FUNDAMENTALS FOR BUILDING Value Added Course

QUANTUM INTELLIGENT SYSTEMS

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QUANTUM SUPREMACY
Mentions Google claiming quantum supremacy.
Meaning:
1. A quantum computer performed a task infeasible for classical supercomputers.
2. Not that quantum computers replace classical ones.
3. It shows computational advantage for specific problems.

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MODULE - 1
Basics of Quantum mechanics to Quantum Computing, Math foundations: Bloch sphere
representation and Dirac notation
Introduction to Quantum Information for single and multiple systems: quantum state
vector, measurements, unitary operations, tensor products, bell states.

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 Introduction to qubits

➢ A qubit (short for quantum bit) is the fundamental unit of information in quantum computing, analogous to the bit in
classical computing.
➢ Unlike a classical bit that can only be a 0 or a 1, a qubit can be 0, 1, or a combination of both at the same time
due to superposition.
➢ This unique quantum property, along with entanglement, allows quantum computers to perform computations in a
way that classical computers cannot, giving them the potential to solve complex problems much faster.

Superposition:
A qubit can exist in multiple states simultaneously. Imagine a classical bit as a light switch that is either on or off. A
qubit is more like a dimmer switch that can be fully on, fully off, or at any point in between, representing a
probability of being 0 or 1.

Entanglement:
Two or more qubits can interact, and they can become entangled, meaning their states are correlated even when
separated by large distances.
Measuring the state of one entangled qubit instantaneously influences the state of the other.
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In quantum mechanics, the general quantum of a qubit can be represented by a linear superposition of its two
orthonormal basis states (or basis vectors).

These vectors are usually denoted as

These two orthonormal basis states, ∣0⟩ and ∣1⟩, together called the computational basis, are said to span the two-
dimensional linear vector (Hilbert) space of the qubit.

Qubit basis states can also be combined to form product basis states. A set of qubits taken together is called a
quantum register. For example, two qubits could be represented in a four-dimensional linear vector space spanned by
the following product basis states:

In general, n qubits are represented by a superposition state vector in 2n dimensional Hilbert space

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state

state

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 Difference between a classical bit and a qubit, comparing how information is stored, represented, and processed in
classical vs. quantum computing.

[Link] Feature Classical Bit Quantum Bit (Qubit)

1 Definition The smallest unit of classical information. The smallest unit of quantum information.
Can exist in a superposition of both states — simultaneously
Can exist only in one state at a time — either
2 Possible States 0 and 1 (until measured).
0 or 1
Example
Example.
A dimmer switch that can be partly on and off
A light switch is either ON (1) or OFF (0) →
simultaneously (quantum mechanically speaking) → like a
like a classical bit
qubit.
3 Information One binary value : 0 or 1 Expressed as a linear combination (superposition) of the
capacity & There’s no concept of a combination or basis states (two states):
Mathematical probability amplitude — it’s deterministic ∣ψ⟩=α∣0⟩+β∣1⟩
Representation where:
∣0⟩and ∣1⟩ are the basis states,
α and β are complex numbers called probability amplitudes,
and ∣α∣2+∣β∣2=1
Measurement outcomes:
Probability of observing 0 = ∣α∣2
Probability of observing 1 = ∣β∣2
Thus, a qubit encodes probabilistic information until
observed.
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[Link] Feature Classical Bit Quantum Bit (Qubit)
4 Superposition Not possible — one definite state. Possible — combination of states.
00, 01, 10, or 11 (meaning –one definite Superposition of all 4 combinations (Can represent all 4 at
pair) once: 00, 01, 10, 11) – [2 qubits can represent all four
[2 classical bits represent one of four states] states simultaneously]

5 Entanglement Possible — qubits can be correlated such that

measuring one affects the other.
Example of entanglement
Not possible — bits are independent.
If the first qubit is measured as 0, the second is instantly 0;
if the first is 1, the second is 1 — no matter the distance
between them.
6 Parallelism Each computation is done one at a time. Multiple computations occur simultaneously due to
superposition.
7 Physical Digital Computers Quantum Computers
Realization Electrical signal (voltage high/low) Quantum state of a particle
e.g., electron spin, photon polarization, trapped ions,
superconducting loops, nuclear spins, quantum dots, etc.

