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Home / IB DP / IB DP Biology 2026, 2027 & 2028 / Inheritance Study Notes
IB DP Biology D3.2 Inheritance Study Notes - New
Syllabus -2025
IB DP BIOLOGY D3.2 INHERITANCE STUDY NOTES – NEW SYLLABUS
IB DP Biology D3.2 Inheritance Study Notes at IITian Academy focus on specific topic and
type of questions asked in actual exam. Study Notes focus on IB Biology syllabus with guiding
questions of
• What patterns of inheritance exist in plants and animals?
• What is the molecular basis of inheritance patterns?
Standard level and higher level: 5 hours
Additional higher level: 3 hours
IBDP Biology 2025 -Study Notes -All Topics
D3.2.1 – Production of Haploid Gametes and Formation of
Diploid Zygote
Key Concepts of Sexual Reproduction
Haploid gametes (sperm and egg) are produced by parents through meiosis.
Each haploid gamete contains one copy of each chromosome, so one set of genes.
When gametes fuse (fertilization), they form a diploid zygote with two copies of each
chromosome-one from each parent.
This process restores the diploid number and is the basis of genetic inheritance.
Diploid Cells and Genes
A diploid cell has two copies of
each autosomal gene-these are
called alleles.
This means organisms inherit
two versions of each gene, one
from the mother and one from
the father.
This pattern is common to all
eukaryotes with a sexual life
cycle (plants, animals, fungi).
Why This Matters
Having two alleles allows for
genetic variation
(dominant/recessive traits).
It also provides genetic backup if one allele is faulty.
Sexual reproduction ensures mixing of genetic material, increasing diversity.
Term DeZnition
Haploid (n) Cell with one set of chromosomes (gametes)
Diploid (2n) Cell with two sets of chromosomes (zygote/body cells)
Fertilization Fusion of haploid gametes to form diploid zygote
D3.2.2 – Methods for Conducting Genetic Crosses in Flowering
Plants
Basic Terms
P Generation (Parental generation): The original plants used in a genetic cross.
F1 Generation (First Zlial generation): Offspring of the P generation.
F2 Generation (Second Zlial generation): Offspring produced by crossing or self-
fertilizing F1 plants.
Punnett Grid: A diagram used to predict the genotypes and phenotypes of offspring
from a genetic cross.
How Genetic Crosses Work in Plants
Pollination transfers pollen (male gametes) to the ovary (female gametes).
Many plants (e.g., peas) produce both male and female gametes on the same plant.
This enables self-pollination and self-fertilization, producing genetically similar
offspring.
Cross-pollination between different plants is needed to study inheritance or breed
new varieties.
Steps in Conducting Genetic Crosses
Select P generation plants with contrasting traits.
Cross-pollinate by transferring pollen from one plant to the stigma of another.
Collect and grow the F1 generation seeds.
Observe and record the traits of the F1 plants.
Self-fertilize or cross F1 plants to produce the F2 generation.
Use a Punnett grid to predict and analyze inheritance patterns.
Applications
Breed new crop varieties with desirable traits (e.g., disease resistance, higher yield).
Breed ornamental plants with speciZc _ower colors or shapes.
Generation Description
P Parent plants with contrasting traits
F1 All offspring show one dominant trait
F2 Traits segregate in a predictable ratio (e.g., 3a1)
Summary Box
Genetic crosses in _owering plants rely on pollination and fertilization of male and
female gametes.
P, F1, and F2 generations help track inheritance.
Punnett grids predict offspring genotypes and phenotypes.
These methods are key for plant breeding and understanding genetics.
D3.2.3 – Genotype as the Combination of Alleles Inherited by
an Organism
Key DeZnitions
Gene: A segment of DNA that codes for a particular characteristic (e.g., _ower color).
Alleles: Different forms or versions of a gene (e.g., allele for purple _owers or white
_owers).
Genotype: The genetic makeup of an organism—the speciZc combination of alleles it
inherits for a gene.
