TOPIC THREE

CONTENT OF TECHNICAL PHILOSOPHY

Introduction
This topic covers the four content areas of Philosophy (The traditional branches of
Philosophy).Emphasis is laid on Metaphysics and Logic while Epistemology and
Axiology will partially be covered. In-depth coverage of Epistemology and Axiology
will be done under Cognitive and normative Dimensions of Education (Refer to
Course outline)
Content areas
Metaphysics- Study of reality
Logic-Theory of reasoning/Philosophers tool box
Epistemology-Study of Knowledge
Axiology- Value theory

3.1. METAPHYSICS: ARISTOTELIAN CONCEPTION

3.1.1. Aristotle's books
Organon: Categories, On Interpretation, Prior Analytics, Posterior Analytics, Topics,
Sophistical Refutations
Theoretical Sciences: Physics, Generation and Corruption, On the Heavens,
Metaphysics- First Philosophy, On the Soul, Brief Natural Treatises, History of
Animals, Parts of Animals, Movement of Animals, Meteorology, Progression of
Animals, Generation of Animals.
Practical Sciences: Nicomachean Ethics, Eudaimonian Ethics, Great Ethics, Politics
Productive Science: Rhetoric, Poetics

3.1.2. The meaning of Metaphysics

Etymology: Metaphysics from Greek 'τα μετα τα φυσικα'(Transliterated as Ta meta
Phusika)
Phusis-Physics/Natura/Nature
Phusika-Physical/Natural
Meta-Beyond/After
Ta meta-That which is beyond/after
Ta Phusika- The natural
Ta meta ta Phusika- That which is beyond nature
Ta meta ta Phusika -That which comes after nature

Ta meta ta Phusika- That which is beyond nature

Existential beyond-ness: Transcendental vs immanent (Beyond what we
perceive by senses but within or part of the object eg. Shape of a
table
Cognitive beyond-ness- Natural human mind cannot understand
Ta meta ta Phusika -That which comes after nature
Chronological ordering
Spatial ordering

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 Procedural Ordering

Metaphysics according to Andronicus of Rhodes (1BCE)

Metaphysics (τα μετα τα φυσικα βιβλια), literally "the books after the physics,"
To be read after reading Aristotle's books on nature, which he called the Physics.
First Philosophy/First order Philosophy- The most abstract-The most speculative

Metaphysics according the Medieval Roman Catholic Church (5c AD-15c AD)
Science beyond the physical-Albert the Great
Cognition of God as the first cause of all reality-Thomas Aquinas
Study of being in itself without compartmentalization-ontology-Later Medievals
Metaphysics according to Renaissance Philosophy: 14th-17th century Europe
Christian Wolff: (Renaissance Germany)
Broadened metaphysics to include psychology, ontology, cosmology & natural
theology.
Francis Bacon (renaissance England)
Narrowed metaphysics to the Aristotelian study of formal and final causes
Separating it from natural philosophy- study of efficient and material causes.
Descartes (French Rationalism/French Epistemological era)
Turn from what exists to knowledge of what exists
Changed the emphasis from a study of being to a study of the conditions of
knowledge
John Locke and David Hume (English Empiricists)
Metaphysics includes the "primary" things beyond psychology and "secondary"
sensory experiences.
Immmanuel Kant's(German)
Study of what is beyond and behind Phenomena it is, the noumena
(transcendental, non- empirical realm)
Metaphysics according to the Modern era
Modern metaphysics views metaphysics as the study of the fundamental structure
of all reality, and as such foundational not only to philosophy but for logic,
mathematics, and all the sciences.

Take-away Definition
Metaphysics is the general investigation into the fundamental nature of all reality
with aim of examining the meaning and the nature of existence, the relationship
between the mind and the body, the origin and meaning of the material universe,
and the existence of the supernatural

3.1.3. Subdivisions of Metaphysics

a. Ontology: the philosophical study of ‘being’. What is the meaning of existence?
What comprises matter? What is man/woman? What is the essence of being? The
meaning of Being: Anything whatsoever that is or exists. Modes of Being:
Physical/Material being, Spiritual being.

