Newtonian Mechanics

• First half of this semester deal with Newtonian mechanics, where Isaac Newton’s
discoveries apply
• Foundations of natural sciences and engineering
• Understanding and describing motion of objects
• Key concepts: Force, Motion and Energy

• Your goals should be

• Apply Newton’s laws to find the forces on an object or system
• Solve for the resulting motion if any
• Analyze system to calculate work and change in energy

• You must solve problems!

1
Structure

• Chapters 2 ~ 4 introduce motion in 1D and 2D, vectors.

Foundations needed for chapters 5 and onwards.

• Important physics problems start from Ch. 5.

• Unlike the textbook, I will introduce Newton’s laws of motion early to motivate
understanding and description of motion

• Rotational motion will be covered not in Ch. 3 but in Ch. 5

2
Inertia, Newton’s First Law of Motion
and Linear Motion
What Why

• What
• Newton’s 1st and 2nd laws of motion
• Uniform linear motion
• Uniform acceleration motion
• x-t and v-t graphs

• Why
• Ideal simplest of motions
• Allows quantitative prediction of position, velocity
• Free-fall motion

4
What is natural state?

• Why things move?

• Aristotle (~350 BCE) tried to answer
• From experience, if you want to move something you need to apply force
• Being at rest is the natural state of matter

• However, Aristotle’s idea couldn’t explain motion of objects thrown in air

5
Inertia
Tendency to keep state of motion

6
Galileo Galilei’s Concept of Inertia

• Thought experiment based on idealized reality

7
Newton’s First Law of Motion

• Every body perseveres in its state of rest, or of uniform motion in a right line,
unless in so far as it is compelled to change that state by forces impressed thereon.

• What it says
• Natural state of motion is at rest or moving in a straight line with the same speed
• state of motion (velocity) can only be changed by forces.
• Doesn’t mean if forces act then state of motion is changed

• Also known as “Law of Inertia”

8
Uniform Linear Motion

• Uniform linear motion: moving in a straight line at the same speed

• To describe linear motion quantitatively,

use 1 dimensional coordinate system (a frame of reference)
axis
• Define axis, origin and positive direction (usually parallel to motion)
• Coordinate marked at regular intervals

• Usually, the observer (who is doing the measurement)

is at rest in the coordinate system

9
Time and Motion

• Motion – change of position (displacement) in time

• Time
• Unit: s – second
• One of the most accurate time keeping is clock using atoms. The light from the energy-level
transitions have well defined intervals between wave maxima
• Free to choose when it is 𝑡 = 0. Only the time interval is meaningful.
In Nature, time flows in one direction.

• Note: depending on the frame of references (observers), motion can appear differently.

10
Uniform Linear Motion

• Uniform linear motion is described by • 𝑥 vs 𝑡 graph for uniform linear motion

𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥0 + 𝑣 ⋅ 𝑡 𝑥
• 𝑥0 : position at t=0 Slope of line in
• Unit: 𝐦 𝑥 𝑣𝑠 𝑡 graph
is .

• 𝑣: velocity 𝑡

• unit: 𝐦/𝐬
0
• direction of motion: sign of 𝑣
• vector

11
 Displacement

• Displacement (change in pos.) in some • 𝑥 vs 𝑡 graph for uniform linear motion

𝑥
time interval 𝑡 ~ 𝑡 + Δ𝑡
Slope of line in
Δ𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑡 + Δ𝑡 − 𝑥 𝑡
𝑥 𝑣𝑠 𝑡 graph
is .
• positive, negative or 0 𝑡
• Vector
0
• 𝑣 vs 𝑡 graph for uniform linear motion
𝑣
Area in 𝑣 𝑣𝑠 𝑡
graph is
.
𝑡
Symbol Δ means change of something
12
0
Velocity and • Speed 𝑠 ≡ 𝑣 ≥ 0

Speed •
•
𝑠: scalar. 𝑣: vector.
Velocity and speed describe the quickness of motion, but only velocity has
information on the direction of motion. This distinction is important.

13
General Linear Motion

• In a general linear motion, 𝑥 𝑡 vs t is not straight line

𝑥
• Displacement
• Displacement for position change from 𝑥𝑎 to 𝑥𝑏
Δ𝑥 =

• Displacement in time interval 𝑡~𝑡 + Δ𝑡

Δ𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑡 + Δ𝑡 − 𝑥(𝑡)
• If we knew 𝑥 𝑡 0 𝑡

14
Velocity in a General Linear Motion

• Average velocity 𝑥
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 Δ𝑥
𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 = =
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 Δ𝑡
• Average velocity in interval Δ𝑡
• Magnitude of velocity can change
• Direction of motion (hence velocity) can change

0 𝑡

15
Velocity in a General Linear Motion

• Average velocity 𝑥
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 Δ𝑥
𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 = =
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 Δ𝑡
• Average velocity in interval Δ𝑡
• Magnitude of velocity can change
• Direction of motion (hence velocity) can change

• Instantaneous velocity (at some instant 𝑡)

0 𝑡
Δ𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑣 𝑡 = lim ቤ =
Δ𝑡→0 Δ𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑡
• Smaller Δ𝑡, straighter the curve looks
• Slope of tangent line

16
Velocity and displacement
𝑥
𝑑𝑥
• Since velocity is 𝑣 =
𝑑𝑡
𝑎+Δ𝑡
𝑥 𝑎 + Δ𝑡 − 𝑥(𝑎) = න 𝑣 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑎

• If 𝑣(𝑡) is known, then displacement Δ𝑥 can be calculated

0 𝑡
𝑣
• Note: To calculate 𝑥(𝑡) starting from 𝑣(𝑡), 𝑥 at some
instant must be known

0 17
Newton’s 2nd
Law of Motion
and
Acceleration

18
Galileo’s Study of Acceleration on Earth

• Galileo studied the change of speed of objects that fall.

