Biology for Computer Engineers BBOC407

Module 1
CELL BASIC UNIT OF LIFE
Introduction. Structure and functions of a cell. Stem cells and their application.
Biomolecules: Properties and functions of Carbohydrates, Nucleic acids, proteins, lipids.
Importance of special biomolecules: Properties and functions of enzymes, vitamins and
hormones.

1.1 Introduction

Offering interdisciplinary perspectives and potential applications in areas such as

bioinformatics, computational biology, and medical technology, enhancing the student's
ability to integrate biological concepts into computer science advancements.

Cell is the smallest structure and fundamental unit of living organism. The process of life
formation can be divided into following steps

• Cell Formation: Cell formation is the first stage of the life. The formation of life
begins with the creation of cells, because they are the fundamental units of life. And
cell can be further categorized into prokaryotic and eukaryotic. The prokaryotic
means they are lacking of true nucleus. And in eukaryotic, they are having the true
nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.
• Cell Division: Cell has got an ability to divide or multiply. The process of cell
division can be done in two methods. One is mitosis and meiosis.
• Multicellularity: The cell will combine together to form a multicellular structure, and
are further combined to perform a specific operation called a specified cell, which
performs a distinct function which gives rise to tissue, organs and organ systems
• Differentiation: Cells within the multicellular organism undergo differentiation. That
means they will undergo their own special changes, acquiring special characters. They
get their own structure based on the requirement, based on the environmental
conditions and functions.
• Organism Formation: Combination of specialized cells or the tissue or the organ
results in the formation of complete organisms. So, various types of organisms
ranging from simple to complex emerge based on the organism and coordination of
their cells.

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• Reproduction: Organisms will reproduce to pass their genetic information to the next
generation. Reproduction can occur through sexual and asexual reproduction.
• Adaptation and Evolution: Over the generation, living organisms are undergoing
adaptation and evaluation. Based on the requirement, new animal kingdom can also
be evolved.
• Ecological Interactions: The organisms interact with the environment and each other
in a complex ecosystem to contribute to the balance of the life and sustainability of
the ecosystem.

1.2 Structure and functions of a cell.

Cell Definition: “A cell is defined as the smallest, basic unit of life that is responsible for
all of life’s processes.”

Cells are the structural, functional, and biological units of all living beings. A cell can
replicate itself independently. Hence, they are known as the building blocks of life.

Each cell contains a fluid called the cytoplasm, which is enclosed by a membrane. Also
present in the cytoplasm are several biomolecules like proteins, nucleic acids and lipids.
Moreover, cellular structures called cell organelles are suspended in the cytoplasm.

Fig 1.1 Structure of Prokaryotes cell

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Fig 1.2 Structure of Eukaryotes Cell

1.2.1 What is a Cell?

A cell is the structural and fundamental unit of life. The study of cells from its basic structure
to the functions of every cell organelle is called Cell Biology. Robert Hooke was the first
Biologist who discovered cells.

All organisms are made up of cells. They may be made up of a single cell (unicellular), or
many cells (multicellular). Mycoplasmas are the smallest known cells. Cells are the building
blocks of all living beings. They provide structure to the body and convert the nutrients taken
from the food into energy.

Cells are complex and their components perform various functions in an organism. They are
of different shapes and sizes, pretty much like bricks of the buildings. Our body is made up of
cells of different shapes and sizes.

Cells are the lowest level of organisation in every life form. From organism to organism, the
count of cells may vary. Humans have more number of cells compared to that of bacteria.

Cells comprise several cell organelles that perform specialised functions to carry out life
processes. Every organelle has a specific structure. The hereditary material of the organisms
is also present in the cells.

Discovery of Cells

Discovery of cells is one of the remarkable advancements in the field of science. It helps us
know that all the organisms are made up of cells, and these cells help in carrying out various
life processes. The structure and functions of cells helped us to understand life in a better
way. Robert Hooke discovered the cell in 1665.

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Characteristics of Cells

Following are the various essential characteristics of cells:

• Cells provide structure and support to the body of an organism.

• The cell interior is organised into different individual organelles surrounded by a
separate membrane.

• The nucleus (major organelle) holds genetic information necessary for reproduction
and cell growth.

• Every cell has one nucleus and membrane-bound organelles in the cytoplasm.

• Mitochondria, a double membrane-bound organelle is mainly responsible for the

energy transactions vital for the survival of the cell.

• Lysosomes digest unwanted materials in the cell.

• Endoplasmic reticulum plays a significant role in the internal organisation of the cell
by synthesising selective molecules and processing, directing and sorting them to their
appropriate locations.

1.2.2 Types of Cells

Cells are similar to factories with different labourers and departments that work towards a
common objective. Various types of cells perform different functions. Based on cellular
structure, there are two types of cells:

• Prokaryotes

• Eukaryotes

Prokaryotic Cells

1. Prokaryotic cells have no nucleus. Instead, some prokaryotes such as bacteria have a
region within the cell where the genetic material is freely suspended. This region is
called the nucleoid.

2. They all are single-celled microorganisms. Examples include archaea, bacteria, and
cyanobacteria.

3. The cell size ranges from 0.1 to 0.5 µm in diameter.

4. The hereditary material can either be DNA or RNA.

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5. Prokaryotes generally reproduce by binary fission, a form of asexual reproduction.