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 b. Rational or philosophical psychology: philosophy of the mind. It investigates
into the intricate processes of perceiving, imagining, remembering, feeling,
understanding, willing. It attempts to solve the mind/body problem; their
composition, nature and relationship e.g. can mind survive destruction of the
body?
c. Cosmology: the study of the universe (cosmos). It has to do with the origin and
nature meaning of the universe. This is done rationally.
d. Theodicy: rational investigation of the supernatural. It belongs to the field of
theology where religious concepts and beliefs are assessed.

3.1.4. First Principles of Metaphysics (To be illustrated using Educational examples)

i. Principle of Non Contradiction: A thing X cannot at the time be and not be

ii. Principle of Identity: Every being is determined in itself, is one with itself,
and is consistent in itself
iii. Principle of Intelligibility: Everything that is, in so far as it is , is intelligible
iv. Principle of Causality: Whatever comes to be has a cause
v. Principle of Finality: Every agents acts //All beings when acting tend to some
definite effect
vi. Principle of the Excluded middle: There cannot be an intermediate between
contradictions
vii. Principle of Sufficient Reason: Everything that exists has sufficient reason for
its existence
3.1.5. Principles of Being ((To be illustrated using Educational examples)
i. Causality and Participation:
a. Causality is that from which something else proceeds with dependency in
being. There are 4 Types of causes:
 Efficient cause: That by which any change is brought about in order of
execution in order of execution.
 Material cause; That out which a new being arises-matter in regard to form
 Formal cause: The act by which a material substratum is determined towards a
new being
 Final cause: That because of which some is or becomes
b. Participation; structural dependence of many beings on the one being. it
means to receive a part of what belongs to another fully and so merely sharing in it.

ii. Essence and Existence: Existence is the act whereby a thing is present in nature
or in mind. Essence is mode or manner according to which really might be fashioned

iii. Potency and Act: Potency is the aptitude in a being to receive some or perform
an act . Act is the fully present realization of Potency.

3.1.6. Transcendental Properties of Being (To be illustrated using Educational

examples)

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Unity-Every being is one
The term 'one' adds nothing positive to the being of which it is predicated, but it
excludes the idea of many or of division into many; that therefore is called 'one'
which is not many, which is not divided in itself. It differs from 'alone,' which
term has reference to something else, denying the existence of another being of
the same kind Still, unity is not always taken in its transcendental sense. When not
taken in a transcendental meaning, but as a predicable, unity may be differently
considered.
1. It is metaphysical when the being is not only undivided, but also incapable of
division, as a spirit.
2. Physical, when nature unites real or separable parts into one whole, as in a tree,
a man, a stone.
3. Artificial, when the parts are united by human skill, as a table, a clock, a book;
this unity may be material or mental. Thus, a history in several volumes is an
intellectual or mental unit.
4. Moral, when persons are united by a moral bond, as a family, a state.
Truth
Truth, viewed as one of the transcendental properties of being, is metaphysical or
ontological truth. It means cognoscibility, or conformity of being to knowledge.
As the form of a building is determined by the mind of the architect, so all
creatures have their being and cognoscibility from God's intellect: The
knowledge of God is therefore the norma, or measure, by which all created
things are measured; while we derive our knowledge from creatures, and therefore
these are the measure to which our knowledge must be compared in order to be
true. Since God cannot fail of creating what He wants to create, the creature is
conformable to His knowledge, and thus there can exist no metaphysical falsity.
Things are called false only by analogy, inasmuch as some circumstance
connected with them is apt to produce logical falsity in our mind, While truth is
predicated both of knowledge and of being, still it must be primarily attributed to
knowledge; in other words, logical truth is the principal analogue. But logical
truth is not a transcendental, since many judgments are not true.

