PCEET205 – Measurements & Instrumentation

MODULE – 3

3.1 Measurement of Power and Energy: Measurement of Power using Dynamometer type
wattmeter, Three phase Power Measurement using Two Wattmeter Method (Include
Phasor Diagrams and Expressions, Include simple problems of two wattmeter
method)

3.2 Measurement of Energy Using Induction type Energy Meter, Two Element Energy
Meter
3.3 Instrument Transformers-CT and PT- Principle of Operation- Range Extension
3.4 Basic Principles of Electronic Multimeter, Digital Voltmeter, Digital Energy Meter, TOD
Meter, Smart Metering, Bidirectional Meters (Description Only)

ELECTRODYNAMOMETER INSTRUMENT
• An electrodynamometer instrument is an electrical measuring instrument that works
on the electrodynamic principle (interaction between the magnetic fields of two
current-carrying coils produces a deflecting torque that moves the pointer)
• It is a transfer-type instrument : A transfer-type instrument is one that may be
calibrated with a dc source and then used without modification to measure AC. It has
same accuracy for both AC and DC.
• It is a moving-coil instrument in which the operating field is produced by fixed coil.
It does not use permanent magnets.
• Used to measure AC and DC quantities, can be used either as an ammeter or a
voltmeter but is generally used as a wattmeter.
➢ Ammeter and voltmeter - fixed and moving coils are connected in series, non-
uniform scale (squared scale)
2
Ammeter : 𝜃𝛼𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
2
Voltmeter : 𝜃𝛼𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠
➢ Wattmeter - fixed and moving coils are connected in parallel, uniform scale
Wattmeter : 𝜃𝛼𝑃

ELECTRODYNAMIC AMMETER
A shunt is connected across the moving coil for
limiting the current. The reactance–resistance
ratio of the shunt and the moving coil is kept nearly
the same for the independence of the meter
reading with the supply frequency.

• CC- wound with thick wire, few turns

• Non-uniform (squared scale)

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PCEET205 – Measurements & Instrumentation

ELECTRODYNAMIC VOLTMETER The electrodynamic instrument can be used as a

voltmeter by connecting a large non-inductive
resistance (R) of low-temperature coefficient in
series with the instrument coil.
• CC- wound with fine wire, many turns
• Non-uniform (squared scale)

The advantages of electrodynamometer type instruments are

▪ Measures both AC and DC – Unlike PMMC instruments, it works accurately on AC as
well as DC.
▪ High accuracy – Especially when used as a wattmeter, it is suitable as a standard
instrument.
▪ No permanent magnet – Eliminates errors due to aging or demagnetization, Light in
weight
▪ Good frequency response – Can be used over a wide range of power frequencies.
▪ Same calibration for AC and DC – Simplifies comparison and standardization.

The disadvantages of electrodynamometer type instruments are

▪ Low sensitivity – Produces weak deflecting torque compared to PMMC instruments.
These instruments have a low sensitivity due to a low torque to weight ratio, so it
introduces an increased frictional losses. To get accurate results, these errors must be
minimized.
▪ Affected by stray magnetic fields – Requires magnetic shielding for accurate
readings.
▪ Costly construction – More expensive due to air-cored coils and precise assembly.
More costly than Permanent magnet moving coil (PMMC) and Moving Iron (MI) type
of instruments.
▪ Higher power consumption – Draws more power than PMMC instruments.
▪ Poor damping – Air friction damping is less effective than eddy current damping.
▪ Temperature effects – Resistance changes in coils can introduce errors.
MEASUREMENT OF POWER
Power in DC circuit :
Power taken by a load is given by the product of readings of a voltmeter and ammeter
when connected in the circuit.
Power, P = V x I watt
In fig.(a), ammeter is connected between load and voltmeter.
Therefore, voltmeter not only indicates the voltage VL across
the load, but in addition voltage drop Va=IaRa across the
ammeter.

Power consumed by load= VLI = (V- Va) I = VI-VaI = VI-

I2Ra=Power indicated by instrument – Power loss in ammeter

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PCEET205 – Measurements & Instrumentation

In fig.(b), voltmeter is connected between load and

ammeter. Therefore, ammeter not only indicates the
current through the load, but in addition current in
voltmeter, IV=V/RV also (where RV=resistance of
voltmeter)
𝑉 𝑉2
Power consumed by load= VIL = V(I- IV) = V(I - )= VI-
𝑅𝑉 𝑅𝑉
=Power indicated by instrument – Power loss in voltmeter
In both cases, power
indicated by instruments = Power consumed by the load + Power consumed by the
instrument nearest to the load terminals. In order to obtain true power, some corrections
must be applied to avoid power loss. Under normal conditions the value of power loss in
instruments is quite small compared with the load power and therefore the error
introduced is small.

Power in AC circuit

• In the case of alternating currents, the instantaneous power varies continuously as the
current and voltage go through a cycle. So we consider average value over a cycle.
• Average value of power, P = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 cosϕ where 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 & 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 are rms value of
voltage and current and cosϕ is the power factor of the load. Wattmeter is a device
which is used to measure power as it has to sense cosϕ and just voltmeter and ammeter
is not sufficient to measure power.

DYNAMOMETER TYPE WATTMETER

It is an electrical instrument used to measure electrical power in AC and DC circuits.

Operating principle: When any current carrying conductor is placed inside a magnetic
field, it experiences a force and due to this force deflection of pointer takes place.
An electrodynamometer wattmeter operates on the interaction between the magnetic
fields produced by its current coil (CC) and pressure (voltage) coil (PC). The deflecting
torque is proportional to the instantaneous power, and its average value is proportional
to the true power of the circuit.