They are also known to use conjugation – which is often seen as the prokaryotic
equivalent to sexual reproduction (however, it is NOT sexual reproduction).

Eukaryotic Cells

1. Eukaryotic cells are characterised by a true nucleus.

2. The size of the cells ranges between 10–100 µm in diameter.

3. This broad category involves plants, fungi, protozoans, and animals.

4. The plasma membrane is responsible for monitoring the transport of nutrients and
electrolytes in and out of the cells. It is also responsible for cell to cell
communication.

5. They reproduce sexually as well as asexually.

6. There are some contrasting features between plant and animal cells. For eg., the plant
cell contains chloroplast, central vacuoles, and other plastids, whereas the animal cells
do not.

1.2.3 Cell Structure

The cell structure comprises individual components with specific functions essential to carry
out life’s processes. These components include- cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm,
nucleus, and cell organelles. Read on to explore more insights on cell structure and function.

Cell Membrane

• The cell membrane supports and protects the cell. It controls the movement of
substances in and out of the cells. It separates the cell from the external environment.
The cell membrane is present in all the cells.

• The cell membrane is the outer covering of a cell within which all other organelles,
such as the cytoplasm and nucleus, are enclosed. It is also referred to as the plasma
membrane.

• By structure, it is a porous membrane (with pores) which permits the movement of

selective substances in and out of the cell. Besides this, the cell membrane also
protects the cellular component from damage and leakage.

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• It forms the wall-like structure between two cells as well as between the cell and its
surroundings.

• Plants are immobile, so their cell structures are well-adapted to protect them from
external factors. The cell wall helps to reinforce this function.

Cell Wall

• The cell wall is the most prominent part of the plant’s cell structure. It is made up of
cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin.

• The cell wall is present exclusively in plant cells. It protects the plasma membrane
and other cellular components. The cell wall is also the outermost layer of plant cells.

• It is a rigid and stiff structure surrounding the cell membrane.

• It provides shape and support to the cells and protects them from mechanical shocks
and injuries.

Cytoplasm

• The cytoplasm is a thick, clear, jelly-like substance present inside the cell membrane.
• Most of the chemical reactions within a cell take place in this cytoplasm.

• The cell organelles such as endoplasmic reticulum, vacuoles, mitochondria,

ribosomes, are suspended in this cytoplasm.

Nucleus

• The nucleus contains the hereditary material of the cell, the DNA.
• It sends signals to the cells to grow, mature, divide and die.

• The nucleus is surrounded by the nuclear envelope that separates the DNA from the
rest of the cell.

• The nucleus protects the DNA and is an integral component of a plant’s cell
structure.

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Cell Organelles

Cells are composed of various cell organelles that perform certain specific functions to carry
out life’s processes. The different cell organelles, along with its principal functions, are as
follows:

Cell Organelles and their Functions

Nucleolus

The nucleolus is the site of ribosome synthesis. Also, it is involved in controlling cellular
activities and cellular reproduction.

Nuclear membrane

The nuclear membrane protects the nucleus by forming a boundary between the nucleus
and other cell organelles.

Chromosomes

Chromosomes play a crucial role in determining the sex of an individual. Each human cells
contain 23 pairs of chromosomes.

Endoplasmic reticulum

The endoplasmic reticulum is involved in the transportation of substances throughout the

cell. It plays a primary role in the metabolism of carbohydrates, synthesis of lipids, steroids
and proteins.

Golgi Bodies

Golgi bodies are called the cell’s post office as it is involved in the transportation of
materials within the cell.

Ribosome

Ribosomes are the protein synthesisers of the cell.

Mitochondria

The mitochondrion is called “the powerhouse of the cell.” It is called so because it

produces ATP – the cell’s energy currency.

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Lysosomes

Lysosomes protect the cell by engulfing the foreign bodies entering the cell and help in cell
renewal. Therefore, they are known as the cell’s suicide bags.

Chloroplast

Chloroplasts are the primary organelles for photosynthesis. It contains the pigment called
chlorophyll.

Vacuoles

Vacuoles store food, water, and other waste materials in the cell.

Cell Theory

Cell Theory was proposed by the German scientists, Theodor Schwann, Matthias Schleiden,
and Rudolf Virchow. The cell theory states that:

• All living species on Earth are composed of cells.

• A cell is the basic unit of life.

• All cells arise from pre-existing cells.

A modern version of the cell theory was eventually formulated, and it contains the
following postulates:

• Energy flows within the cells.

• Genetic information is passed on from one cell to the other.

• The chemical composition of all the cells is the same.

1.2.4 Functions of Cell

A cell performs major functions essential for the growth and development of an organism.
Important functions of cell are as follows:

Provides Support and Structure

All the organisms are made up of cells. They form the structural basis of all the organisms.
The cell wall and the cell membrane are the main components that function to provide
support and structure to the organism. For eg., the skin is made up of a large number of cells.

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Xylem present in the vascular plants is made of cells that provide structural support to the
plants.

Facilitate Growth Mitosis

In the process of mitosis, the parent cell divides into the daughter cells. Thus, the cells
multiply and facilitate the growth in an organism.

