Introduction to Electronics Engineering BESCK104C/204C

Module 2
Oscillators – Barkhausen criterion, sinusoidal and non-sinusoidal oscillators, Ladder network
oscillator, Wein bridge oscillator, Multivibrators, Single-stage astable oscillator, Crystal
controlled oscillators (Only Concepts, working, and waveforms. No mathematical derivations)
Operational amplifiers -Operational amplifier parameters, Operational amplifier
characteristics, Operational amplifier configurations, Operational amplifier circuits.

Mohammed Mujammil Ahmed, Assistant Professor

Dept of Electronics & Communication, Ghousia College of Engineering
 Introduction to Electronics Engineering BESCK104C/204C

MODULE-2
Operational Amplifier

An operational amplifier (op amp) is an analog circuit block that takes a differential
voltage input and produces a single-ended voltage output.
An operational amplifier is an integrated circuit that can amplify weak electric signals.
It is so named because it can be configured to perform arithmetic operations, such as
addition, subtraction, integrator, differentiator and voltage follower.

Symbols and connections

 The symbol for an operational amplifier is

shown in Fig. The device has two inputs and
one output, one of the inputs is marked ‘-’ and
the other is marked ‘+’.
 The ‘+’ sign indicates zero phase shift whilst the
‘-’ sign indicates 180° phase shift. Since 180°
phase shift produces an inverted waveform, the
‘-’ input is often referred to as the inverting
input. Similarly, the ‘+’ input is known as the
non-inverting input.
 Most operational amplifiers require a
symmetrical supply (of typically ±6 V o ±15 V)
which allows the output voltage to swing both
positive (above 0 V) and negative.

Biasing is the process of providing DC voltage which helps in the functioning of the circuit. Or
connecting a power supply to any circuit to move from on state to off state.

Resistance (R) is a measure of the opposition to current flow in an electrical circuit.

Reactance is defined as the opposition to the flow of current from a circuit element due to its
inductance and capacitance. The reactance is denoted as ‘X’. Total reactance is a summation of
inductive reactance (XL) and capacitive reactance (XC).

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 Introduction to Electronics Engineering BESCK104C/204C

When a circuit element contains only inductive reactance, the capacitive reactance is zero and
total reactance;
𝑋𝐿 = 𝜔𝐿 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓

When the circuit element contains only capacitive reactance, the inductive reactance is zero and
total reactance;

1
𝑋𝑐 =
𝜔𝑐

Operational amplifier parameters

Open-loop voltage gain : The open-loop voltage gain of an operational amplifier is defined as
the ratio of output voltage to input voltage measured with no feedback applied

𝑉𝐼𝑁 = 𝑉2 − 𝑉1

The open-loop voltage gain is often expressed in decibels (dB)

Most operational amplifiers have open-loop voltage gains of 90 dB,

Closed-loop voltage gain : The closed-loop voltage gain of an operational amplifier is defined
as the ratio of output voltage to input voltage measured with a small proportion of the output fed
back to the input.

Example
An operational amplifier operating with negative feedback produces an output voltage of 2 V
when supplied with an input of 400 μV. Determine the value of closed-loop voltage gain.

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 Introduction to Electronics Engineering BESCK104C/204C

Solution

closed-loop voltage gain.

Input resistance

The input resistance of an operational amplifier is defined as the ratio of input voltage to input
current expressed in ohms.

Usually input resistance is very high in terms of mega ohms.

Example
An operational amplifier has an input resistance of 2 MG Determine the input current when an
input voltage of 5 mV is present.

Solution

Output resistance

The output resistance of an operational amplifier is defined as the ratio of open-circuit output
voltage to short-circuit output current expressed in ohms. Usually input resistance is very small
in terms of few ohms.

Input offset voltage

The voltage that must be applied differentially to the operational amplifier input in order to make
the output voltage exactly zero is known as the input offset voltage.