CONSTRUCTION

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PCEET205 – Measurements & Instrumentation

1. Fixed Coil
2. Moving Coil
3. Control
4. Moving System
5. Damping
6. Shielding
7. Cases and Scales
1. Fixed Coil/Current coil - CC
• Connected in series with the load and carry the full load current in the circuit. So it is
also called as current coil. Used to measure current component of power
• Made of thick wire, few turns, low resistance (Low resistance → minimum power
loss)
• The field is produced by a fixed coil. This coil is divided into two sections to give a
more uniform field near the center and to allow passage of considerable amount of
electric current.
• When carrying heavy current, this wire is stranded or laminated to avoid eddy current
losses in conductors
• If CC is open → meter does not work

2. Moving Coil/Pressure Coil/Voltage Coil - PC

• Connected across the load through a high resistance : Carries current proportional to
voltage. Used to measure the voltage across the load(voltage component of power)
• Made of thin wire, many turns, high resistance (Low resistance → small current
flows)
• A single element instrument has one moving coil. The moving coil is wound either as
a self-sustaining coil or else on a non-metallic former. A metallic former cannot be
used as eddy currents would be induced in it by the alternating field.
• Light but rigid construction is used for the moving coil.
• If PC is open → no deflection
• Both fixed and moving coils are air-cored.
3. Control : Controlling torque - Spring control (two control springs). These springs act
as leads to the moving coil.

4. Moving System : The moving coil is mounted on an aluminium spindle. The moving
system also carries the counter weight and truss type pointer. Sometimes a suspension
may be used in case high sensitivity is desired.

5. Damping : Air friction damping is employed for these instruments and is provided
by a pair of aluminium vanes, attached to the spindle at the bottom. These vanes move in
sector-shaped chambers.

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PCEET205 – Measurements & Instrumentation

6. Cases and Scales : Laboratory standard instruments are usually contained in highly
polished wooden cases. These cases are so constructed as to remain dimensionally stable
over long periods of time.

7. Shielding: Field produced by the fixed coils is somewhat weaker than in other types
of instruments. In DC measurements, even the earth’s magnetic field may affect the
readings. Thus it is necessary to shield an electrodynamometer type instrument from the
effect of stray magnetic fields. Air cored electrodynamometer type instruments are
protected against external magnetic fields by magnetic shielding (enclosing them in a
soft iron casing)

WORKING

When the circuit is energized, load current flows through the current coil. A small
current proportional to the load voltage flows through the pressure coil. The magnetic
fields produced by the two coils interact. This interaction produces a deflecting torque
on the moving coil. The moving system rotates until the deflecting torque is balanced by
the controlling spring torque. The pointer comes to rest at a position proportional to the
power consumed

Previous Year Question : With neat diagram explain the construction and working of an
electrodynamometer wattmeter.

TORQUE EQUATION
Let, i1 = instantaneous value of current in the fixed coils, (A)
i2 = instantaneous value of current in the moving coils, (A)
L1 = self-inductance of fixed coils, (H)
L2 = self-inductance of moving coil, (H)
M = mutual inductance between fixed and moving coils (H)

Flux linkage of Coil 1, ϕ1 = L1 i1 + M i2

Flux linkage of Coil 2, ϕ 2 = L2 i2 + M i1

Faraday’s law : e1 = d ϕ 1/dt and e2 = d ϕ 2/dt

Electrical input energy = e1 i1 dt + e2 i2 dt = i1 d ϕ 1 + i2 d ϕ 2

Electrical input energy = i1 d(L1 i1 + Mi2 )+ i2 d(L2 i2 + Mi1) ----------(1)

Energy stored in the magnetic field = ½ i12L1 + ½ i22L2 + i1 i2M

Change in energy stored = d(½ i12 L1 + ½ i22 L2 + i1 i2 M) ------------(2)

From the principle of conservation of energy,

Total electrical input energy = Change in energy stored + mechanical energy

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Mechanical energy can be obtained by subtracting above [Link], eqn (1) – eqn (2)

Therefore, mechanical energy =½ i12dL1 + ½ i22dL2 + i1 i2 dM

Now, the self-inductances L1 and L2 are constants and, therefore, dL1 and dL2 both are
equal to zero. Hence, mechanical energy = i1 i2 dM

Suppose Ti is the instantaneous deflecting torque and dθ is the change in deflection, then

Mechanical energy = work done = Td dθ

𝐝𝐌
Thus we have, Td dθ = i1 i2 dM, Td = i1 i2
𝐝𝛉

DEFLECTION(θ) FOR ELECTRODYNAMIC AMMETER

(i)Operation with DC

Let, I1 = current in the fixed coils, I2 = current in the moving coil, so deflecting torque

Td = I1 I2 (dM/dθ)

This shows that the deflecting torque depends in general on the product of current I1 and
I2 and the rate of change of mutual inductance. This deflecting torque deflects the moving
coil to such a position where the controlling torque of the spring is equal to the deflecting
torque. Suppose θ be the final steady deflection. Therefore controlling torque,

Tc = 𝑲𝑪 θ where 𝐾𝐶 = spring constant(N-m/rad)

At final steady position Td = Tc

I1 I2 (dM/dθ) = 𝐾𝐶 θ

Deflection, θ = (I1 I2/𝑲𝑪 )(dM/dθ)

If the two coils are connected in series for measurement of current, the two currents
I1 and I2 are equal , I1 = I2 = I

Thus, deflection of the pointer is θ = (I2/𝐾𝐶 )(dM/dθ)

➢ For DC use, the deflection is thus proportional to the square of the current and
hence the scale non-uniform and crowded at the ends.