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[Link] Feature Classical Bit Quantum Bit (Qubit)
Represented as a vector on the Bloch sphere, a 3D unit
sphere.
Any point on the sphere corresponds to a valid quantum
Represented as a binary value (0 or 1)
8 Representation state.
Physically realized as:
and Visualization Mathematically:
• Voltage (low/high)
• Magnetic orientation
θ: determines how much the qubit is 0 or 1
• Charge presence/absence
ϕ: determines the relative phase between 0 and 1
This visualization shows that infinite possible states exist for
one qubit (unlike just two for a bit).

• Operated using quantum gates, which are unitary

transformations (they preserve total probability).
• Computations are probabilistic — measurement can
• Operated using Boolean logic gates
9 Information yield different results, but in a predictable distribution.
(AND, OR, NOT, XOR, etc.).
Processing • Quantum gates allow operations like:
• Computations are deterministic — same
Superposition (Hadamard gate)
input always gives same output.
Entanglement (CNOT gate)
Phase change (Phase gate)

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[Link] Feature Classical Bit Quantum Bit (Qubit)
10 Measurement & Before Measurement : Has a definite value (0 Before Measurement : Exists in a superposition of 0 and 1.
Collapse or 1) Measurement :
Measurement : Causes collapse — the superposition turns into a definite 0
Always yields definite 0 or 1 or 1 with certain probabilities.
11 Computation Scalability : Linear — doubling bits doubles Scalability: Exponential — n qubits represent 2ⁿ states
Power memory. simultaneously.
Speed (for certain problems) : Limited by Speed (for certain problems) : Can perform massive
sequential logic. parallelism via superposition.
Error Handling : Stable; low noise. Error Handling : Sensitive to noise; needs quantum error
correction.

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 Summary

[Link] Property Classical Bit Quantum Bit (Qubit)

1 State 0 or 1 Superposition of 0 and 1
2 Storage Deterministic Probabilistic
3 Basis Binary Quantum mechanical basis vectors
4 Logic gates AND, OR, NOT Hadamard, CNOT, Phase, T gate
5 Inter-bit correlation Independent Can be entangled
6 Information density 1 bit Infinite (continuous amplitudes)
7 Computation type Sequential Parallel (quantum parallelism)
8 Error sensitivity Low High (requires error correction)

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What is single qubit state?

A single qubit (quantum bit) is the fundamental building block of quantum information.

It represents the simplest possible quantum system

A single qubit is defined as a quantum state that can be represented in a 2D basis, typically expressed as a mixture
(superposition) of two pure states, such as |0⟩ and |1⟩, and is subject to transformations by unitary operators that preserve
its unit norm.
Basis States: |0⟩ and |1⟩

Just like a classical bit can be 0 or 1, a qubit has two basis states (also called computational basis states):

These are orthogonal and normalized vectors in a two-dimensional complex vector space (Hilbert space).

ie. a single qubit lives in a 2-dimensional complex vector space, with basis states

They form the basis for describing all possible single-qubit states.
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The most important single-qubit quantum gates are Pauli opertators X, Y, Z; the Hadamard gate H, the phase shift gate S
(sometimes denoted by P), and the π/8 (or T) gate.

The common single-qubit gates discussed above and their matrix representation are summarized in Figure below

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General State of a Single Qubit

Any single qubit can be written as a linear combination (superposition) of the two basis states:

where
α and β are complex numbers called probability amplitudes, and they satisfy the normalization condition:

This ensures the total probability of finding the qubit in either state (when measured) equals 1

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Single qubit states and the Bloch Sphere

A single qubit's state can be visualized as a point on the surface of a 3D unit sphere called the Bloch sphere, where the
north pole represents the |0⟩ state and the south pole represents the |1⟩state.

Any other point on the surface is a superposition of these two basis states and is defined by spherical coordinates: the
polar angle, 𝜃, and the azimuthal angle, 𝜙. Applying a quantum gate to a qubit is equivalent to rotating the state vector
on the Bloch sphere.

Representing a qubit on the Bloch sphere

Basis states:
The north pole represents the |0⟩ state (up state), and the south pole represents |1⟩ state (down state).