Goodness
Goodness is viewed in reference to some desire; it is that which is desired or may
be desired. The goodness of a being is founded in its perfection. Now, a being
is perfect when it has all the constituents that its nature requires, and all the power
needed to act for the attainment of its end; if anything requisite be wanting, the
being is imperfect. Its perfection is the reason of its goodness, and both are its
very being; for anything is desirable in as far as it can perfect the being that
desires it, and it can do so in as far as it has being; thus, every being is good
inasmuch as it is a being. Still, perfection is logically distinct from goodness; for
perfection regards the being itself, and goodness regards it in relation to the being
that desires it.

Goodness is of three kinds:

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 [Link], fit,or proper, i.e.,conformable to right reason. This, when taken in a
stricter sense, is moral good, i.e.,conformity to reason as regulating free acts; in a
wider sense, it also includes natural or physical good, i.e., whatever perfects the
nature of a subject, as health, knowledge, etc.
2. Pleasurable, i.e.,apt to give pleasure, to give satisfaction to an appetite.
3. Useful, i.e.,conducive to the attaining of some other good.
3.1.7. Metaphysics and Education (Summary)
1. Education as an existent reality falls under the wide world of metaphysics-which
is the investigation of all reality. An educational curriculum deals with what is
real , and it is because what is real is intelligible(knowable and understandable)

2. All Educational content areas can be broadly classified under the branches of
Metaphysics e.g. Physical sciences fall under the provisions of cosmology(the
study of the material universe), Social Sciences, mathematics, logic fall under
Rational psychology/anthropology(the study of body mind relationship),
Humanities and religion fall under Theodicy(the study of God) and its derivatives.
Ontology (study of all being) is the mother of all disciplines.

3. Principles of Metaphysics and Principles of Being can be used to explain any

educational procedures, theory and praxis.

4. The ontological concept of unity is necessary in explaining educational harmony

and synchronization. A well ordered Education is one whose aims, curriculum
and pedagogy are manifest each other and affect each other as part of a single
whole.

5. Unity of purpose and intention is necessary component of ensuring collegiality

amongst teachers, learners, parents and the society.

6. Cognitive dimension of Education is ultimately a participation in Truth. Further

Education curriculum is valid if and only if its content focuses reality that is truly
existent
7. Essence and Existence : The unchangeables in the process of Education

8. The study of different Causes is relevant to education as follows

a. Material cause: Learner
b. Efficient cause: Teacher, Curriculum content
c. Formal Cause: Pedagogy and Assessment
d. Final Cause: Aims of Educational Outcomes, Objectives of Education

9. Potency and act Principles can be used to explain the becoming and transitions
and transformations in Educational aspects. The need of the Educational stake
holder to give room and second chances to learners and to other educational
decisions and processes.
10. Necessity Premise: Education, like other human activities, cannot operate outside
the realm of metaphysics.

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11. Scientific Research: The indispensability of metaphysics is due to its primary
objective of explaining the nature of reality. Metaphysics forms the foundation
upon which all scientific ideas are resolved and their validity as well as distinct
elements established. The fact that all scientific endeavors are aimed at explaining
a particular phenomenon, metaphysics comes into play by evoking the inquisitive
nature of research with the "what is?" question. It, therefore, forms the core
driving force for any scientific inquiry. (Ochulor, Apebende, & Metuonu, 2011)
12. Inquisitiveness: Metaphysics encourages people to ask questions about the
foundational laws and facts of reality and by so doing people are often led to
make unusual conceptual associations that are alien to our intuition and common
sense.
13. It gives unusual traits or qualities to elements of theoretical constructs, which may
ultimately help us solve scientific puzzles we wouldn't have been able to solve
otherwise.
14. Religious Education:Acts as the basis for dynamic program of spiritual and
religious education for all ages.
15. Passion: The thoroughness of metaphysics compels the teacher to read and
question further the content of whatever they teach leading to the urge and the
desire to teach, to point the way for others that they may find the joy you have
found, and to be a lifelong seeker of truth.
16. Introspection; Metaphysics encourages introspection which is a requisite activity
for knowing the self . Teachers have an opportunity of examining themselves.
17. Metaphysical holism: dictates that living is also teaching, and that the best
method of teaching is not narrating examples but being an embodiment of
examples . If a learner can observe a teachers belief making his life a better,
happier experience then he will wish to have what the teacher has.
18. Handling criticism: A Metaphysical teacher anticipates criticism and handles
them holistically, rationally and speculatively.
19. Humility: No matter how much you know there are always those who know more
and all your knowledge is only a raindrop in the sea of eternity.
20. Reality: Encourages an Education that is reality based. It acknowledges all reality
(ontology) that is material reality(cosmology), Spiritual reality (Theodicy),
Metal reality( Rational psychology ). Metaphysics therefore vouches upon an
Education based on facts and reality rather than fancy, illusion, error, or
imagination.
21. Variety: Varying metaphysical beliefs lead to differing educational approaches
and even separate systems of education. This is due to their metaphysical beliefs
regarding the nature of ultimate reality, the existence of God, the role of God in
human affairs, and the nature and role of human beings as God’s children are
always instantiated.
22. Anthropology: The anthropological aspect of metaphysics is especially important
for educators of all persuasions because they are dealing with malleable human
beings at one of the most impressionable stages of their lives. Views about the
nature and potential of students form the foundation of every educational
process