(ii) Operation with AC

If currents i1 and i2 are sinusoidal and are displaced by a phase angle , i.e.

Instantaneous values : i1 = Im1 sin ωt and i2 = Im2 sin (ωt – ∅)

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PCEET205 – Measurements & Instrumentation

𝑑𝑀
Instantaneous deflecting torque is proportional to the product of currents :𝑇𝑑 ∝ 𝑖1 𝑖2
𝑑𝜃

Average deflecting torque (𝑇𝑑 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑎 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒)

𝑇 2𝜋
𝑑𝑀 1 𝑑𝑀 1
𝑇𝑑 = ∫ 𝑖1 𝑖2 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝐼𝑚1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡. 𝐼𝑚2 sin(𝜔𝑡 − ∅) 𝑑𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝜃 𝑇 𝑑𝜃 2𝜋
0 0

1
Sin A Sin B = [ Cos (A − B) − Cos (A + B)]
2

1
Sinωt sin(ωt−ϕ) = [cosϕ−cos(2ωt−ϕ)]
2

On integration over one cycle, the cosine term averages to zero:

𝐼𝑚1 𝐼𝑚2 𝑑𝑀 𝑑𝑀
𝑇𝑑 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ = 𝐼1 𝐼2 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅
2 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃

where I1 and I2 are the RMS values of the currents flowing through the coils.

(𝐼𝑚1 = √2𝐼1 , 𝐼𝑚2 = √2𝐼2 )

𝑑𝑀
At equilibrium, Td=Tc , 𝐼1 𝐼2 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ = 𝐾𝐶 𝜃
𝑑𝜃

𝐼1 𝐼2 𝑑𝑀
𝜃= 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅
𝐾𝐶 𝑑𝜃

Deflection, 𝜃 is proportional to 𝐼1 𝐼2 cos 𝜙. For ammeter use, both coils carry the same
current:

𝜃 ∝ 𝐼2

Hence, deflection depends on the mean square value of current. When the scale is
calibrated in terms of the square root of the mean square value, it directly measures
RMS current.

DEFLECTION(θ) FOR ELECTRODYNAMIC VOLTMETER

In an electrodynamic voltmeter, the deflecting torque is proportional to the product of

𝑑𝑀
currents in the fixed and moving coils. Instantaneous deflecting torque is: 𝑇𝑑 = 𝑖1 𝑖2
𝑑𝜃

𝑉 𝑉
Both coils carry currents proportional to the applied voltage 𝑉: 𝑖1 = , 𝑖2 =
𝑅1 𝑅2

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𝑉 2 𝑑𝑀
Hence, 𝑇𝑑 =
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑑𝜃
𝑉 2 𝑑𝑀
Average deflecting torque: 𝑇𝑑 =
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑑𝜃
At steady deflection:𝑇𝑑 = 𝑇𝑐
𝑉 2 𝑑𝑀
= 𝐾𝑐 𝜃
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑑𝜃
𝑉 2 𝑑𝑀
Deflection : 𝜃 =
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑑𝜃

Deflection becomes proportional to the square of the voltage. The deflection depends on
the mean of the square of the voltage. If the scale is calibrated in terms of the square root
of the mean square value, the instrument directly reads the RMS value of AC voltage.

DEFLECTION(θ) FOR ELECTRODYNAMIC WATTMETER

Instantaneous Currents
Current coil (CC) carries load current: 𝑖1 = 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡

𝑉𝑚
Pressure coil (PC) carries current proportional to voltage: 𝑖2 = sin (𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙)
𝑅
Instantaneous deflecting torque:
𝑑𝑀
𝑇𝑑 = 𝑖1 𝑖2
𝑑𝜃
Average deflecting torque over one cycle:
𝑇 2𝜋
𝑑𝑀 1 𝑑𝑀 1 𝑉𝑚
𝑇𝑑 = ∫ 𝑖1 𝑖2 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡. sin(𝜔𝑡 − ∅) 𝑑𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝜃 𝑇 𝑑𝜃 2𝜋 𝑅
0 0

Using:
1
sin 𝐴sin 𝐵 = [cos (𝐴 − 𝐵) − cos (𝐴 + 𝐵)]
2
𝐼𝑚 𝑉𝑚 𝑑𝑀
𝑇𝑑 = cos 𝜙
2𝑅 𝑑𝜃
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
Using RMS values 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = ,𝐼 = :
√2 𝑟𝑚𝑠 √2
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑑𝑀
𝑇𝑑 = cos 𝜙
𝑅 𝑑𝜃
At equilibrium condition:
𝑇𝑑 = 𝑇𝑐
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑑𝑀
cos 𝜙 = 𝐾𝑐 𝜃
𝑅 𝑑𝜃

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PCEET205 – Measurements & Instrumentation

𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑑𝑀
Deflection: 𝜃= cos 𝜙
𝐾𝑐 𝑅 𝑑𝜃
𝜃 ∝ 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 cos 𝜙
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 cos 𝜙 = VIcos 𝜙 = 𝑃(𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟)
∴ 𝜃∝𝑃
Deflection of an electrodynamometer wattmeter is directly proportional to the true
power being measured, irrespective of whether the circuit is AC or DC. This justifies
why electrodynamometer wattmeters are used as standard instruments for power
measurement.
➢ Measures true power
➢ Works on AC and DC
➢ Scale is uniform
➢ High degree of accuracy can be obtained by careful design

Previous Year Question :

✓ The deflection produced by an Electrodynamometer wattmeter is proportional to
the power being measured. Justify with necessary equations.
✓ With neat circuit show that the deflection produced by a wattmeter is proportional
to the power consumed in the circuit.