Homozygous vs Heterozygous
Term Meaning Example (Flower Color)
Both alleles for a gene are the PP (two purple alleles) or pp (two white
Homozygous
same alleles)
Two different alleles for a
Heterozygous Pp (one purple allele, one white allele)
gene
Important Points
The genotype determines what alleles an organism has.
Different genotypes can produce different phenotypes (observable traits).
Homozygous individuals have identical alleles; their offspring genotype depends on
the other parent.
Heterozygous individuals carry two different alleles, often showing the dominant
trait.
Summary Box
Genotype = the combination of alleles inherited.
Genes are units of heredity; alleles are variations of genes.
Organisms can be homozygous (same alleles) or heterozygous (different alleles).
Understanding genotype is key to predicting inheritance and traits.
D3.2.4 – Phenotype as the Observable Traits Resulting from
Genotype and Environment
What is Phenotype?
Phenotype: The physical or biochemical traits
you can observe in an organism.
It results from the interaction between:
The genotype (genetic makeup)
The environment (external factors
in_uencing development)
Examples of Traits
Type of Trait Explanation Example
Traits controlled almost
Genotype only Blood group (A, B, AB, O)
entirely by genes
Traits in_uenced solely by Sun-tanned skin due to exposure
Environment only
environment to sunlight
Genotype ×
Traits affected by both Height (genes set potential,
Environment
genes and environment nutrition affects Znal height)
interaction
Details:
Genetic traits: Eye color, blood type – mainly determined by DNA, not much
in_uenced by environment.
Environmental traits: Scars, muscle build from exercise — caused by surroundings or
lifestyle.
Combined traits: Skin color can be in_uenced by genes but also by sun exposure;
intelligence has genetic components but also depends on education and
environment.
Summary Box
Phenotype = observable traits shaped by genes + environment.
Some traits depend only on genotype, others only on environment.
Most traits, especially complex ones, come from an interaction between the two.
D3.2.5 – Effects of Dominant and Recessive Alleles on
Phenotype
Key Terms
Alleles: Different versions of the same gene.
Dominant allele: An allele that shows its effect
on the phenotype even if only one copy is
present.
Recessive allele: An allele whose effect on
phenotype is masked if a dominant allele is
present.
Homozygous: Having two identical alleles for a
gene (e.g., AA or aa).
Heterozygous: Having two different alleles for
a gene (e.g., Aa).
How Alleles Affect Phenotype
A homozygous dominant (AA) individual has two copies of the dominant allele.
A heterozygous (Aa) individual has one dominant and one recessive allele.
Both produce the same phenotype because:
The dominant allele masks the effect of the recessive allele in heterozygotes.
One dominant allele is enough to show the dominant trait.
Examples
Genotype Phenotype Reason
AA (homozygous Displays dominant
Two dominant alleles present
dominant) trait
Displays dominant
Aa (heterozygous) trait Dominant allele masks recessive one
aa (homozygous Displays recessive No dominant allele present to mask
recessive) trait recessive
Example: Brown eye color (B) is dominant over blue (b). Genotypes BB and Bb both result
in brown eyes.
Summary Box
Dominant alleles show their effect even if only one copy is present.
Recessive alleles only affect phenotype if both alleles are recessive.
Homozygous dominant and heterozygous individuals look the same for that trait.
D3.2.6 – Phenotypic Plasticity: Adaptation by Gene Expression
Changes
What is Phenotypic Plasticity?
The ability of an organism to change its traits
(phenotype) during its lifetime in response to
the environment.
Changes happen without altering the genotype
(no changes in DNA sequence).
It involves varying patterns of gene expression –
some genes turn on/off or change activity
depending on conditions.
Key Features
Environmental in_uence: Different environments can cause different phenotypes
from the same genotype.
Reversibility: Changes can often be reversed if the environment changes again.
Not genetic change: Phenotypic plasticity affects how genes are expressed, not the
genes themselves.