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 3.2. LOGIC

3.2.1. Introduction
It refers to the study of correct reasoning. It deals with the structure and principles of
sound arguments. On our daily basis, individuals are engaged in various forms of
arguments, where premises/statements are made and conclusions drawn. In most
cases, wrong conclusions are arrived at involving wrong premises and undue
generalizations. Logic is essential because it stipulates how arguments should be
constructed and how fallacies (erroneous beliefs or myths) can be detected and
avoided. Within logic, two forms of reasoning can be distinguished: deductive and
inductive.
'
3.2.2. Key concepts
a. Mental Operations
1. Apprehension: Deals with Conception (simple mental grasp of an object-without
further operation),
2. Judgment : Mental sentence or proposition(Affirm or deny)
3. Reasoning: Argument( Drawing Inferences, dealing with premises and conclusion)

b. Reasoning: Mind's movement from one or more propositions which act as

evidence for a final proposition which calls for proof.
c. Propositions: A proposition is any statement with truth value i.e. it can be proved
to be true or false. e. g. Stones are cats. Propositions are never assessed in terms of
validity. It's either True or False.
d. Arguments: Is a set of Premises (evidential propositions) and
Conclusions(Claiming propositions).
e. Quarrelling: Not same as arguing- some of the statements in an quarrel are not
propositions. Quarrelling is more of a psychological activity than it is a Philosophical
activity.

3.2.3. Some symbols used in logic:

a. > If......then...(symbol for Conditionality)
b. v Either.....or....(Symbol of disjunction)
c. ^ Both.....and.....(Symbol of Conjunctionality)
d. ≡ ....If and only if...(Symbol of Bi-conditionality)
e. ( ){ }[ ] Brackets are used to separate collective Propositions

3.2.4. Dimensions of Mordern logic

In modern philosophy, logic is expressed in two main dimensions:
a. Symbolic logic involving mathematical symbols – application of symbols to
explain phenomena e. g a + b = 4: b= 4 – a
b. Analytic logic – prevalently used by analytic philosophers who emphasize the
logical analysis of language to arrive at clear meanings of terms/concepts.

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 3.2.5. Types of arguments
i. Deductive Reasoning
This involves reasoning from general to particular instances. In this case, a
conclusion is inferred or deduced from general premises/statements/propositions.

Properties of a Deductive argument

a. Validity-( A deductive argument is valid if the conclusion necessarily AND
logically affirms the premises. It is invalid if and only if it has all true premises and a
False conclusion)

b. Soundness: (A sound Deductive argument is one which has all

actually/factually true premises and true conclusion)
Examples
1. All PGDE students are untrained teachers
John is a PGDE student
John is an untrained teacher
2. All human beings are liable to make mistakes
Mike is a human being
Mike makes mistakes
3. All human beings have sinned and fallen short of the glory of God
Mary is a human being
Mary has sinned and fallen short of the glory of God
4. All numbers ending with either 5 or 0 are divisible by 5
1,964.5 Ends with 5
Conclusion?......