Q: In a electrodynamometer type instrument the total resistance of the voltage coil circuit
is 8200Ω and the mutual inductance changes uniformly from -173 μH at zero deflection
to + 175 μH at full scale. The angle of full scale reading being 95𝑜 . If a potential difference
of 100V is applied across the voltage circuit, and a current of 3 A at a power factor of 0.75
is passed through the current coil, what will be the deflection, if the spring constant is
4.63 x 10−6 𝑁𝑀/𝑟𝑎𝑑.

Solution : Change in mutual inductance = +175 − (−173) = 348 μH.

Deflection, θ = 95° = 1.66 rad.
𝑑𝑀 348
Rate of change of mutual inductance, = = 210𝜇𝐻/𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝑑𝜃 1.66
This problem relates to a dynamometer type instrument where the two coils carry
different values of current and also there is a phase difference between them.
Current through fixed coil, 𝐼1 = 3 𝐴
100
Current through moving coil, 𝐼2 = = 12.2 × 10−3 𝐴 and cos 𝜙 = 0.75.
8200
Spring constant, 𝐾𝐶 = 4.63 × 10−6 N-m/rad = 0.08 × 10−6 N-m/degree
𝐼1 𝐼2 𝑑𝑀 3×12.2×10−3
Deflection:𝜃 = cos 𝜙 = × 0.75 × 210 × 10−6 = 71.5∘
𝐾𝐶 𝑑𝜃 0.08×10−6

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ERRORS IN ELECTRODYNAMOMETER INSTRUMENTS

1. Torque to weight ratio

• To have reasonable deflecting torque, m.m.f. of the moving coil must be large
enough. Thus, mmf = NI, hence current through moving coil should be high or the
number of turns should be large.
• The current cannot be made very high because it may cause excessive healing of
springs. A large number of turns hence is the only option but it increases the
weight of the coil.
This makes the system heavy→ reducing torque to weight ratio. This can cause frictional
errors in the reading and sensitivity get reduced. To minimize those errors, jewel
bearings are used.

2. Frequency errors : Changes in the frequency cause to change self inductances of

moving coil and fixed coil. This causes error in the reading. The frequency error can be
reduced by having equal time constants for both fixed and moving coil circuits.

3. Eddy current errors

• In metal parts of the instrument, the eddy currents get produced. The eddy
currents interact with the instrument current, to cause a change in the deflecting
torque, to cause the error.
• Hence metal parts should be kept as minimum as possible. Also, the resistivity of
the metal parts used must be high, to reduce the eddy currents.

4. Stray magnetic field error : Similar to MI instruments, the operating field in the
electrodynamometer instrument is very weak. Hence the external magnetic field can
interact with the operating field to cause a change in the deflection, causing the error. To
reduce the effect of the stray magnetic field, the magnetic shielding must be used.

5. Temperature error : Due to the self-heating of the coil, which causes a change in the
resistance of the coil. Thus temperature compensating resistors can be used in the precise
instrument to eliminate the temperature errors.

ERRORS IN ELECTRODYNAMOMETER WATTMETERS

1) Pressure coil inductance

Let, L = inductance of pressure coil
Rp= resistance of pressure coil
Rseries = resistance in series with pressure coil
R= total resistance of pressure coil circuit = Rp + Rseries
I = current in current coil circuit, Ip = current in pressure coil circuit

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PCEET205 – Measurements & Instrumentation

In an ideal wattmeter, the current in pressure coil is in phase with the applied voltage but
the pressure coil has an inductance & the current will lag the voltage by an angle β
𝐿𝜔 𝐿𝜔
𝛽 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( ) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
𝑅 Rp + Rseries

Lagging power factor Leading power factor

Load current(I) lags the applied voltage(V) Load current(I) leads the applied voltage(V)

Angle between current in pressure coil & Angle between current in pressure coil &
current in current coil = ∅′ = ∅ − 𝛽 current in current coil = ∅′ = ∅ + 𝛽

A correction factor has to be applied to the actual wattmeter reading to get the true
power
𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅
Correction factor = Correction factor =
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽cos (∅−𝛽) 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽cos (∅+𝛽)
True power = correction factor x actual wattmeter reading
Wattmeter will read high Wattmeter will read low

Error = Actual Wattmeter reading - true power

For lagging loads,

𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ 1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝛽
𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = = =
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽cos (∅ − 𝛽) 1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛∅ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽

𝛽 is very small and therefore 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝛽 ≪ 1

𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 1
≈
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛∅ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽

Actual wattmeter reading = True power (1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛∅ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽)

Error= Actual wattmeter reading – True power = (𝑡𝑎𝑛∅ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽) x true power
True power = VIcos∅
Error = (𝑡𝑎𝑛∅ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽) x VIcos∅ = VIsin ∅ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽
At low power factor:
• 𝜙is large, sin 𝜙is large
• Error ∝ sinϕ . So the error is serious at low power factors.