Superposition states:
.
Any point on the surface of the sphere, other than the poles, represents a superposition of |0⟩ and |1⟩.

State Vector :
The state of the qubit is represented by a unit vector pointing from the centre to a point on the sphere surface.

Spherical coordinates: The location of the vector is determined by two angles:

𝜃: The polar angle, measured from the +𝑧 -axis (north pole), ranging from 0 to 𝜋.
𝜙: The azimuthal angle, measured from the +𝑥 -axis in the 𝑥𝑦 plane, ranging from 0 to 2𝜋. 15
The Bloch Sphere Representation

This is a geometric representation of a qubit. Each point on the surface of a unit sphere corresponds to a
unique pure qubit state.

The qubit’s general state is given by:

Equatorial plane (θ = π/2) → Equal superpositions

of ∣0⟩ and ∣1⟩

Fig. The Bloch sphere provides a useful means of visualizing the state
of a single qubit and operations on it. Any point on this sphere
represents a linear combination of the 0 and 1 states with complex
coefficients. A π/2-pulse 'rotates' a qubit from the 0-state to a
superposition state.
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The figure shows:
•The z-axis points up–down (|0⟩ |1⟩).
•The x-axis and y-axis lie on the equatorial plane.
•The state ∣ψ⟩ is at a position defined by:
• θ (angle from the z-axis)
• φ (angle from x-axis in the x–y plane)
The Bloch vector’s tip represents the qubit’s state, and as θ and φ vary, the qubit explores all possible pure states. 17
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 Two-qubit system - Two quantum bit (“Bipartite”) system

A two-qubit system is a quantum system composed of two qubits, which can be in a combined state represented by a four-
dimensional vector.

A two-qubit system is made by combining two individual qubits together — mathematically, this is done using the tensor
product.
So the state space (basis state) becomes 2 × 2 = 4-dimensional.

Two qubits are often referred as bipartite systems. This term is inherited from physics in which composite systems of two
identical particles (bi-parti-te) can be entangled.

Basis States for Two Qubits:

The standard basis states are: |00⟩, |01⟩,|10⟩ and |11⟩.

In vector form:

These systems are crucial for quantum computing because they allow for complex interactions like entanglement, where the
state of one qubit is intrinsically linked to the state of the other, regardless of their physical separation.
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Notations

To distinguish the two otherwise identical component Hilbert spaces, we may use subscripts. A for left – space and B for
the right space,

HA ⊗ HB

Another notation we might see emphasizes the order of the tensor product, ie., the number of component spaces in the
present case is two
H(2)

It means the order is two and not to be mistaken as the dimension as 2. Still the dimension is 4 only.

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General State of a Two-Qubit System

A general two-qubit state is a superposition of all four basis states:

ie,

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Computation basis states (CBS):

The combined system's four basis states are formed by the tensor product of the individual qubit basis states:

|0⟩⊗|0⟩=|00⟩
|0⟩⊗|1⟩=|01⟩
|1⟩⊗|0⟩=|10⟩
|1⟩⊗|1⟩=|11⟩

The reason we “go tensor” for two qubit system is that the two bits may become entangled . That forces us to treat two bits
as if they were a single state of larger state space rather than keep them separate.

Short hand alternatives in quantum computing

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This is a encoded version which expresses the ket as an integer from 0 to 3
Coordinate representation of each basis ket

So we see an exponent like notation |x⟩2 in the encoded form

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Alternate second order x-CBS

We can construct other computational bases like the inherited x-basis,

{ |0⟩x |0⟩x , |0⟩x |1⟩x , |1⟩x |0⟩x , |1⟩x |1⟩x }

Or using the common alternate notation the x-basis as

{ |+⟩ |+⟩ , |+⟩ |-⟩ , |-⟩ |+⟩ , |-⟩ |-⟩ }

This is condensed as

{ |++⟩ |+-⟩, |-+⟩, |--⟩}

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Tensor Product Example

If we have two individual qubits:

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Importance
•Two-qubit systems are the building blocks for more complex quantum algorithms and processors.
•They are essential for quantum information processing tasks, such as entanglement-based quantum communication
and computation.
•The study of these systems is vital for developing and testing quantum technologies, as it introduces concepts like
nonlocality and entanglement which are core to quantum mechanics.