[Link] 19
Galileo’s Study of Acceleration on Earth

• Galileo studied the change of speed of objects that fall.

𝑙
3𝑙
𝑥
5𝑙

Time Distance traveled in Total Distance

(in some unit) interval Traveled 0 𝑡
1 𝑙 𝑙
2 3𝑙
3 5𝑙
4 7𝑙

Δ𝑥
Proportional to in each interval 20
Δ𝑡
Explaining Galileo’s Results

• To explain Galileo’s results

𝒗 = 𝒂𝒕 𝑣 1 2
𝑎 Δ𝑡
2
• Starting from rest at 𝑡 = 0
• 𝑎 is acceleration
2𝑎Δ𝑡
𝑎Δ𝑡
• Total displacement:
Δ𝑡 2Δ𝑡 3Δ𝑡
𝟏 𝟐 𝑡
𝒙 = 𝒂𝒕
𝟐
• Assuming 𝑥 = 0 at 𝑡 = 0
• Equal to area beneath the line in 𝑣 − 𝑡 graph

21
Acceleration in 1D

• Acceleration is rate of change of velocity

Δ𝑣 𝑑𝑣
𝑎 = lim =
Δ𝑡→0 Δ𝑡 𝑑𝑡
• Unit: 𝐦/𝐬 𝟐
• Vector
• If velocity of object changes, it is under acceleration. Deceleration is acceleration!

• Uniform acceleration, 𝑎 is constant

𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡

22
Uniform Acceleration

• Uniform acceleration  𝑎 is constant

𝑡
𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑣0 + න 𝑎 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡
0

• Position in uniform acceleration

1 2
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥0 + 𝑣0 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡
2

• Result of integrating 𝑣(𝑡)

• Uniform motion is a special case of uniform acceleration where 𝑎 = 0

23
Change in velocity 𝑥

• The velocity of most object changes in time

• Acceleration = rate of change of velocity

• Vector quantity
0 𝑡
• Unit: 𝑚/𝑠 2 𝑣

• Newton discovered what causes velocity to change

𝑡

24
Newton’s Second Law of Motion

• A (rate of) change in motion is proportional to the motive force impressed and
takes place along the straight line in which that force is impressed
• From Definition VIII in Principia Mathematica - motive force arises from the accelerative force
(acceleration) multiplied by the same quantity of matter

• “Law of Acceleration”
𝐹Ԧ = 𝑚𝑎Ԧ
• Force = mass x acceleration
• Unit: 𝒌𝒈 ⋅ 𝒎/𝒔𝟐 or 𝑵 (Newton)
• Direction of acceleration is parallel to direction of force

*note: Newton’s definition

of motion is 𝑚𝑣Ԧ 25
• For non-constant 𝑎(𝑡), is known then, we can integrate
𝑡
𝑣 𝑡 − 𝑣 0 = න 𝑎 𝑑𝑡
0

26
Relationships

Velocity Acceleration
Position
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑣 𝑑 2 𝑥
𝑥(𝑡) 𝑣= 𝑎= =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2
Rate of Rate of
change change

Position Velocity
𝑥(𝑡) 𝑣(𝑡) Acceleration
𝑡 𝑡
= 𝑥0 + න 𝑣(𝑡′) 𝑑𝑡 ′ = 𝑣0 + න 𝑎(𝑡′) 𝑑𝑡 ′ 𝑎 𝑡
0 0
Integrate Integrate

27
 Relationships

Constant Constant General Case

Velocity Acceleration
1 𝑡 𝑡′
Position 𝑥0 + 𝑣0 𝑡 𝑥0 + 𝑣0 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2 𝑥0 + 𝑣0 𝑡 + න න 𝑎 𝑡′′ 𝑑𝑡 ′′ 𝑑𝑡′ 𝑥(𝑡)
2 0 0
𝑡
𝑑𝑥
Velocity 𝑣0 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡 𝑣0 + න 𝑎 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0 𝑑𝑡
𝑑2𝑥
Acceleration 0 𝑎 𝑎(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 2

Relate displacement and velocities at two different instants: 2𝑎𝑑 = 𝑣𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙

2 2
− 𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡

28
Uniformly Accelerating
Car
• A car starting from rest, reaches 27.8 m/s (=100
km/h) in 5.00s. (Assume constant acceleration)
1. Magnitude of acceleration?

2. Distance the car traveled in 3.5s from the start?

3. Car at 100 km/h then applies brake and comes

to rest in a distance of 35m. What is the
magnitude of acceleration?

29
30
Free-fall Acceleration and Force of Gravity

• All free objects close to Earth’s surface accelerate towards the ground with magnitude
𝒈 = 𝟗. 𝟕𝟖 𝐦/𝐬𝟐

• 𝑔 also sometimes used as a unit of acceleration

• Force towards ground for object of mass 𝑚: 𝒎𝒈

• According to Newton’s Second law of motion
• Also known as “weight”
• Weight of 1 kg object is 9.8 N

31
Good Reflexes

• Falling cup from height of 0.75m, can you catch it?

0.75m

[Link]

32
What goes up must come down
𝑦
• Object thrown upwards is also under free-fall!

𝑡
0
𝑣

• At maximum height, velocity is 0 instantaneously 𝑡

𝑑𝑦
• Extrema of y 𝑡 can be found from 𝑑𝑡
=0

0 33
You should be able to

• Newton’s 1st and 2nd Law

• Tell what is the natural state of motion
• Tell what is responsible for change in the state of motion
• Memorize the equation for the 2nd Law

• displacement, velocity, acceleration

• Understand the concept and define them. Motion is described in terms of these
• Recognize that they are vectors
• Calculate it for uniform acceleration cases

34