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PCEET205 – Measurements & Instrumentation

Compensation for inductance of pressure coil :

Errors caused by inductance of pressure coil is
compensated by means of a capacitor connected in
parallel with a portion of the multiplier (series
resistance)
This causes the pressure-coil current to:
• lead slightly →neutralizing the lag caused by inductance,
• making the pressure-coil current nearly in phase with voltage

2) Pressure coil capacitance:

The pressure (voltage) coil has:
• inter-turn capacitance
• capacitance between coil and metal parts
Pressure coil capacitance causes the pressure-coil current to lead the applied voltage,
resulting in a negative error for lagging loads. Since true power is small at low power
factor, even a small leading angle produces a large percentage error in wattmeter
readings.
The effect of capacitance is minimized by:
• using non-inductive resistors (manganin)
• arranging capacitance so it neutralizes inductive lag
• proper coil spacing and insulation

3) Errors due to eddy currents : The alternating magnetic field of current coil induces
eddy currents in the solid metal parts nearby the current coil. They set up their own
magnetic field and thus alter the magnitude and phase of the operating field. The error is
minimised by keeping the solid metal parts as far away from the current coil as
possible.

4) Errors due to mutual inductance effect between CC and PC: Caused due to mutual
inductance between current & pressure coils of the wattmeter. These errors are low at
power frequencies, but they can increase & become more important as frequency is
increased. It increases the phase angle when current coil is connected on load side &
decreases phase angle when current coil is connected on supply side. Wattmeters are
now developed whose coil systems are so arranged that they are always in zero
position of mutual inductance & thus are free from errors due to mutual inductance.

5) Errors due to vibration of moving system:

In an electrodynamometer wattmeter:
• the deflecting torque is pulsating, not steady
• torque ∝ product of current-coil current and pressure-coil current

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PCEET205 – Measurements & Instrumentation

With AC supply, this product produces a torque that varies at twice the supply frequency
(2f).
Because the torque is alternating:
• the moving system vibrates or oscillates
• the pointer does not settle at the true mean position
• reading becomes uncertain or fluctuating
Effect on wattmeter reading
• The pointer tends to indicate a value slightly higher than the true mean
• Human eye usually reads the average of oscillations, which may not equal the true
average torque
• At low power factor, average torque is small, so vibration effect is more pronounced

Error due to vibration is reduced by:

• increasing moment of inertia of the moving system
• designing the system so its natural frequency ≠2f

6) Errors caused by connections : There are two alternate methods of

connecting a wattmeter in a circuit. Errors are introduced due to the power loss in the
current & pressure coils based on the type of connection

a) Pressure coil is connected to b) Current coil is connected to

supply side: supply side:
(M-C short wattmeter) (L-C short wattmeter)

Voltage applied to the pressure It carries the pressure coil current

coil = Voltage across the load + + load current
Voltage drop across the current
coil
Power consumed by wattmeter = Power indicated by wattmeter =
power consumed by load + power power consumed by load + power
loss in CC loss in pressure coil
= power consumed by load + I2RC = Power consumed by
, where R C is resistance of 𝑉2
load+ , where Rp = resistance of
current coil 𝑅𝑃
potential coil

Extra power Current coil loss Pressure coil loss

measured

13 | P a g e Prof. Hanan C A, Assistant Professor (EEE), GEC Palakkad

PCEET205 – Measurements & Instrumentation

For large load currents connection

For small load currents (b) is preferred because value of
connection (a) is preferred pressure coil current is very small
because voltage drop in current compared with load current &
coil is small so the error hence power loss in pressure coil
introduced is small will be small compared with load
power.

Best suited Used for low I, high V load High I, low V load applications
for applications
M-C short connection L-C short connection
• Pressure coil current does not • Pressure coil current flows
flow through current coil through the current coil
• No extra field due to pressure- • This produces extra magnetic
coil current field
• Compensating winding is • Wattmeter reads higher
NOT required • Compensating winding is
required to neutralize this effect

The error in connection (b) is corrected by using a

compensating winding in standard wattmeter.
Compensating winding : A small auxiliary winding
provided on the current coil of an electrodynamometer
wattmeter to eliminate error due to pressure-coil
current
Specialities of compensating winding:
• Wound on the current coil, a few turns of wire, equal number of turns of CC
• Connected in series opposition to PC (Wound in such a direction that its magnetic
effect opposes the effect of pressure-coil current in the current coil)

Previous Year Question: Explain the various errors in electrodynamometer type

wattmeter.

LOW POWER FACTOR (LPF) WATTMETER

A conventional electrodynamometer wattmeter is accurate at medium and high power
factors, but at low power factor it shows large error due to the following reasons:
1. Very small deflecting torque
Deflecting torque:
𝑇𝑑 ∝ 𝑉𝐼cos 𝜙

At low power factor:

• cos 𝜙is very small→Average torque is weak
Errors due to friction, spring control, and damping become comparable to useful torque,
causing inaccurate readings.
14 | P a g e Prof. Hanan C A, Assistant Professor (EEE), GEC Palakkad
PCEET205 – Measurements & Instrumentation

To increase operating torque (even when cos 𝜙is small)

• Use a stronger current coil →Increase magnetic field strength→Improves torque
even when cos 𝜙is small
2. Pressure coil inductance error becomes dominant
Pressure coil has inductance→Pressure-coil current lags voltage by angle 𝛽→Wattmeter
measures 𝑉𝐼cos (𝜙 − 𝛽)instead of 𝑉𝐼cos 𝜙
At low PF:
• 𝜙is large
• Even a small 𝛽 produces a large percentage error
To minimize pressure coil inductance (Reduces phase error 𝛽)
• Use high series resistance
• Use non-inductive resistance (manganin)
• Add capacitive compensation

3. Vibration of moving system

• Torque on AC is pulsating at 2f
• Average torque is small at low PF
• Pointer oscillates → unstable reading
• Minimized by proper damping