Examples
Organism Trait Showing Plasticity Environmental Trigger
Fur color changes between brown (summer) and Seasonal temperature and
Arctic fox
white (winter) daylight
Plants Leaf size/thickness adjusts to sunlight levels Light intensity
Humans Muscle growth with exercise Physical activity
Summary Box
Phenotypic plasticity helps organisms adapt quickly to their environment.
It works through gene expression changes, not DNA mutation.
Allows reversible changes to traits within a single lifetime.
D3.2.7 – Phenylketonuria (PKU): A Recessive Genetic Disorder
Cause of PKU
Mutation in the gene coding for phenylalanine
hydroxylase enzyme.
This enzyme converts phenylalanine tyrosine.
Mutation causes enzyme deZciency
phenylalanine builds up.
Effects on the Body
Excess phenylalanine is toxic to brain
development.
Leads to intellectual disabilities and
neurological problems if untreated.
Inheritance Pattern
Recessive allele: symptoms appear only if two mutated alleles are inherited.
Carriers (heterozygotes) usually healthy but can pass on the gene.
Management
Detected through newborn screening.
Requires a low-phenylalanine diet to prevent toxic buildup.
Early treatment can allow normal development.
Key Points
PKU is caused by a recessive mutation affecting metabolism.
Untreated PKU causes brain damage, but is manageable.
Example of how genetics in_uence phenotype and health.
D3.2.8 – Single-Nucleotide Polymorphisms & Multiple Alleles
in Gene Pools
What Are Single-Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs)?
Smallest type of genetic variation in a population.
A single base change in the DNA sequence (e.g., A G).
SNPs can affect traits or be neutral.
Common in genomes and useful for studying genetic diversity.
Multiple Alleles in a Gene Pool
A gene pool is the total collection of all alleles in a population.
There can be more than two alleles for a gene in the gene pool.
Example: The ABO blood group system has three alleles — IA, IB, and i.
Inheritance in Individuals
Although many alleles exist in the population, an individual inherits only two alleles — one
from each parent.
This means each person’s genotype for a gene is made of two alleles (could be the same or
different).
Why This Matters
SNPs and multiple alleles increase genetic diversity.
This diversity allows populations to adapt and evolve.
Understanding allele variation is important for genetics, medicine, and breeding.
Term DeZnition Example
Single-Nucleotide Change of a single DNA base in a
A G base change
Polymorphism (SNP) gene sequence
More than two alleles of a gene ABO blood group
Multiple Alleles
present in a population alleles IA, IB, i
IA and IB in blood
Individual Genotype Two alleles inherited for each gene
group AB
Summary
SNPs are tiny DNA base changes increasing genetic diversity.
Multiple alleles in a population broaden gene variation.
Individuals inherit only two alleles per gene, shaping their genotype.
3.2.9 – ABO Blood Groups as an Example of Multiple Alleles
What Is the ABO Blood Group System?
A classic example of multiple alleles in humans.
Determines the type of antigens on red blood cells (RBCs).
Controlled by one gene with three alleles: IA, IB, and i.
The Alleles and Their Effects
IA allele: Produces A antigen on RBC surface.
IB allele: Produces B antigen on RBC surface.
i allele: Produces no antigen (O blood group).
Genotypes and Phenotypes
Phenotype (Blood
Genotype Antigens on RBCs Antibodies in Plasma
Group)
IAIA or IAi Blood group A A antigen Anti-B antibodies
IBIB or IBi Blood group B B antigen Anti-A antibodies
Both A and B
IAIB Blood group AB No antibodies
antigens
Both Anti-A and Anti-B
ii Blood group O No antigens
antibodies
Codominance and Recessiveness
IA and IB are codominant: Both expressed equally in IAIB genotype blood group AB.
i is recessive: Only expressed if both alleles are i (ii genotype).
Importance of ABO Blood Groups
Crucial for safe blood transfusions.
Determines compatibility between donor and recipient.
Helps in forensic science and paternity testing.