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 Introduction to Electronics Engineering BESCK104C/204C

Slew rate

The slew rate of an operational amplifier is the rate of change of output voltage with time

Operational amplifier characteristics

Characteristics for an ‘ideal’ operational amplifier are:

𝑉
1. Infinite open-loop gain 𝐴𝑣 = 𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇
𝐼𝑁
2. Infinite input impedance RIN, and so zero input current
3. Zero output impedance Rout, and so infinite output current range
4. Infinite bandwidth with zero phase shift
5. Infinite common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR)
6. Zero input offset voltage
7. Infinite slew rate
8. Infinite output voltage range
9. Zero noise
10. Infinite power supply rejection ratio

Operational amplifier applications

Some of the application of OPMPs is Instrumentation amplifier, Wideband amplifier, Low-noise

wideband amplifier, Wideband amplifier, and General-purpose operational amplifier.

Operational amplifier configurations

Inverting Amplifier:-

Inverting Amplifier circuit Input Waveform Output Waveform

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 Introduction to Electronics Engineering BESCK104C/204C

At point G, Virtual ground, no current flows inside OPAMP. So, Current at node G is given by
I1 = IF. From figure we can get the expression for gain as follows.

𝐈𝟏 = 𝐈𝐅.

𝐕𝐈𝐍 −𝐕𝐆
= 𝐕𝐆−𝐕𝐎𝐔𝐓
𝐑𝟏 𝐑𝐅

But VG= 0
𝐕𝐈𝐍 −𝟎 𝟎−𝐕𝐎𝐔𝐓
 =
𝐑𝟏 𝐑𝐅

𝐕𝐈𝐍 −𝐕𝐎𝐔𝐓
 =
𝐑𝟏 𝐑𝐅

𝐑𝐅
 = −𝐕𝐎𝐔𝐓
𝐑𝟏 𝐕𝐈𝐍

 𝐀 = −𝐕𝐎𝐔𝐓 = − 𝐑𝐅
𝐕 𝐕𝐈𝐍 𝐑𝟏

 𝐕𝐎𝐔𝐓 = −𝐀𝐕 ∙ 𝐕𝐈𝐍

The gain of the non-inverting amplifier is negative so output is negative.

Non - Inverting Amplifier:-

At point G, Virtual ground, no current flows inside OPAMP. So, Current at node G is given by
I1 = IF. From figure we can get the expression for gain as follows.

𝐈𝟏 = 𝐈𝐅.

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 Introduction to Electronics Engineering BESCK104C/204C

𝟎−𝐕𝐆 𝐕𝐆−𝐕𝐎𝐔𝐓
=
𝐑𝟏 𝐑𝐅

But VG= 𝐕𝐈𝐍

−𝐕𝐈𝐍
 = 𝐕𝐈𝐍−𝐕𝐎𝐔𝐓
𝐑𝟏 𝐑𝐅

 − 𝐑𝐅 = 𝐕𝐈𝐍−𝐕𝐎𝐔𝐓
𝐑𝟏 𝐕𝐈𝐍

𝐑𝐅 𝐕𝐎𝐔𝐓
 −𝐑 = 𝟏− 𝐕
𝟏 𝐈𝐍

 𝐀 = 𝐕𝐎𝐔𝐓 = 𝟏 + 𝐑𝐅
𝐕 𝐕𝐈𝐍 𝐑𝟏

 𝐕𝐎𝐔𝐓 = −𝐀𝐕 ∙ 𝐕𝐈𝐍

𝐑𝐅)
𝐕𝐎𝐔 = 𝐕𝐈𝐍 (𝟏 +
 𝐑𝟏

The gain of the inverting amplifier is positive.

Op-amp Integrator

A circuit in which output voltage waveform is the time integral of the input voltage waveform is
called integrator or integrating amplifier.
The following circuit shows a basic/ideal integrator using op-amp,

At point G, Virtual ground, no current flows inside OPAMP. So, Current at node G is given by
I = IF. From figure we can get the expression for gain as follows.