4. Effect of stray magnetic fields

• Small operating torque
• External magnetic fields significantly affect reading
To reduce effect of stray magnetic fields: Provide magnetic shielding, Proper instrument
enclosure by sot iron casing

To accurately measure low power factor loads, the conventional wattmeter is modified as
follows:
Issue at low PF Modification in LPF wattmeter
Small torque Stronger magnetic field
Pressure coil inductance High non-inductive resistance + capacitor
Vibration Improved damping
Poor sensitivity (Allows accurate reading Light moving system,
of small torque) Use longer pointer and finer scale
Stray fields Magnetic shielding
Error due to pressure-coil current when Compensating winding
current coil is on supply side
Previous Year Question : Conventional wattmeter, when used to measure power with
low power factor value shows erroneous reading. Justify the statement. What are the
modifications to be made to convert it into a low power factor (LPF) wattmeter?

15 | P a g e Prof. Hanan C A, Assistant Professor (EEE), GEC Palakkad

PCEET205 – Measurements & Instrumentation

THREE PHASE POWER MEASUREMENT

Blondel’s Theorem: In an electrical system with N conductors, the total power can be
measured using (N − 1) wattmeters, provided the current coils are placed in N − 1
conductors and the voltage (pressure) coils are connected between each of those
conductors and a common reference conductor.

1) Three Wattmeter method

Employed to measure power in 3 phase, 4 wire system
Three wattmeters are connected in each of the three
phases of the load whether star or delta connected.
The pressure coil of all the three wattmeters, namely 𝑊1 ,
𝑊2 , and 𝑊3 , are connected to a common terminal known
as the neutral point.

• The current coil of each wattmeter carries the current of one phase only, and the
pressure coil measures the phase voltage of that phase.
• Hence, each wattmeter measures the power in a single phase.
• The total power in the three-wattmeter method of power measurement is given by the
algebraic sum of the readings of the three wattmeters: 𝑝 = 𝑝1 + 𝑝2 + 𝑝3
where, 𝑝1 = 𝑣1 𝑖1 , 𝑝2 = 𝑣2 𝑖2 , 𝑝3 = 𝑣3 𝑖3

2) Two wattmeter method

➢ A 3-phase, 3-wire system has three conductors; therefore, two wattmeters are
sufficient to measure the total power even when the load is unbalanced.
➢ The two-wattmeter method does not require a neutral wire
➢ Circuit connection :
o The current coils of the two wattmeters 𝑃1 and 𝑃2 are connected in any two lines
(say R and Y).
o The pressure (voltage) coils of both wattmeters are connected between their
respective lines and the third line (B), which acts as a common reference.
o The load may be star or delta connected, balanced or unbalanced

Total Power Measurement

𝑃total = 𝑊1 + 𝑊2

This relation is valid for both balanced and unbalanced loads.

16 | P a g e Prof. Hanan C A, Assistant Professor (EEE), GEC Palakkad

PCEET205 – Measurements & Instrumentation

STAR CONNECTION

Instantaneous reading of wattmeter P1, p1 = i1 ( v1 - v 3 )

Instantaneous reading of wattmeter P2, p2 = i2 (v2 -v3)

Sum of instantaneous readings of two wattmeters = p1 + p2 = i1(v1 - v3 ) + i2 (v2 - v3 )

= v1i1 + v2i2 - v3 (i1 + i2 )

Applying KCL at point O : i1 + i2 + i3 = 0 , i3 = -(i1 + i2 )

∴ Sum of instantaneous readings of two wattmeters = v1i1 + v2i2 + v3i3

∴ Sum of two wattmeter readings is equal to the power consumed by the load irrespective
of whether the load is balanced or unbalanced.

DELTA CONNECTION

Instantaneous reading of wattmeter P1, p 1 = - v 3(i1 - i 3)

Instantaneous reading of wattmeter P2, p2 = v 2 (i 2-i 1)

Sum of instantaneous readings of P1 & P2 = p1 +p2 = -v3(i1 -i3) +v2(i2 -i1)

= v2i2 +v3i3 -i1(v2 +v3)
From Kirchhoff’s voltage law : v1 + v2 + v3 = 0
∴ v1 = -(v2 + v3 )

Hence, sum of instantaneous readings of two wattmeters = v2i2 + v3i3 -i1(-v1)

= v1i1 + v2i2 + v3i3
∴ Sum of the two wattmeter readings is equal to the power consumed by the load
irrespective of whether the load is balanced or unbalanced.
Let V1, V2, V3 be the rms values of phase voltage & I1, I2,
I3 be the rms values of phase currents.
The load is balanced, therefore
Phase voltages V1 = V2 = V3 = Vph
Line voltages V13 = V23 = V12 = √3Vph
Phase currents I1 =I2 = I3 =Iph
Power factor = cosϕ
Phase currents lag the corresponding phasor voltages by angle ϕ

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PCEET205 – Measurements & Instrumentation

Current through wattmeter P1 is I1 and voltage across its pressure coil is V13. I1 leads V13
by an angle (30-ϕ)
Reading of wattmeter P1, P1 = V13I1 cos(30 - ϕ) → 𝐏𝟏 = √𝟑VphIph cos(30 - ϕ)
Current through wattmeter P2 is I2 and voltage across its pressure coil is V23. I2 leads V23
by an angle (30+φ)
Reading of wattmeter P2, P2 = V23 I 2 cos(30 + ϕ) → 𝐏𝟐 = √𝟑VphIph cos(30 + ϕ)

