pur chased. A
dat abase i s used t o mai nt ai n dat a on t he par t s t hat have been shi pped t o vendor s
and t hose t hat ar e out st andi ng f r om t he i nvent or y. Dat a r el at i ng t o t he
guar ant ees and war r ant i es of i ndi vi dual vendor s ar e al so st or ed i n t he dat abase.

DI SADVANTAGES OF DATABASES.
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 Dat abases

1. A Dat abase syst em r equi r es a bi g si ze, ver y hi gh cost & a l ot of t i me t o

i mpl ement .
2. A Dat abase r equi r es t he use of a l ar ge- scal e comput er syst em.
3. The t i me i nvol ved. A pr oj ect of t hi s t ype r equi r es a mi ni mum of 1 –2 year s.
4. A l ar ge f ul l - t i me st af f i s al so r equi r ed t o desi gn, pr ogr am, & suppor t t he
i mpl ement at i on of a dat abase.
5. The cost of t he dat abase pr oj ect i s a l i mi t i ng f act or f or many or gani zat i ons.
Dat abase- or i ent ed comput er syst ems ar e not l uxur i es, and ar e under t aken when
pr oven economi cal l y r easonabl e.
Exer ci se (a).
1. (a). What i s a dat abase?
(b). What ar e Dat abase management syst em sof t war e?
2. Name and expl ai n t he THREE t ypes of dat abase model s. (6 mar ks).
3. Expl ai n THREE maj or concer ns i n a dat abase syst em. (6 mar ks).
4. How ar e dat abase sof t war e gener al l y cl assi f i ed? Gi ve exampl es of r ange of
pr oduct s i n each t ype of cl assi f i cat i on.
5. St at e 5 f eat ur es of an el ect r oni c dat abase management syst em.
6. Expl ai n t he i mpor t ance of usi ng a Dat abase management syst em f or st or age of
f i l es i n an or gani zat i on.
Exer ci se (b).
1. Wr i t e shor t not es on:
(i). Dat abase.
(ii). Dat abase mai nt enance.
(iii). Dat a bank.
2. St at e t he component s of a dat a hi er ar chy.
3. (a). Li st t he TWO cl asses of dat abase sof t war e.
(b). Gi ve FOUR wi del y used Dat abase management syst ems t oday.
4. I dent i f y FI VE f unct i ons of a Dat abase management syst em.
5. Descr i be t he advant ages and di sadvant ages of a dat abase.
Exer ci se (c).
1. Def i ne t he f ol l owi ng t er ms:
(i). Dat abase. (4 mar ks)
(ii). Dat abase Management Syst em (DBMS). (4 mar ks).
(iii). Rel at i onal dat abase.
(iv). Hi er ar chi cal dat abase.
(v). Net wor k dat abase.
2. Li st and br i ef l y descr i be THREE advant ages of usi ng t he el ect r oni c dat abase
appr oach i n dat a st or age as compar ed t o t he f i l e- based appr oach.
3. Li st and br i ef l y descr i be TWO f eat ur es f ound i n a t ypi cal Dat abase
Management Syst em.
4. I dent i f y and descr i be t hr ee maj or shor t comi ngs of t he convent i onal f i l e
st r uct ur es t hat ar e bei ng addr essed by t he dat abase appr oach. (6 mar ks).
5. Descr i be t he f unct i ons of t he f ol l owi ng t ool s f ound i n a dat abase management
syst em (DBMS).
(a). Dat a Def i ni t i on Language (DDL) (2 mar ks).
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 Dat abases

(b). Dat a Mani pul at i on Languages (DML) (2 mar ks).

(c). Dat a Di ct i onar y (DD) (3 mar ks).

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