Allows Transport of Substances

Various nutrients are imported by the cells to carry out various chemical processes going on
inside the cells. The waste produced by the chemical processes is eliminated from the cells by
active and passive transport. Small molecules such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, and ethanol
diffuse across the cell membrane along the concentration gradient. This is known as passive
transport. The larger molecules diffuse across the cell membrane through active transport
where the cells require a lot of energy to transport the substances.

Energy Production

Cells require energy to carry out various chemical processes. This energy is produced by the
cells through a process called photosynthesis in plants and respiration in animals.

Aids in Reproduction

A cell aids in reproduction through the processes called mitosis and meiosis. Mitosis is
termed as the asexual reproduction where the parent cell divides to form daughter cells.
Meiosis causes the daughter cells to be genetically different from the parent cells.

Thus, we can understand why cells are known as the structural and functional unit of life.
This is because they are responsible for providing structure to the organisms and perform
several functions necessary for carrying out life’s processes.

1.3 Stem cells and its Applications

“Stem cells are special human cells that can develop into many different types of cells, from
muscle cells to brain cells.”

Stem cells are unique cells present in the body that have the potential to differentiate into
various cell types or divide indefinitely to produce other stem cells.

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1.3.1 Types of stem cells

1. Embryonic stem cells

• Embryonic stem cells are a group of cells that are present in the inner cell mass of the
embryo at a very early stage of development, called a blastocyst.
• The blastocyst stage in embryonic development is reached within 4-5 days after
fertilization, and the number of cells at that point is about 50-150.
• These cells are pluripotent, meaning they can develop and differentiate into various
cell types (approx 250 types) during their proliferation. These do not, however,
contribute to the extraembryonic cells like the placenta.
• Embryonic stem cells are present within the embryo, which divides and differentiates
into germ layers as they become specialized.
• These cells have been culture increasingly as they can be artificially cultured to
produce cells of different types.
• Embryonic stem cell culture is important as they perform as a new source for
regenerative medicine and genetic disease and toxicology test in vitro.
• The embryonic germ cells in the gonadal region in animals also act like embryonic
stem cells. These cells, also called primordial cells, later differentiate and divide to
form male and female gametes.

2. Adult stem cells (Somatic or Tissue-specific stem cell)

• Adult stem cells, also called somatic stem cells, are the cells found in specific tissues
that function to repair and form cells of only the tissues they are found on.
• These cells are considered less potent than embryonic stem cells as they cannot
differentiate to different cell types.
• Adult stem cells exist in niches or areas created by other cells which secrete fluids and
nutrient for the stem cells to remain alive on.
• These cells are found in certain tissues that undergo continuous cellular turn over.
Some tissue like the liver tissue, however, undergoes minimal division only when the
tissue is damaged.
• Adult stem cells are found in both children and adults and mostly localized in tissue
like the epidermis, bone marrow, and lining of the intestine.

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• The cells in the epidermis layer divide continuously to form new cells as the
keratinocytes are shed off.
• Adult stem cells present in the bone marrow are the hematopoietic cells that
differentiate to form three different types of blood cells and immune cells.
• Stem cells are also found in the brain that differentiates to form very few nerve cells
after birth.

3. Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs)

• The limitations in adult stem cells led to the creation of novel pluripotent cells termed
induced pluripotent cells from the adult cells by the process of reprogramming the
genes.
• Induced pluripotent stem cells are formed when the adult cells are cultured with
embryonic stem cells where a fusion of these two cells forms new cells with stem
cell-like properties.
• Sometimes, other somatic cells can also be reprogrammed to acquire pluripotency.
• Induced pluripotent stem cells are similar to embryonic stem cells in that they can also
be stimulated to differentiate into different cell types.
• However, they are different from embryonic stem cells in the level of gene expression
and the condition of the chromatin of the cells.
• These cells are of significant importance as they can be used in therapeutic medicine
where doctors will be able to generate cells of practically all organs of the body for
each patient.
• Besides, they also prevent the use of more embryonic stem cells which might cause
ethical issues.
• It also helps to study new genetic diseases by generating induced pluripotent stem
cells from their adult or somatic cells.
• Induced stem cells of the heart and the eyes can be used in the transplantation of the
cells during severe heart and eye-related diseases.

4. Perinatal stem cells

• Perinatal stem cells are a type of intermediate cells carrying the characteristics of both
embryonic stem cells and adult stem cells. They are derived from extra-embryonic
cells of the fetal membrane, umbilical cord, and amniotic fluid.

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• Prenatal stem cells are known to possess immune-privileged characteristics, as well as

broad multipotent plasticity.
• Also, these cells, simply isolated from extraembryonic tissues that are typically
discarded after birth, effectively avoid ethical issue involvement.
• These cells are active, non-tumorigenic, and are multipotent that can differentiate into
cells of the endothelium, hepatic, adipose, and even neural tissues.
• The cells obtained from fetal membranes are, although not immortal, have a high
degree of division and potency.
• Perinatal stem cells also have research and therapeutic applications in the treatment of
renal disease, cardiac disease, inflammatory disease, bone regeneration, and the
treatment of spinal cord injury.
• As a result of these applications, perinatal stem cells have been cultured artificially to
obtain a large number of these cells.

5. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs)

• Mesenchymal stem cells are a type of adult stem cell or somatic stem cell mostly
found in the tissues of muscles, liver, and bone marrow.
• Human MSCs (hMSCs) are the multipotent stem cells with the capacity to
differentiate into mesodermal cell lines such as osteocytes, adipocytes, and
chondrocytes as well ectodermal (neurocytes) and endodermal cell lines
(hepatocytes).
• The most common type of mesenchymal stem cells is the one in the bone marrow
where they differentiate to form the cells of the skeletal system, including bones and
cartilages.
• Mesenchymal stem cells are found not only in fetal tissues but also in many adult
tissues.
• These are mostly present in small quantities but are important as they create a niche
for the survival of blood stem cells in the bone marrow.
• Mesenchymal stem cells can be isolated comparatively easily and also produce a
higher yield than other stem cells which makes them useful in cell growth, cell
differentiation, and restoration of tissues under severe immunological conditions.
• Furthermore, MSCs have immunomodulatory features as they secrete cytokines and
immune-receptors, which regulate the microenvironment in the host tissue.

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• The potential to produce cells of different cell lines, immunomodulation, and

secretion of anti-inflammatory molecules makes this stem cell a useful tool in the
treatment of chronic diseases.

1.3.2 Applications of Stem cell

Tissue Regeneration

This is the most important application of stem cells. The stem cells can be used to grow a
specific type of tissue or organ. This can be helpful in kidney and liver transplants. The
doctors have already used the stem cells from beneath the epidermis to develop skin tissue
that can repair severe burns or other injuries by tissue grafting.

Treatment of Cardiovascular Disease

A team of researchers have developed blood vessels in mice using human stem cells. Within
two weeks of implantation, the blood vessels formed their network and were as efficient as
the natural vessels.

Treatment of Brain Diseases

Stem cells can also treat diseases such as Parkinson’s disease and Alzheimer’s. These can
help to replenish the damaged brain cells. Researchers have tried to differentiate embryonic
stem cells into these types of cells and make it possible to treat diseases.

Blood Disease Treatment

The adult hematopoietic stem cells are used to treat cancers, sickle cell anaemia, and other
immunodeficiency diseases. These stem cells can be used to produce red blood cells and
white blood cells in the body.

Drug Development and Testing

The structure made up of stem cells can be used as a model for the new drug, that is, the new
drug can be tested and it can predict how the human cell reacts to this. Therefore, the stem
cell can also be used for testing as well as developing a new drug.

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1.4 Biomolecules

Biomolecules are the most essential organic molecules, which are involved in the
maintenance and metabolic processes of living organisms. These non-living molecules are the
actual foot-soldiers of the battle of sustenance of life. They range from small molecules such
as primary and secondary metabolites and hormones to large macromolecules like proteins,
nucleic acids, carbohydrates, lipids etc.

1.4.1 Types of Biomolecules

There are four major classes of Biomolecules – Carbohydrates, Proteins, Nucleic acids
and Lipids.

1. Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are chemically defined as polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones or

compounds which produce them on hydrolysis. In layman’s terms, we acknowledge
carbohydrates as sugars or substances that taste sweet. They are collectively called as
saccharides (Greek: sakcharon = sugar).

Depending on the number of constituting sugar units obtained upon hydrolysis, they
are classified as

Monosaccharides (1 unit): he simplest form of carbohydrates which include the

glucose and fructose they are they are very easily soluble in water and serve as the
primary source of energy for the body

Disaccharides/ Oligosaccharides (2-10 units): They are formed by the combination of

two monosaccharides, which include sucrose, lactose, and maltose. They are
commonly found in sugar and they are broken down into monosaccharides during the
digestion. That means sucrose, lactose, maltose. They are made up of glucose,
fructose, and galactose.

Polysaccharides (more than 10 units): Polysaccharides are a combination of many

monosaccharides, they are long-chain monosaccharides, they are linked together
which serve as storage molecules for energy, such as glycogen in animals and starch
in plants.

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They have multiple functions’ viz. they’re the most abundant dietary source of
energy; they are structurally very important for many living organisms as they form a
major structural component, e.g. cellulose is an important structural fibre for plants.
They also play very important role in the cellular processes such as the cellular in
passing the information and recognition identifying the things and regulating the gene.

2. Proteins

Proteins are large, complex molecules made up of chains of smaller building blocks
called amino acids.

Proteins are another class of indispensable biomolecules, which make up around

50per cent of the cellular dry weight. Proteins are polymers of amino acids arranged
in the form of polypeptide chains.

There are two types of amino acids

Essential Amino Acids: Amino acids which can't be created in our body but can only
be received from proper food or diet are called Essential Amino Acids. Examples-
Histidine, Isoleucine, Lysine.

Non- essential amino acids: Amino acids which can be created in our body itself
are Non- essential amino acids. Examples-alanine, arginine, asparagine, aspartic acid.
Examples- Histidine, Isoleucine, Lysine.

The structure of proteins is classified as primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary in

some cases. These structures are based on the level of complexity of the folding of a
polypeptide chain. Proteins play both structural and dynamic roles. Myosin is the
protein that allows movement by contraction of muscles. Most enzymes are
proteinaceous in nature.