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 Introduction to Electronics Engineering BESCK104C/204C

𝐈 = 𝐈𝐅.

𝐕𝐈𝐍 − 𝐕𝐆 𝐝
= 𝐂 (𝐕 𝐆 − 𝐕𝐎𝐔𝐓 )
𝐑 𝐝𝐭

But VG= 0
𝐕𝐈𝐍 −𝟎 = 𝐂 𝐝 (𝟎 − 𝐕 )
 𝐎𝐔𝐓
𝐑 𝐝𝐭


𝐕𝐈𝐍 = − 𝐝 (𝐕 )
𝐑𝐂 𝐝𝐭 𝐎𝐔𝐓

 𝐕 =− 𝟏 ∫ 𝐕 ∙ 𝒅𝒕
𝐎𝐔𝐓 𝑹𝑪 𝐈𝐍

Op-amp Differentiator
By exchanging the positions of 'R' and 'C' in integrator the differentiator circuit is obtained
the circuit which produces the differentiation of the input voltage at its output is called
differentiator.
The following circuit diagram shows the differentiator using op-amp.

At point G, Virtual ground, no current flows inside OPAMP. So, Current at node G is given by
I = IF. From figure we can get the expression for gain as follows.

𝐈 = 𝐈𝐅.

𝐕𝐆 − 𝐕𝐎𝐔𝐓 𝐝
= 𝐂 (𝐕 𝐈𝐍 − 𝐕𝐆 )
𝐑 𝐝𝐭

But VG= 0

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 Introduction to Electronics Engineering BESCK104C/204C

𝟎 − 𝐕𝐎𝐔𝐓 𝐝
= 𝐂 (𝐕 𝐈𝐍 − 𝟎)
𝐑 𝐝𝐭

𝐕𝐎𝐔𝐓 𝐝
− =𝐂 (𝐕 )
𝐈𝐍
𝐑 𝐝𝐭
𝐝
𝐕 = −𝐑𝐂 (𝐕 )
𝐎𝐔𝐓 𝐈𝐍
𝐝𝐭

Op-amp Adder
The input signals to be added are applied to the inverting input terminal of op-amp. The
following figure shows the inverting adder using op-amp with two inputs V1 and V2.

At point G, Virtual ground, no current flows inside OPAMP. So,

Current at node G is given by 𝐈𝟏 + 𝐈𝟐 = 𝐈𝐅 . From figure we can get
the expression for gain as follows.

𝐈𝟏 + 𝐈𝟐 = 𝐈𝐅

𝐕𝟏 − 𝐕𝐆 𝐕𝟐 − 𝐕𝐆 𝐕𝐆 − 𝐕𝐎𝐔𝐓
+ =
𝐑𝟏 𝐑𝟐 𝐑𝐅

But VG= 0
𝐕𝟏 − 𝟎 𝐕𝟐 − 𝟎 𝟎 − 𝐕𝐎𝐔𝐓
+ =
𝐑𝟏 𝐑𝟐 𝐑𝐅

𝐕𝟏 𝐕𝟐 𝐕𝐎𝐔𝐓
+ =−
𝐑𝟏 𝐑𝟐 𝐑𝐅

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 Introduction to Electronics Engineering BESCK104C/204C

𝐕𝟏 𝐕 𝟐
𝐕 = −𝐑 ( + )
𝐎𝐔𝐓 𝐅
𝐑𝟏 𝐑𝟐

If R1 = R2 = R then
𝐕𝟏 𝐕𝟐
𝐕 = −𝐑 ( + )
𝐎𝐔𝐓
𝐑 𝐑

𝐕𝐎𝐔𝐓 = −(𝐕𝟏 + 𝐕𝟐 )

Negative sign because V1 and V2 supply is given to negative terminal

OPAMP as Voltage Follower:

When the output voltage follows input it is called Voltage follower.