Key Points Recap
ABO blood group gene has 3 alleles (IA, IB, i).
IA and IB are codominant, i is recessive.
Blood groups identiZed by antigens on RBCs and antibodies in plasma.
D3.2.10 – Incomplete Dominance and Codominance
Inheritance Patterns Beyond Simple Dominance
Codominance
Both alleles in a heterozygote are fully expressed together.
The phenotype shows both traits equally (dual phenotype).
Example: AB blood group (IAIB) – both A and B antigens appear
on red blood cells.
No blending; both alleles’ traits are visible side by side.
Incomplete Dominance
The heterozygote shows a blend or intermediate
phenotype between the two homozygous phenotypes.
Neither allele is completely dominant over the other.
Example: Four o’clock _ower (Mirabilis jalapa)
Red-_owered plant (RR) × White-_owered plant (WW)
Pink _owers (RW).
The heterozygous _owers have a mix of red and white
pigments, producing pink.
Comparing Codominance and Incomplete Dominance
Feature Codominance Incomplete Dominance
Phenotype in Both traits visible simultaneously Intermediate, blended
heterozygote (dual) trait
Four o’clock _ower (pink
Example AB blood group (IAIB)
RW)
Trait expression Both alleles expressed fully Alleles partially expressed
Key Takeaways
Codominance = both alleles show up fully (no blending).
Incomplete dominance = blended phenotype in heterozygotes.
Both differ from simple dominant-recessive inheritance.
D3.2.11 – Sex Determination in Humans & Sex Chromosome
Gene Inheritance
Sex Chromosomes and Determining Biological Sex
Humans have two sex chromosomes:
X chromosome (large, many genes)
Y chromosome (smaller, fewer genes)
Females have two X chromosomes (XX).
Males have one X and one Y chromosome (XY).
Role of the Sperm’s Sex Chromosome
The sex of the zygote depends on the sperm:
Sperm carrying X offspring typically develops female characteristics (XX).
Sperm carrying Y offspring typically develops male characteristics (XY).
The egg always contributes an X chromosome
chromosome.
Genes on Sex Chromosomes
The X chromosome carries far more genes than the Y chromosome
chromosome.
Many genes important for non-sexual traits are found on the X chromosome.
The Y chromosome mostly carries genes related to male sex determination and
sperm production.
Implications for Inheritance
X-linked genes can show different inheritance patterns, especially in males who have
only one X chromosome (hemizygous).
Conditions like color blindness and hemophilia are often caused by mutations on the
X chromosome.
Summary
Sex is determined by whether sperm carries an X or Y chromosome.
X chromosome is gene-rich; Y chromosome is gene-poor but crucial for male traits.
Genes on sex chromosomes affect inheritance patterns differently than autosomal
genes.
D3.2.12 – Haemophilia: A Sex-Linked Genetic Disorder
What is Haemophilia?
Haemophilia is a sex-linked recessive disorder
affecting blood clotting.
Caused by a faulty allele on the X chromosome
that codes for a clotting factor protein.
People with haemophilia bleed longer because
their blood does not clot properly.
Inheritance of Haemophilia
The gene for haemophilia is located on the X
chromosome.
Use notation:
Xᴴ = normal allele (dominant)
Xʰ = haemophilia allele (recessive)
Genotypes and Phenotypes
Genotype Description Phenotype
Females:
XᴴXᴴ Homozygous normal Healthy (no haemophilia)
XᴴXʰ Heterozygous carrier Healthy but carrier
XʰXʰ Homozygous affected Haemophilia
Males:
XᴴY Normal Healthy
XʰY Affected Haemophilia
Key Points
Males are more likely to have haemophilia because they have only one X
chromosome.
A male with the haemophilia allele (XʰY) will have the disorder since there is no
second X to mask the faulty gene.
Females need two copies of the haemophilia allele (XʰXʰ) to express the disorder;
otherwise, they are carriers.
Carrier mothers can pass the haemophilia allele to their sons, who will be affected.