3. Nucleic Acids

Nucleic acids refer to the genetic material found in the cell that carries all the
hereditary information from parents to progeny. There are two types of nucleic acids
namely, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA).

The main function of nucleic acid is the transfer of genetic information and synthesis
of proteins by processes known as translation and transcription. The monomeric unit

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of nucleic acids is known as nucleotide and is composed of a nitrogenous base,

pentose sugar, and phosphate. The nucleotides are linked by a 3’ and 5’
phosphodiester bond. The nitrogen base attached to the pentose sugar makes the
nucleotide distinct.

DNA is the genetic material which carries the instructions for the development for
functioning for reproduction of all living organisms it is a it's actually a double
stranded helical structure There are 4 major nitrogenous bases found in DNA:
adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine. The DNA structure is described as a double-
helix or double-helical structure which is formed by hydrogen bonding between the
bases of two antiparallel polynucleotide chains. Overall, the DNA
structure looks similar to a twisted ladder.
RNA is a single stranded structure. In RNA, thymine is replaced by uracil

4. Lipids

Lipids are organic substances that are insoluble in water, soluble in organic solvents,
are related to fatty acids and are utilized by the living cell. They include fats, waxes,
sterols, fat-soluble vitamins, mono-, di- or triglycerides, phospholipids, etc. Unlike
carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids, lipids are not polymeric molecules. Lipids
play a great role in the cellular structure and are the chief source of energy.

1.4.2 Properties and functions of Carbohydrate

Properties of Carbohydrate

• Chemical Composition: Carbohydrates are organic components composed of carbon,

hydrogen, and oxygen in the ratio of 1:2:1.
• Solubility: Water Solubility: Most carbohydrates are soluble in water due to their
hydrophilic nature.
• Classification: Simple and Complex: Carbohydrates are classified into simple sugars
(monosaccharides and disaccharides) and complex carbohydrates (polysaccharides).
Functions of Carbohydrate

• Energy Source:

Primary Role: Carbohydrates serve as a primary source of energy for living

organisms.

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The Monosaccharides are converted into ATP (Adinos triphospate), the energy
currency of cells.

• Energy Storage:

Glycogen (in Animals): Excess glucose is stored in the form of glycogen in animals,
primarily in the liver and muscles.

Starch (in Plants): Plants store surplus glucose as starch in various plant tissues.

• Structural Support:

Cellulose (in Plants): Carbohydrates contribute to the structural support of plant cell
walls through the formation of cellulose.

• Transport of Energy:

Sucrose: Carbohydrates like sucrose facilitate the transport of energy in the form of
sugars within plants.

• Quick Energy Release:

Glucose: Rapid breakdown of glucose provides quick energy for cellular processes.

• Metabolic Regulation:

Blood Sugar Regulation: Carbohydrates play a role in regulating blood sugar levels,
ensuring a steady energy supply.

1.4.3 Properties and functions of Nucleic Acid

Properties of Nucleic Acid

• Sequence Specificity: The sequence of nitrogenous bases along the nucleic acid
chain is specific and carries genetic information.
• Double Helix (DNA): DNA has a double-helix structure, where two strands wind
around each other.
• Single-Stranded (RNA): RNA is usually single- stranded, with various types like
mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA.
• Genetic Code: Nucleic acids encode the genetic information that determines the traits
and characteristics of living organisms.

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• Complementary Base Pairing: In DNA, adenine pairs with thymine, and guanine
pairs with cytosine, forming complementary base pairs.
• Role in Protein Synthesis: Nucleic acids facilitate protein synthesis by carrying and
translating genetic instructions.
• Essential for Heredity: Nucleic acids are vital for the inheritance of genetic traits
from one generation to the next.
• Cellular Regulation: They participate in regulating cellular processes, gene
expression, and various metabolic activities.

Functions of Nucleic Acids

• Genetic Information Storage: Nucleic acids, particularly DNA, store and carry
genetic information that dictates the hereditary characteristics of living organisms.
• Protein Synthesis: Nucleic acids, through the process of transcription and translation,
play a crucial role in the synthesis of proteins, the building blocks of cells. Cellular
Regulation: They participate in the regulation of various cellular processes,
controlling gene expression and influencing the overall functioning of cells.
• Hereditary Transmission: Nucleic acids are responsible for transmitting hereditary
traits from parents to offspring, ensuring the continuity of genetic information.
• Transfer of Genetic Code: RNA, a type of nucleic acid, carries the genetic code
from DNA to the ribosomes, where protein synthesis occurs.
• Enzymatic Activities: Some nucleic acids, like ribozymes, exhibit enzymatic
activities, participating in biochemical reactions within cells. Energy Transfer:
Nucleic acids contribute to the transfer and storage of energy in the form of adenosine
triphosphate (ATP), a molecule crucial for cellular energy currency.
• Cellular Signaling: Certain nucleic acids are involved in cellular signaling pathways,
influencing responses to external stimuli and environmental changes.
• Maintenance of Cell Structure: Nucleic acids contribute to the maintenance and
integrity of cell structures, influencing cell division and growth.
• Synthesis of Biomolecules: They are involved in the synthesis of various
biomolecules, contributing to the overall structure and function of living organisms.