Sum of wattmeter readings: P1 + P2 = √3VphIph [cos( 30 - ϕ) + cos(30 + ϕ)]

= √3VphIph [cos 30 cos ϕ + sin 30 sin ϕ + cos 30 cos ϕ - sin 30 sin ϕ]

= 3VphIph cos ϕ

Thus the total power consumed by the load P = P1+ P2

Difference of readings of two wattmeters = P1 - P2 = √3VphIph [cos(30 - ϕ) - cos(30 + ϕ)]

= √3VphIph [cos 30 cos ϕ + sin 30 sin ϕ - cos 30 cos ϕ + sin 30 sin ϕ]

= √3VphIphsin ϕ

P1+ P2 →Active Power

P1- P2 →Reactive Power

𝑃1 − 𝑃2 √3𝑉𝑝ℎ 𝐼𝑝ℎ sin ϕ 𝑡𝑎𝑛ϕ

= = , 𝛟 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 √𝟑 [
𝑷𝟏 − 𝑷𝟐
]
𝑃1 + 𝑃2 3𝑉𝑝ℎ 𝐼𝑝ℎ cos ϕ √3 𝑷𝟏 + 𝑷𝟐

𝑃1 − 𝑃2
Power factor = cosϕ = cos{𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 √3 [ ]}
𝑃1 + 𝑃2

Effect of power factor on the readings of wattmeters

1) Unity power factor, cos 𝛟 =1 & 𝛟 =0

P1 = √3VphIphcos(30 - ϕ) = √3 VphIphcos30 = 1.5VphIph

P2 = √3VphIphcos(30 + ϕ) = √3 VphIphcos30 = 1.5VphIph

P1 + P2 = 3VI
At upf, total power = P = 3VphIphcosφ = 3VphIph
∴ At upf, the readings of the two wattmeters are equal, each wattmeter reads half of the
total power.

2) When pf = 0.5, 𝛟 = 60°

P1 = √3VphIphcos(30 - ϕ) = √3 VphIphcos(30-60) = 1.5VphIph

P2 = √3VphIphcos(30 + ϕ) = √3 VphIphcos(30+60) = 0
18 | P a g e Prof. Hanan C A, Assistant Professor (EEE), GEC Palakkad
PCEET205 – Measurements & Instrumentation

P1 + P2 = 1.5VphIph + 0 = 1.5VphIph , Total power = P = 3VphIphcos ϕ = 1.5VphIph

∴When pf=0.5, one wattmeter will read zero & the other will read total power.

3) When pf = 0, φ = 90°

P1 = √3VphIphcos(30 - ϕ) = √3 VphIphcos(30-90) = 0.866VphIph

P2 = √3VphIphcos(30 + ϕ) = √3 VphIphcos(30+90) = -0.866VphIph

P1 + P2 = 0 , Total power, P = 3VphIphcosφ =0

∴ With zero pf, readings of two wattmeters are equal but of opposite sign.

Whenever pf is below 0.5, one wattmeter will give negative indication. To read the
wattmeter the current coil or pressure coil connections must be reversed. But the
reading must be taken as negative for calculations.

ϕ Power factor (cosϕ) Observation

0 1 𝑃𝑇
P1=P2 = (equal reading)
2
30 0.866 P1=2P2 (Both readings are positive)
60 0.5 P1=PT, P2=0
75 0.258 P1= positive, P2 =negative
90 0 P1=-P2, P1+P2 =0

Previous Year Question:

✓ Explain the measurement of three phase power using two wattmeter method.
✓ Explain how power can be measured in a 3-phase circuit using two wattmeters
with a neat circuit diagram in unbalanced load condition.

3) One wattmeter method

Can be used only when load is balanced. Current coil is connected to one of the lines &
one end of the pressure coil to the same line, other end being alternately connected to
other two lines.
V1 = V 2= V3 = Vph
I1 = I 2 = I 3 = Iph
V13 = V12 = √3 𝑉𝑝ℎ
Reading of wattmeter when switch is at 3: P1 = V13 I1 cos( 30 - ϕ) =√3VphIph cos( 30 - ϕ)

19 | P a g e Prof. Hanan C A, Assistant Professor (EEE), GEC Palakkad

PCEET205 – Measurements & Instrumentation

Reading of wattmeter when the switch is at 2: P1 = V12 I1 cos( 30 + ϕ) =√3VphIph cos( 30 +

ϕ)
Sum of the two wattmeter readings = P1 + P2 =√3VphIph [cos(30 - ϕ) + cos(30 + ϕ)]
=√3VphIph [cos30cosϕ + sin 30sin ϕ + cos30cosϕ -sin 30sin ϕ]
√3
=√3VphIph[2 𝑥 𝑥 cos ϕ] = 3VphIph cos ϕ
2
Thus, sum of the two readings is the power consumed by the load, P = P1+P2

𝑃1 − 𝑃2 √3𝑉𝑝ℎ 𝐼𝑝ℎ sin ϕ 𝑡𝑎𝑛ϕ

= = , 𝛟 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 √𝟑 [
𝑷𝟏 − 𝑷𝟐
]
𝑃1 + 𝑃2 3𝑉𝑝ℎ 𝐼𝑝ℎ cos ϕ √3 𝑷𝟏 + 𝑷𝟐
𝑃1 − 𝑃2
Power factor = cosϕ = cos{𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 √3 [ ]}
𝑃1 + 𝑃2

THREE PHASE WATTMETERS

A dynamometer type three phase wattmeter consists of two separate wattmeter

movements mounted together in one case with the two moving coils mounted on the
same spindle. There are two current coils & two pressure coils. A current coil together
with its pressure coil is known as an element. ∴ It has two elements. Connections of two
elements are same as that of two wattmeter method. Torque on each element is
proportional to the power being measured by it. The total deflecting torque of the moving
system is the sum of the deflecting torque of the two elements.