Summary
Haemophilia is a classic example of a sex-linked recessive disorder.
It illustrates how gene location on sex chromosomes affects inheritance patterns and
disease expression.
D3.2.13 – Pedigree Charts & Genetic Inheritance Patterns
What Are Pedigree Charts?
Diagrams showing the inheritance of traits or disorders across generations in a
family.
Help identify whether a
trait is dominant,
recessive, sex-linked, or
autosomal.
Used to deduce
genotypes of family
members based on
observed phenotypes.
Why Use Pedigree
Charts?
To understand how
genetic disorders are
passed on.
To identify carriers of recessive or sex-linked disorders.
To help predict the risk of inheritance in future generations.
Genetic Basis for Prohibition of Marriage Between Close Relatives
Close relatives have a higher chance of sharing similar alleles, including harmful
recessive alleles.
Marriage between close relatives increases the risk of offspring inheriting recessive
genetic disorders.
This is a biological reason behind social prohibitions in many cultures.
Inductive vs Deductive Reasoning in Genetics
Reasoning
Explanation Example in Pedigree Analysis
Type
Observing some family members with a
Drawing general conclusions
Inductive disorder and proposing a mode of
from speciZc observations.
inheritance.
Using inheritance patterns to deduce
Applying general principles
Deductive genotypes of untested individuals in the
to predict speciZc cases.
pedigree.
Summary
Pedigree charts are powerful tools to trace genetic disorders and inheritance patterns.
Understanding these patterns can inform medical advice and genetic counseling.
Differentiating inductive and deductive reasoning is key to interpreting pedigrees
correctly.
D3.2.14 – Continuous Variation & Polygenic Inheritance
What is Continuous Variation?
Traits that show a range of phenotypes, not just distinct categories.
Examples: Skin colour, height, weight in humans.
These traits usually result from polygenic inheritance (many genes involved) and/or
environmental in_uences.
Polygenic Inheritance
Multiple genes (polygenes) contribute to the phenotype.
Each gene adds a small effect.
Produces a gradual distribution of traits instead of discrete groups.
Environmental Factors
Environmental in_uences (like sunlight exposure for skin colour) modify the
expression of polygenic traits.
Result: Phenotypes can shift within a population due to environment, e.g., tanning.
Continuous vs Discrete Variables
Feature Continuous Variation Discrete Variation
ABO blood group, tongue rolling
Example Skin colour, height
ability
Range of
Many intermediate phenotypes Distinct categories only
Phenotypes
Polygenic inheritance & Typically single gene with clear
Genetic Basis
environment alleles
Application of Skills: Measures of Central Tendency
Mean: Average value (sum of all values ÷ number of values).
Median: Middle value when data is ordered.
Mode: Most frequently occurring value.
This help summarize data on continuous traits like skin colour measurements.
Summary
Continuous variation results from multiple genes and environmental effects.
Traits like skin colour vary in a gradient, not Zxed groups.
Understanding continuous vs discrete traits helps in data analysis and interpretation.
D3.2.15 – Box-and-Whisker Plots for Continuous Data
What is a Box-and-Whisker Plot?
A graphical way to display data for continuous variables (e.g., student height).
Shows the distribution and spread of data clearly.
Six Key Aspects Displayed:
Aspect Description
Minimum Smallest data value (excluding outliers)
First Quartile (Q1) Value below which 25% of data lie
Median (Q2) Middle value dividing data into two equal halves
Third Quartile (Q3) Value below which 75% of data lie
Maximum Largest data value (excluding outliers)
Outliers Data points unusually distant from the rest
Outliers DeZned
Outliers are data points that lie:
More than 1.5 × IQR above the third quartile (Q3 + 1.5 × IQR), or
More than 1.5 × IQR below the Zrst quartile (Q1 − 1.5 × IQR).
IQR (Interquartile Range) = Q3 − Q1
Why Use Box-and-Whisker Plots?