Entanglement: This is a key phenomenon in two-qubit systems where the qubits are correlated in a way that is stronger than
what's possible in classical physics. A measurement on one entangled qubit instantly influences the state of the other.

Quantum gates: Operations on a two-qubit system are represented by 4x4 matrices (as opposed to 2x2 for single qubits)
and include gates like the CNOT gate and the SWAP gate, which are fundamental for performing computations

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Quantum entanglement and Bell states

Quantum entanglement is a phenomenon where two or more quantum particles become linked, so that measuring the
state of one instantaneously influences the state of the other(s), no matter how far apart they are.
In other words, their quantum states are correlated, and the overall system cannot be described as a simple combination
of individual states.
Ie.
➢ Entangled particles are linked in such a way that they cannot be described independently.
➢ Each individual particle has no definite state until measured, but their joint state is well-defined.
➢ The entanglement lies not in the values themselves, but in the correlation between the values.

When one entangled particle is measured, the state of the other is instantly determined. For example, if two entangled
qubits are in a state where they must be the same, measuring the first as |0⟩ guarantees the second is also |0⟩

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Example (Two Qubits)

Suppose we have two qubits, A and B.

If they are entangled, measuring the state of A immediately determines the state of B

For instance:
If the system is in the state

then:

•If we measure A = 0, we instantly know B = 0.

•If we measure A = 1, then B = 1.
Even if the particles are light-years apart!

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Bell states are a set of four maximally entangled two-qubit states that serve as the simplest examples of entanglement, and
they are crucial for quantum technologies like quantum computing and cryptography

Maximally entangled: Bell states are the maximally entangled states of two qubits, meaning the correlation between the
qubits is as strong as possible.
They form an orthonormal basis for the 2-qubit Hilbert space.

There are four Bell states, which are often represented by the symbols |Φ+⟩, |Φ−⟩, |Ψ+⟩ and |Ψ−⟩

These are known as Bell states or EPR pairs (after Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen) 29

Correlated vs. anti-correlated:

Each Bell state describes two qubits that are entangled — their outcomes are perfectly correlated or anti-correlated.

The |Φ+⟩ and |Φ−⟩ states are “correlated” meaning if you measure the first qubit as |0⟩, the second will also
be measured as |0⟩ and vice versa.

The |Ψ+⟩ and |Ψ−⟩ states are “ anti-correlated” meaning if you measure the first qubit as |0⟩, the second will be
measured as |1⟩ and vice versa.

Bell states can be created with a simple quantum circuit using a Hadamard gate and a Controlled – NOT (CNOT)
gate
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Applications
✓ Quantum teleportation: Bell states are a crucial resource for transferring an unknown quantum state from one
location to another.(transmitting qubit states using entanglement.)
✓ Quantum Cryptography (QKD): They form the basis of secure communication protocols.
✓ Superdense Coding : sending 2 classical bits using only 1 qubit.
✓ Quantum error correction: They are used in some models for building fault-tolerant quantum computers

Experimental Realizations

Bell states have been produced using:

•Photon polarization entanglement

•Trapped ions
•Superconducting qubits
•Spin entanglement in quantum dots

Experiments confirm that Bell states violate Bell inequalities, proving that quantum correlations are nonlocal
and stronger than any classical correlations. 31
Single-qubit gates

Single-qubit gates are quantum operations that act on a single qubit, transforming its quantum state on the Bloch sphere.
Common examples include the Pauli-X, Pauli-Y, and Pauli-Z gates, which perform rotations or flips, and the Hadamard
gate, which creates superpositions.

These gates are the fundamental building blocks for creating more complex quantum circuits.

A single-qubit gate operates on one qubit at a time.

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Quantum Gates and Rotations

Quantum gates rotate the state vector on the Bloch sphere.

For example:
•Pauli-X (NOT gate): flips between north and south pole (rotation about X-axis by π).
•Pauli-Y, Pauli-Z: rotate around their respective axes.
•Hadamard: rotates ∣0⟩ to ∣+⟩ i.e., to the equator along the X-axis.