At point G, Virtual ground concept is applied, so 𝐕𝐈𝐍 = 𝐕𝐆

Comparator

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 Introduction to Electronics Engineering BESCK104C/204C

Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR) : It is the ratio of differential gain to that of
Common mode gain. And it is expressed as

𝐴𝑑
𝐶𝑀𝑅𝑅 =
𝐴𝑐
In decibel it is expressed as

𝐴𝑑
(𝐶𝑀𝑅𝑅)𝑑𝐵 = 20 log
𝐴𝑐
Typical value of CMRR for 741 OPAMP is 90 dB.

Slew Rate: It is defined as the maximum rate of change of its output voltage with respect to
time. It is expressed in V/µsec.
𝑑(𝑉𝑜)
𝑆𝑅 = |
𝑑𝑥
𝑚𝑎𝑥
Slew rate of 741 IC is 0.5 V/µsec.

Power Supply Rejection Ration (PSRR): It is defined as the ratio of change in input offset
voltage due to change in the supply voltage. It is expressed as,
∆𝑉𝑖𝑜𝑠
𝑃𝑆𝑆𝑅 = |
∆𝑉𝐶𝐶 𝑉𝐸𝐸 𝑖𝑠 𝑘𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎 𝑛𝑡

∆𝑉𝑖𝑜𝑠
𝑃𝑆𝑆𝑅 = |
∆𝑉𝐸𝐸 𝑉𝐶𝐶 𝑖𝑠 𝑘𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

PSSR for 741 OPAMP is 30 µV/V.

Input Offset Voltage: The DC Voltage which makes the output voltage to become zero when
the other terminals are grounded is called input offset voltage.

Output Offset Voltage: when both the input terminals are shorted and connected to ground the
output should be ideally zero, but practically there exist a small DC voltage known as output
offset voltage.
Input Bias current: it is define as the average value of
the individual current flowing into the inverting and
non-inverting terminals.
𝑰 − 𝑰𝒃𝟐
𝑰𝒃 = 𝒃𝟏
𝟐

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Introduction to Electronics Engineering BESCK104C/204C

Oscillators – Introduction
An oscillator is a circuit that produces a repetitive waveform at the output without the
application of an external input signal. It receives dc energy and changes it into ac energy of
derived frequency. The frequency of oscillations depends upon the constants of the device.

Barkhausen’s Criteria for Oscillation

Fig. 1 Inverting amplifier with a feedback (Oscillator Circuit)

Consider a voltage 𝑉𝑖 applied at the input of the amplifier shown in Fig. 1. If 𝐴 is the gain, the
output is given as
𝑉𝑜 = 𝐴𝑉𝑖 (1)
The feedback factor 𝛽 decides the feedback to be given to the input.
𝑉𝑓 = 𝛽𝑉𝑜 (2)
Substituting Eqn. (1) in (2),
𝑉𝑓 = 𝛽𝐴𝑉𝑖 (3)
For the oscillator, we want the feedback should drive the amplifier and hence 𝑉𝑓 must act as
𝑉𝑖. From Eqn. (3), we see that 𝑉𝑓 is sufficient to act as 𝑉𝑖 when |𝛽𝐴| = 1 and the phase of 𝑉𝑓
is same as that of 𝑉𝑖, i.e., feedback network should introduce 180° phase shift in addition to
the 180° phase shift introduced by the inverting amplifier. So total phase shift around the
loop is 360°. These two conditions required to make the circuit work as an oscillator are
called Barkhausen’s criteria for oscillation.
It states that:

1. The magnitude of the product of the open loop gain of the amplifier 𝐴 and the
feedback factor 𝛽 is unity, i.e., |𝛽𝐴| = 1.
2. The total phase shift around the loop is 0° or 360°.