To visualize the central tendency and spread of data.
To identify skewness or presence of outliers.
Useful in comparing datasets side by side.
Example Application
Plotting heights of students to analyze variations and spot unusual values.
Additional Higher Level
D3.2.16 – Segregation and Independent Assortment of
Unlinked Genes in Meiosis
Key Concepts
1. Segregation of Alleles
During meiosis I, homologous chromosomes separate (segregate) into different
gametes.
Each gamete receives one allele of each gene.
This explains Mendel’s Law of Segregation.
2. Independent Assortment of Unlinked Genes
Genes located on different chromosomes (unlinked) assort independently.
The orientation of each pair of homologous chromosomes during meiosis I is random
and independent of others.
Results in many possible combinations of alleles in gametes.
Link to Dihybrid Crosses
Dihybrid crosses involve two different genes.
For unlinked genes, the alleles assort independently.
This produces a typical 9a3a3a1 phenotypic ratio in the F2 generation when crossing
heterozygotes.
Example
Gene 1a A or a
Gene 2a B or b
During meiosis:
Possible gametes from AaBb individual: AB, Ab, aB, ab
Gametes combine randomly during fertilization genetic variation.
Why It Matters
Explains genetic diversity in sexually reproducing organisms.
Helps predict offspring genotypes and phenotypes in genetics.
D3.2.17 – Punnett Grids for Dihybrid Crosses with Unlinked
Autosomal Genes
Key Concepts
uvw Purpose of Punnett Grids
Used to predict genotypic and phenotypic ratios in offspring.
Especially helpful in dihybrid crosses involving two genes.
xvw Unlinked Genes
Genes located on different chromosomes or far apart on the same chromosome.
Alleles of these genes assort independently during meiosis.
Common Ratios from Dihybrid Crosses
uvw 9a3a3a1 Phenotypic Ratio
Occurs when crossing two heterozygous parents (AaBb × AaBb).
Phenotypes:
9 show both dominant traits (A-B-)
3 show dominant for gene 1, recessive for gene 2 (A-bb)
3 show recessive for gene 1, dominant for gene 2 (aaB-)
1 shows both recessive traits (aabb)
xvw 1a1a1a1 Phenotypic or Genotypic Ratio
Occurs in a cross between a heterozygote and a homozygous recessive (AaBb ×
aabb).
Equal proportions of the four possible
gametes and phenotypes.
How Ratios Are Derived
Construct a 4×4 Punnett grid with
gametes from each parent:
For AaBb, gametes: AB, Ab, aB, ab.
Fill in the grid with combinations.
Count the genotypes and group into
phenotypes.
Calculate ratios by dividing counts by
total offspring number.
Important Note (NOS)
These ratios illustrate Mendel’s second law (Law of Independent Assortment).
This law holds true only if:
Genes are on different chromosomes, or
Genes are far apart on the same chromosome (recombination frequency ~50%).
There are exceptions, such as linked genes (close together on the same chromosome).
Summary Table Example:
Genotype Phenotype Count Ratio
A-B- Both dominant traits 9 9/16
A-bb Dom. gene 1 only 3 3/16
aaB- Dom. gene 2 only 3 3/16
aabb Both recessive 1 1/16
D3.2.18 – Loci of Human Genes and Their Polypeptide
Products
What is a Locus?
A locus (plural: loci) is the speciZc physical location of a gene on a chromosome.
Each gene at a locus codes for a polypeptide (a chain of amino acids that makes up
proteins).
Exploring Genes and Their Products
Scientists use gene databases (like NCBI, Ensembl, or UniProt) to:
Find the exact locus of a gene on a chromosome.
Learn about the polypeptide that gene produces.
Key Concepts for Students
Pairs of genes on different chromosomes:
These genes are unlinked and assort independently.
Example: A gene on chromosome 1 and another on chromosome 12.
Pairs of genes close together on the same chromosome:
These genes are linked and often inherited together.
The closer they are, the less likely they are to be separated by recombination
during meiosis.