Deflecting torque on element 1 α P1

Deflecting torque on element 2 α P2
Total deflecting torque α (P1+P2) α P

Hence, total deflecting torque on moving system is proportional to total power.

PROBLEMS
1. Two wattmeters are connected to measure the power consumed by a 3-phase
balanced load. One of the wattmeters read 1500 Watts and the other 700 Watts. Find
power factor of the load,

(i)when both the readings are positive, and

(ii)when the reading of the second wattmeter is obtained after reversing its current coil
connection.

20 | P a g e Prof. Hanan C A, Assistant Professor (EEE), GEC Palakkad

PCEET205 – Measurements & Instrumentation

Solution:
For a balanced 3-phase load measured by the two-wattmeter method, the power factor
angle 𝜙is found from
𝑊1 − 𝑊2
tan 𝜙 = √3
𝑊1 + 𝑊2
where 𝑊1 and 𝑊2 are the wattmeter readings.

Given:
𝑊1 = 1500 W
𝑊2 = 700 W

(i) When both readings are positive

1500 − 700 800
tan 𝜙 = √3 = 1.732 × = 0.630
1500 + 700 2200
𝜙 = tan −1 (0.630) ≈ 32.2∘
Power factor = cos 𝜙 = cos (32.2∘ ) ≈ 0.845 (lagging)
(ii) When the second wattmeter reading is obtained after reversing its current coil
Reversing the current coil changes the sign of that wattmeter reading:

𝑊2 = −700 W

Now,

1500 − (−700) 2200

tan 𝜙 = √3 = 1.732 × = 4.763
1500 + (−700) 800
𝜙 = tan −1 (4.763) ≈ 78.1∘
Power factor = cos (78.1∘ ) ≈ 0.20 (lagging)
2. W1 and W2 reads -1000W and 2000W respectively when connected to 400 V supply.
The load is balanced. Find the line current and power factor. State whether the load is
inductive or capacitive.

Solution:
Given a balanced 3-phase load measured by the two-wattmeter method:
𝑊1 = −1000 W
𝑊2 = 2000 W
Line voltage 𝑉𝐿 = 400 V

Total Power

𝑃 = 𝑊1 + 𝑊2 = −1000 + 2000 = 1000 W

Power Factor

For a balanced load:

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PCEET205 – Measurements & Instrumentation

𝑊1 − 𝑊2
tan 𝜙 = √3
𝑊1 + 𝑊2
−1000 − 2000
tan 𝜙 = 1.732 × = 1.732 × (−3) = −5.196
1000
𝜙 = tan −1 (−5.196) ≈ −79.1∘
Power factor = cos 𝜙 = cos (79.1∘ ) ≈ 0.19
Nature of the Load
• One wattmeter is negative→Power factor angle is greater than 60°
• Angle is negative

The load is capacitive (leading power factor)

Line Current

Total power in a 3-phase system:

𝑃 = √3 𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿 cos 𝜙
1000 = 1.732 × 400 × 𝐼𝐿 × 0.19
1000
𝐼𝐿 =
1.732 × 400 × 0.19
𝐼𝐿 ≈ 7.6 A
3. The power flow in a 3-phase, 3-wire balanced delta-connected load is measured by
two-wattmeter method. The reading of wattmeter A is 5000 W and on wattmeter B is
-1000 W.
(i) What is the power factor of the system?
(ii) If the voltage of the circuit is 440 V, 50 Hz, what is the value of capacitance
connected in delta at the source to cause the whole of the power measured by
wattmeter A only?

Solution :
Total power, P=P1+P2 = 5000+(−1000) = 4000 W
5000 − (−1000)
𝜙 = tan −1 (√3 )
5000 + (−1000)
= 68.95∘
i) Power factor, cos 𝜙 = cos 68.95∘ = 0.3592
P 4000
ii)P = √3VL IL cos ϕ , IL = =
√3VL cos ϕ √3×440×0.3592
= 14.612 A

For delta connection, 𝑉𝐿 = 𝑉𝑝ℎ , 𝐼𝐿 = √3 𝐼𝑝ℎ

Load impedance per phase

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PCEET205 – Measurements & Instrumentation

𝑉𝑝ℎ
𝑍𝑝ℎ =
𝐼𝑝ℎ
440
=
14.612/√3
= 52.16 Ω
Load resistance per phase
𝑅𝑝ℎ = 𝑍𝑝ℎ cos 𝜙
= 52.16 cos 68.95∘
= 18.73 Ω
Load reactance per phase
𝑋𝑝ℎ = 𝑍𝑝ℎ sin 𝜙
= 52.16 sin 68.95∘
= 48.68 Ω
Reading of wattmeter B will be zero when
cos 𝜙 ′ = 0.5 or 𝜙 ′ = 60∘
Reactance per phase

′
𝑋𝑝ℎ = 𝑅𝑝ℎ tan 𝜙 ′
= 18.73tan 60∘
= 32.44 Ω
Value of capacitive reactance introduced in each phase
′
𝑋𝑐 = 𝑋𝑝ℎ − 𝑋𝑝ℎ
= 48.68 − 32.44
= 16.24 Ω

23 | P a g e Prof. Hanan C A, Assistant Professor (EEE), GEC Palakkad