The above reasoning has been expressed in syllogism form: the first two statements
need to be stated before the third can follow logically. This type of reasoning is
prevalent in philosophy, religion and mathematics.

ii. Inductive reasoning

It involves general laws/conclusions being inferred from particular instances. It is
the reverse of deductive reasoning. In this type of reasoning, various instances of a
given specimen are observed over a period of time. The observation leads to general
conclusions/laws being established with some level of probability. This type of
reasoning is applicable with empirical sciences.

Example 1: P1. Most Kenyans are corrupt

P2. Otieno is a Kenyan
..............................................................................
Therefore probably Otieno is corrupt

Example 2: P1. There are 100 mangoes in the basket

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 P2. 70 of the mangoes picked are rotten
...............................................................................
Probably all the 100 mangoes are rotten

Properties of Inductive reasoning

a Strength: An inductive argument is said to be strong when it is when it is such
that when the premises are assumed or granted to be true the its conclusion is most
likely to be true.
b. Cogency: An argument is Cogent when it is both strong and has actually true
premises

3.2.6. Selected Fallacies

A fallacy is an error in reasoning. It occurs when the premises of a given argument
do not support the conclusion they are purported to support

Research on the following fallacies

a. Argument from Ignorance
b. Appeal to people
c. Appeal to Force
d. Appeal to Pity
e. Appeal to authority

3.3. EPISTEMOLOGY
3.3.1. What is Epistemology?
This is the philosophical study of knowledge. Epistemology is derived from two
Greek words: episteme (knowledge) and logos (study). It deals with philosophical
reflection on issues related to knowledge. Epistemology does not deal with factual
knowledge such as that which sociol-sciences are involved in. Empirical sciences
like Psychology and sociology study issues by describing in a factual manner what
they have observed about human knowledge e.g. in cognitive development, a
Psychologist will talk about how it differs in relation to age, individual and the
society. The philosopher tries to justify as done in hard sciences; instead, he will
think before and after the scientist does his work thereby challenging the scientist.
Epistemology distinguishes clearly between rationalism (which stresses the role of
intellect in knowledge acquisition) and empiricism (pays attention to sense
experience).

It studies the nature, sources and validity of knowledge. It seeks to answer questions
like:
What is knowledge?
How do we know?
What is truth?

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What can we really know/
What does it mean to say that I know something?
What are the sources of knowledge?

3.3.2. Of what relevance to Education

To the extent that education has a cognitive dimension, it is an epistemological
activity.
Epistemology in Education is exhibited in Education as follows:
Curriculum content areas (What knowledge is there to be acquired?)
Instructional methods: (How do we come to know?)
Educational assessment (What does it mean to say that I know something/What is
truth)
Role of the teacher/ teaching resources (What are the sources of knowledge)

3.4. AXIOLOGY
1. What is Axiology?
The term Axiology is derived from Greek words and axia (values) and logos (study)
It is the philosophical/rational study of values.

2. Sub-branches of Axiology
a. Ethics or moral philosophy – reflects on the origin and nature of moral values:
meaning of what is right and wrong. This is the most popular branch of Axiology.
b. Aesthetics – philosophical study of artistic values. Interested in meaning of beauty
and harmony and art.
c. Social and cultural philosophy – study of values related to societies and cultures
d. Political philosophy – deals with study of politics, governance etc.

3. Categories of values studied under Axiology

The philosophical study of values is restricted to the prescriptive domains. Values
fall under three categories:
a. Objective–values considered being universal (good, truth, beauty, freedom, love).
b. Relative – values that depends on personal preference.
c. Hierarchical – ordering values from the least desirable to the most desirable.

4. Axiology and Education

Education is a value laden activity. R. S. Peters, Njoroge &Benaars, Ducassan and
other educational stake holders exclude a value-less conception education from their
definition of Education. Different disciplines, educational aims methods and players
in education have strong groundings in value theory. Consider for instance teacher
code of ethics and conduct, normative aims of education in government policies,
school rules, class arrangement, uniforms, etc

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