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Pauli and Hadamard gate

Other gates : just for information. Not in syllabus

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Pauli X-gate

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To prove the action of the Pauli-X gate on a general qubit, we use matrix multiplication.

1. Write the Pauli-X matrix,

2. Write the general qubit in vector form,

3. Apply the Pauli-X operator

4. Interpret the result back in Dirac notation

Thus, the Pauli-X gate swaps the amplitudes of the qubit, acting
5. Result (Proven) like a bit flip. 36
Pauli Y-gate

The Pauli-Y gate is a fundamental single-qubit quantum logic gate that performs a 180-degree (𝜋 radians)
rotation around the y-axis of the Bloch sphere. It is represented by the Pauli Y matrix, 𝜎𝑦
.
Matrix Representation
The matrix representation of the Pauli-Y gate in the standard computational basis,( ∣0⟩, ∣1⟩) is

Effect on Qubit States

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Key Characteristics
➢ Rotation: It performs a 180-degree rotation around the y-axis of the Bloch sphere.
➢ Observability: While the Pauli X and Z matrices are Hermitian and represent observables in quantum mechanics,
the Y matrix is anti-Hermitian and is typically used as a gate operation rather than an observable.
➢ Symbol: In a quantum circuit diagram, the Pauli-Y gate is typically represented by a box with the letter 'Y' inside.
➢ Application: The Pauli gates are crucial for manipulating quantum states and are fundamental building blocks for
many quantum algorithms and error correction codes.

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To prove the action of the Pauli-Y gate on a general qubit, we use matrix multiplication.

Step 1. Write the Pauli-Y matrix,

Step 2. Write the general qubit in vector form,

Step 3. Apply the Pauli-Y operator

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Step 4. In Dirac notation

Step 5. Result (Proven)

This shows that Pauli-Y:

• flips ∣0⟩ and ∣1⟩,
• and adds specific phases ±i 40
Pauli Z -gate

The Pauli Z gate is a fundamental single-qubit quantum logic gate that applies a phase flip (a change in
sign) to the |1⟩ state while leaving the |0⟩ state unchanged. This is equivalent to a rotation of 𝜋 radians
(180 degrees) around the Z-axis of the Bloch sphere.

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Key Characteristics

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To prove the action of the Pauli-Z gate on a general qubit, we use matrix multiplication.

Step 1. Write the Pauli-Z matrix,

Step 2. Write the general qubit in vector form,

Step 3. Apply the Pauli-Z operator

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Step 4. In Dirac notation

Step 5. Result (Proven)

The Pauli-Z gate keeps the amplitude of ∣0⟩ unchanged but adds a minus sign (π phase) to ∣1⟩.

The Pauli Z gate is a fundamental building block for more complex quantum circuits and algorithms. Its ability to
manipulate phase is essential for quantum error correction protocols, entanglement manipulation, and algorithms that
rely on quantum interference.
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A Hadamard gate is a fundamental single-qubit gate in quantum computing that creates a superposition.
It transforms a qubit from a definite state ∣0⟩ 0r to ∣1⟩ into an equal superposition of both, where each state has a
50% chance of being measured.
The Hadamard gate is represented by a matrix, and applying it twice in a row returns the qubit to its original state
(H2 = I)

The Hadamard gate (H gate) is one of the most important single-qubit quantum gates. It creates superposition, transforms basis
states, and is used widely in quantum algorithms.

How it works

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 Key properties and uses

➢ Creates superposition:
Its primary function is to transform a qubit from a single, definite state into a superposition of all possible states.
➢ Enables parallelism:
By creating superpositions, it allows quantum computers to perform calculations on many possible inputs
simultaneously.
➢ Reversible:
Applying the Hadamard gate twice returns the qubit to its initial state (H2 = I) , making it a reversible operation.
➢ Fundamental in algorithms:
It is a building block for many quantum algorithms.

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Hadamard gate on a single qubit

Step 1. Matrix of the Hadamard Gate

Step 2. Action on Computational Basis States

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Step 3. Action on a General Qubit

Step 4. Result: Action on a General Qubit

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Important Properties of the Hadamard Gate

Bloch Sphere Interpretation

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Useful checks

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