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1.4.4 Properties and Functions of Proteins

Properties of Proteins

• Structure: Proteins exhibit a complex three-dimensional structure determined by

their amino acid sequence. They have primary, secondary (alpha helix, beta sheet),
tertiary, and quaternary structural levels.
• Amino Acid Composition: Proteins are composed of amino acids linked by peptide
bonds. The specific arrangement of amino acids dictates the protein's structure and
function.
• Solubility: Proteins can vary in solubility, with some being soluble in water
(hydrophilic) and others in lipids (hydrophobic).
• Denaturation: Proteins can undergo denaturation due to factors like heat, pH
changes, or chemicals, resulting in loss of structure and function.
• Specificity: Proteins exhibit specificity in their interactions, with each type designed
for a particular function or molecular interaction.
• Biological Functions: Proteins serve diverse biological roles, including enzymes for
catalysis, antibodies for immune response, and structural proteins for support.
• Flexibility: Proteins can change their conformation to adapt to different biological
environments and perform their functions.
• Binding and Recognition: Proteins can bind to other molecules, facilitating cellular
processes such as signalling and transport.
• Catalytic Activity: Many proteins act as enzymes, accelerating biochemical reactions
within cells.
• Diversity: The diversity of proteins allows them to carry out a wide range of
functions critical to cellular life.

Functions of Proteins

Enzymatic Activity: Example: Catalase is an enzyme that catalyzes the breakdown of

hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen.

• Structural Support: Example: Collagen provides structural support to connective

tissues in skin, bones, and tendons.
• Transportation: Example: Hemoglobin transports oxygen from the lungs to tissues
and carries carbon dioxide back to the lungs.

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• Defense and Immunity: Example: Antibodies defend against pathogens by

recognizing and neutralizing foreign substances.
• Cell Signaling: Example: Insulin is a signaling protein that regulates glucose uptake
by cells.
• Motion and Contraction: Example: Actin and myosin are proteins involved in
muscle contraction and cell movement.
• Hormonal Regulation: Example: Insulin and glucagon are hormones that regulate
blood sugar levels.
• Storage of Molecules: Example: Ferritin stores iron in a soluble and non-toxic form
in cells.
• Catalysis of Metabolic Reactions: Example: Lipase is an enzyme that catalyzes the
breakdown of lipids during digestion.
• Regulation of Gene Expression: Example: Transcription factors regulate the
expression of genes during protein synthesis.
• Sensory Response: Example: Rhodopsin is a light-sensitive protein involved in
vision.
• Blood Clotting: Example: Fibrinogen is a protein involved in the blood clotting
cascade.
• Buffering and pH Regulation: Example: Hemoglobin helps maintain the pH balance
in red blood cells.
• Energy Source: Example: In starvation, proteins can be broken down into amino
acids for energy production.

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1.4.5 Properties and Functions of Lipids

Properties of Lipids

• Hydrophobicity: Lipids are largely hydrophobic (water-repellent) molecules due to

their long hydrocarbon chains. This property makes them insoluble in water but
soluble in non-polar solvents like chloroform and ether.
• Structural diversity: Lipids encompass a diverse group of molecules, including fats,
oils, phospholipids, steroids, and waxes, each with unique chemical structures and
properties.
• Energy density: Lipids are highly energy-dense molecules, containing more energy
per gram than carbohydrates or proteins. They serve as efficient long-term energy
storage molecules in organisms.
• Composition: Lipids are composed primarily of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
atoms, often arranged in long hydrocarbon chains or rings.
• Membrane formation: Certain lipids, such as phospholipids, are key components of
cell membranes. They form lipid bilayers that provide structural integrity to cell
membranes and regulate the passage of molecules into and out of cells.
• Steroid backbone: Steroids are a class of lipids characterized by a four-ring
structure. This steroid backbone serves as the basis for the synthesis of steroid
hormones, such as testosterone, estrogen, and cortisol.

Functions of Lipids

• Energy storage: Lipids serve as an efficient long-term energy storage form in

organisms. They store more energy per unit mass than carbohydrates or proteins,
making them valuable energy reserves.
• Structural components: Lipids are integral structural components of cell
membranes, forming the lipid bilayer that surrounds cells and organelles. This lipid
barrier regulates the passage of substances in and out of cells, maintaining cellular
integrity and function.
• Insulation: Certain lipids, like adipose tissue, provide thermal insulation in
organisms, helping to maintain body temperature and protect against temperature
fluctuations in the environment.

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• Protection: Lipids, such as waxes, oils, and sebum, form protective barriers on the
surface of skin, fur, feathers, and plant cuticles, helping to prevent water loss,
microbial invasion, and physical damage.
• Lubrication: Lipids, particularly oils and waxes, can provide lubrication for various
biological functions, such as the lubrication of joints or the protection of feathers and
skin in animals.
• Signaling molecules: Lipids function as signaling molecules, regulating various
physiological processes through hormone signaling. For example, steroid hormones
like estrogen, testosterone, and cortisol are derived from lipids and play critical roles
in metabolism, growth, and reproduction.
• Transport: Lipids serve as carriers for fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K) and other
hydrophobic molecules, facilitating their absorption, transport, and storage in the
body.
• Absorption of nutrients: Lipids aid in the absorption of fat-soluble nutrients, such as
vitamins and phytochemicals, by forming micelles in the digestive tract, which
enhance their solubility and uptake by intestinal cells.
• Cellular signaling: Lipids, particularly phospholipids and sphingolipids, participate
in cellular signaling pathways, including intracellular signal transduction and cell-cell
communication.
• Membrane fluidity: Lipids influence the fluidity and permeability of cell
membranes, affecting the movement of proteins and other molecules within the
membrane and modulating cellular processes such as membrane fusion, endocytosis,
and exocytosis.
• Waterproofing: Lipids found in waxes and oils provide waterproofing properties to
various biological structures, such as plant cuticles, feathers, and the outer layers of
insect exoskeletons, helping to prevent desiccation and maintain hydration.