D3.2.19 – Autosomal Gene Linkage
What is Gene Linkage?
Gene linkage happens when two or more genes are located close together on the
same autosome (non-sex chromosome).
These genes tend to be inherited together because their alleles are physically linked
on the same chromosome.
Why Does Linkage Affect Inheritance?
During meiosis, homologous chromosomes pair up, and linked genes are less likely to
be separated by crossing over (recombination).
Because they travel together, the alleles of linked genes do not assort independently,
which is an exception to Mendel’s second law.
How to Represent Linked Genes in Genetic Crosses
Chromosome 1 Chromosome 2
A—B a—b
Key Points
Linked alleles tend to be inherited as a package deal unless crossing over separates
them.
The closer two genes are on a chromosome, the stronger the linkage and the less
frequent the recombination.
Summary Box
Gene linkage = genes close on the same autosome.
Linked alleles do not assort independently.
Vertical lines show linkage on homologous chromosomes.
D3.2.20 – Recombinants in Crosses Involving Two Linked or
Unlinked Genes
Context:
Cross between:
– Individual heterozygous for both genes (e.g., AaBb)
– Individual homozygous recessive for both genes (aabb)
What Are Recombinants?
Recombinant gametes or offspring have new combinations of alleles different from the
parental combinations.
Result from independent assortment (unlinked genes) or crossing over (linked genes).
Cross Outcomes:
Parental vs Resulting
Type of Gametes from AaBb
Recombinant offspring Explanation
Genes parent
Gametes genotypes
Parental: AB, Independent
Unlinked AB, Ab, aB, ab (all ab; All four genotypes assortment
genes equally likely) Recombinant: in 1a1a1a1 ratio 50%
Ab, aB recombinants
Parental: AB,
Mostly AB, ab More parental Linkage reduces
Linked ab;
(parental) and fewer genotype offspring recombination
genes Recombinant:
Ab, aB (recombinant) than recombinant frequency
Ab, aB
Identifying Recombinants:
In gametes: Recombinant gametes carry allele combinations not present in the
parents’ chromosomes due to crossing over.
In offspring genotypes: Offspring with allele combinations different from parental
types are recombinant genotypes.
In offspring phenotypes: Recombinant phenotypes show traits in new
combinations, different from parents.
Summary
Recombinants result from new allele combinations.
Unlinked genes 50% recombinants (due to independent assortment).
Linked genes fewer recombinants (due to crossing over).
Cross AaBb × aabb helps observe parental vs recombinant offspring.
D3.2.21 – Using a Chi-Squared Test on Dihybrid Cross Data
What is a Chi-Squared Test?
A statistical test used to check if
observed experimental results Zt
the expected results.
Helps determine if differences
between observed and expected
data are due to chance or
something else.
Key Terms:
Null Hypothesis (H
(H₀₀):
Assumes there is no real difference between observed and expected results (any
difference is by chance).
Alternative Hypothesis (H
(H₁₁): Assumes there is a real difference between observed
and expected results.
How It Works:
Compare the observed data (actual offspring counts from your dihybrid cross) to the expected
data (predicted ratios, e.g., 9:3:3:1).
Calculate a chi-squared (χ²) value using:
χ² = ∑ ((O − E)² / E)
where O = observed frequency, E = expected frequency for each category.
Interpreting the Result:
Use a chi-squared table with degrees of freedom (usually number of categories − 1) to Znd
the critical value at the p = 0.05 signiZcance level.
– If χ² is less than the critical value fail to reject null hypothesis observed differences
are likely due to chance.
– If χ² is greater than the critical value reject null hypothesis observed differences
are statistically signiZcant (unlikely due to chance).
Important Concepts:
Statistical signiZcance (p = 0.05): There is a 5% chance that the differences occurred
by random chance — this is the cutoff for signiZcance.
The F2 generation data is a sample representing a larger population of offspring.
Results are more reliable when experiments are replicated or repeated
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