1.5 Importance of special biomolecules

Special biomolecules are a diverse group of molecules that play critical roles in biological
systems. They are essential for various cellular functions and are often involved in key
processes such as energy production, cell signaling, and structural support. Examples of
special biomolecules include:

1. Enzymes:

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• Enzymes are biological catalysts, typically proteins, that facilitate and accelerate
biochemical reactions in living organisms.
• They work by lowering the activation energy required for a chemical reaction to
occur, thereby increasing the rate of the reaction without being consumed in the
process.
• Enzymes are highly specific to their substrates, meaning they catalyze specific
reactions.
• They often undergo conformational changes upon substrate binding, which helps to
bring the reactive sites of the enzyme and substrate into close proximity.
• Enzymes play crucial roles in metabolism, digestion, DNA replication, cellular
signaling, and virtually every other biochemical process in living organisms.

2. Vitamins:

• Vitamins are organic compounds that are essential for various physiological functions
in the body but are required only in small amounts.
• They serve as cofactors or coenzymes for enzymes, meaning they assist enzymes in
catalyzing specific reactions.
• Vitamins are classified into two groups based on their solubility: water-soluble
vitamins (e.g., vitamin C and B-complex vitamins) and fat-soluble vitamins (e.g.,
vitamins A, D, E, and K).
• Water-soluble vitamins are not stored in the body to the same extent as fat-soluble
vitamins and are excreted in urine if consumed in excess.
• Vitamins play critical roles in energy metabolism, antioxidant defense, immune
function, blood clotting, and the maintenance of healthy skin, vision, and bones.

3. Hormones:

• Hormones are chemical messengers produced by endocrine glands or specialized cells

in various organs and tissues throughout the body.
• They regulate physiological processes and maintain homeostasis by exerting specific
effects on target cells or tissues.
• Hormones can be classified into different categories based on their chemical structure:
peptide hormones (e.g., insulin, growth hormone), steroid hormones (e.g., cortisol,

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estrogen, testosterone), and amino acid-derived hormones (e.g., adrenaline, thyroid

hormones).
• Hormones regulate diverse functions such as metabolism, growth and development,
reproduction, stress response, mood, and behavior.
• They typically act by binding to specific receptors on target cells, initiating signal
transduction pathways that elicit cellular responses.

1.5.1 Properties and functions of enzymes

Properties of enzymes:

• Catalytic activity: Enzymes are biological catalysts that accelerate chemical

reactions by lowering the activation energy required for the reaction to proceed.
• Specificity: Enzymes exhibit high specificity for their substrates, meaning they
catalyze specific reactions. This specificity arises from the complementary fit between
the enzyme's active site and the substrate.
• Efficiency: Enzymes can greatly increase the rate of a reaction, often by factors of
millions or more, making biochemical processes in cells feasible within the
constraints of physiological conditions.
• Regulation: Enzyme activity can be regulated to control cellular processes.
Regulation can occur through various mechanisms, including allosteric regulation,
covalent modification, and feedback inhibition.
• Reusability: Enzymes are not consumed during the reaction they catalyze and can be
used repeatedly, making them highly efficient catalysts.
• Optimal conditions: Enzymes have specific pH and temperature optima at which
they exhibit maximal activity. Deviations from these optimal conditions can decrease
enzyme activity and may denature the enzyme.
• Cofactors and coenzymes: Some enzymes require non-protein molecules, known as
cofactors or coenzymes, for catalytic activity. These molecules may participate in the
catalytic mechanism or assist in substrate binding.

Functions of enzymes:

• Metabolism: Enzymes play central roles in metabolism, facilitating the breakdown of

complex molecules (catabolism) into simpler ones and the synthesis of complex
molecules (anabolism) from simpler ones.

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• Digestion: Digestive enzymes break down food components such as carbohydrates,

proteins, and fats into smaller molecules that can be absorbed by the body.
• DNA replication and repair: Enzymes are involved in DNA replication, ensuring
the accurate copying of genetic information during cell division. They also participate
in DNA repair mechanisms to fix damaged DNA.
• Cellular signaling: Enzymes are involved in various cellular signaling pathways,
where they regulate the transmission of signals from the cell surface to the nucleus,
influencing gene expression and cellular responses.
• Immune response: Enzymes such as proteases are involved in immune responses,
where they help to break down foreign pathogens such as bacteria and viruses.
• Detoxification: Enzymes in the liver and other organs are involved in detoxification
processes, where they metabolize and eliminate harmful substances from the body.
• Synthesis of biomolecules: Enzymes catalyze the synthesis of complex biomolecules
such as proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids, which are essential for cell structure and
function.

1.5.2 Properties and functions of vitamins

Properties of vitamins:

• Essentiality: Vitamins are organic compounds that are essential for normal
physiological function in organisms. They are required in small amounts in the diet
because the body cannot synthesize them in sufficient quantities.
• Chemical diversity: Vitamins encompass a diverse group of compounds with
different chemical structures and properties. They can be classified into two main
categories based on their solubility: water-soluble vitamins (e.g., vitamin C and B-
complex vitamins) and fat-soluble vitamins (e.g., vitamins A, D, E, and K).
• Bioavailability: The bioavailability of vitamins refers to the extent to which they can
be absorbed and utilized by the body. Factors such as dietary intake, absorption
efficiency, metabolism, and excretion influence vitamin bioavailability.
• Storage: Fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K) can be stored in the body's fatty
tissues and liver for extended periods, whereas water-soluble vitamins (B-complex
vitamins and vitamin C) are not stored to the same extent and are excreted in urine if
consumed in excess.

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• Heat and light sensitivity: Some vitamins are sensitive to heat, light, and air
exposure, which can degrade their potency. Proper storage and cooking methods are
important to preserve the vitamin content of foods.

Functions of vitamins:

• Coenzyme and cofactor roles: Many vitamins serve as coenzymes or cofactors for
enzymes involved in various metabolic pathways. They assist enzymes in catalyzing
biochemical reactions by facilitating substrate binding or catalytic activity.
• Antioxidant activity: Certain vitamins, such as vitamin C, vitamin E, and beta-
carotene (a precursor of vitamin A), function as antioxidants. They help neutralize
harmful free radicals, reactive oxygen species, and other oxidative stressors,
protecting cells and tissues from oxidative damage.
• Cellular metabolism: Vitamins play crucial roles in energy metabolism,
carbohydrate metabolism, protein metabolism, and lipid metabolism. They participate
in processes such as glycolysis, citric acid cycle, fatty acid synthesis, and amino acid
metabolism.
• Immune function: Vitamins are important for maintaining a healthy immune system
and supporting immune function. For example, vitamin C is involved in collagen
synthesis and immune cell function, while vitamin D plays a role in regulating
immune responses and inflammation.
• Bone health: Vitamin D is essential for calcium absorption and bone mineralization,
helping to maintain bone health and prevent conditions such as osteoporosis and
rickets.
• Vision: Vitamin A is critical for vision, particularly for the synthesis of rhodopsin, a
pigment in the retina that is involved in low-light vision. Vitamin A deficiency can
lead to night blindness and other vision problems.
• Blood clotting: Vitamin K is necessary for the synthesis of clotting factors in the
blood, helping to promote proper blood clotting and prevent excessive bleeding.

1.5.3 Properties and functions of hormones

Properties of hormones:

• Chemical nature: Hormones are signaling molecules produced by endocrine glands

or specialized cells in various organs and tissues throughout the body. They can be

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classified into different categories based on their chemical structure, including peptide
hormones, steroid hormones, and amino acid-derived hormones.
• Secretion: Hormones are typically secreted into the bloodstream by endocrine glands
in response to various stimuli, such as changes in blood glucose levels, neural signals,
or hormonal signals from other glands.
• Transport: Once released into the bloodstream, hormones travel to target cells or
tissues throughout the body, where they exert their effects.
• Specificity: Hormones exhibit specificity for their target cells or tissues, meaning
they bind to specific receptors on target cells, initiating signal transduction pathways
that elicit cellular responses.
• Regulation: Hormone secretion and activity are tightly regulated to maintain
homeostasis and coordinate physiological processes. Regulation can occur through
feedback mechanisms, where hormone levels are adjusted in response to changes in
internal or external conditions.
• Half-life: Hormones have varying half-lives in the bloodstream, ranging from
seconds to hours. Some hormones are rapidly metabolized and cleared from the body,
while others have longer-lasting effects.

Functions of hormones:

• Regulation of metabolism: Hormones play key roles in regulating metabolic

processes, including glucose metabolism, lipid metabolism, and protein metabolism.
For example, insulin regulates glucose uptake and storage in cells, while glucagon
stimulates glucose release from the liver.
• Growth and development: Hormones are essential for growth and development from
infancy through adulthood. Growth hormone, thyroid hormones, and sex hormones
play critical roles in growth, bone development, and sexual maturation.
• Reproduction: Hormones regulate reproductive processes in both males and females,
including the development and function of reproductive organs, the menstrual cycle,
ovulation, sperm production, and fertility.
• Stress response: Hormones such as cortisol and adrenaline (epinephrine) are
involved in the body's response to stress, helping to mobilize energy reserves,
increase heart rate and blood pressure, and suppress non-essential functions during
times of acute stress.

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• Fluid and electrolyte balance: Hormones such as aldosterone and antidiuretic

hormone (ADH) regulate fluid balance and electrolyte levels in the body by
influencing water reabsorption and electrolyte excretion in the kidneys.
• Immune function: Some hormones, such as cytokines and thymosin, play roles in
immune function by regulating the production and activity of immune cells,
modulating inflammation, and promoting immune responses to pathogens.

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