In practice, |𝛽𝐴| is made greater than 1 to start the oscillations and then the circuit adjusts itself
to get |𝛽𝐴| = 1, resulting in self-sustained oscillations as shown in Fig. 2

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Dept of Electronics & Communication, Ghousia College of Engineering
Introduction to Electronics Engineering BESCK104C/204C

Fig. 2 Build up of oscillations

(a) Growing oscillations (b) Decaying oscillations

(c) Sustained oscillations

Fig. 3 Oscillations for different values of |𝛽𝐴|
As shown in Fig. 3, if |𝛽𝐴| > 1, the oscillations are of growing type.
If |𝛽𝐴| < 1, the oscillations are of decaying type, i.e., the amplitude decreases and finally
oscillations stop.
If |𝛽𝐴| = 1, the oscillations are with constant frequency and amplitude and are called sustained
oscillations.

RC Phase Shift Oscillator ( Ladder Network)

The circuit of an RC phase shift oscillator is shown in Fig. 4. The circuit consists of three RC
stages as shown. Each of the three RC stages in the feedback loop can provide a maximum
phase shift of approximately 90°.

Mohammed Mujammil Ahmed, Assistant Professor

Dept of Electronics & Communication, Ghousia College of Engineering
Introduction to Electronics Engineering BESCK104C/204C

Fig. 4 RC phase shift oscillator

Oscillation occurs at the frequency for which the total shift through the three RC stages is 180°
(Each stage provides 60° phase shift). The op-amp in inverting mode provides the additional
phase shift of 180° to meet the requirement for oscillations of 360° (or 0°) phase shift around
the loop.
The feedback network consisting of three RC stages can be rewritten as in Fig.4

Fig. 4 Feedback network of RC phase shift oscillator

For three equal RC stages, the feedback factor (attenuation) is given by

Barkhausen’s criterion is |𝛽𝐴| > 1, i.e., |𝐴| > 29.

That is, the voltage gain 𝐴 of the amplifier must be greater than 29.
The frequency of oscillation is given by

Example 9.1 Determine the frequency of oscillation of a three-stage ladder network oscillator
in which C = 10 nF and R = 10 kΩ.
Solution: The frequency of oscillation is given by
1 1
𝑓= = = 647𝐻𝑧
2𝜋𝑅𝐶√6 2𝜋 × 10 × 103 × 10 × 10−9 √6

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Dept of Electronics & Communication, Ghousia College of Engineering
Introduction to Electronics Engineering BESCK104C/204C

Example 9.2 In a Wien bridge oscillator based on an operational amplifier. If C1 = C 2 =

100 nF, determine the output frequencies produced by this arrangement (a) when R1 = R2 =
1 kΩ and (b) when R1 = R2 = 6 kΩ.
Solution (a) When R1 = R2 = 1 kΩ
The frequency of oscillation is given by
𝟏
𝒇= 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = 𝑅 = 1 𝐾Ω 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶1 = 𝐶2 = 𝐶 = 100 𝑛𝐹
𝟐𝝅𝑹𝑪

1
𝑓= = 1.59𝑘𝐻𝑧
2𝜋 × 1 × 103 × 100 × 10−9
(b) When R1 = R2 = 6 kΩ
The frequency of oscillation is given by
𝟏
𝒇= 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = 𝑅 = 6 𝐾Ω 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶1 = 𝐶2 = 𝐶 = 100 𝑛𝐹
𝟐𝝅𝑹𝑪
1
𝑓= = 265𝐻𝑧
2𝜋 × 6 × 10 × 100 × 10−9
3

Multivibrators:
Multivibrators is an oscillator circuits that produce output waveforms consisting of one or more
rectangular pulses. It generates non-sinusoidal waves such as Square waves, Rectangular waves
and Saw tooth waves etc. Multivibrators uses positive feedback.
Types of Multivibrators:
There are three types of multivibrators,
1) Monostable Multivibrator: A Monostable Multivibrator has a stable state and a
quasi-stable state. This has a trigger input to one transistor.
2) Bistable Multivibrator: It has two stable states and require a trigger pulse or control
signal to change from one state to another.
3) Astable multivibrators: Here both the states are unstable. It provides a continuous
train of pulses (It is also called as free-running multivibrators).

SINGLE-STAGE ASTABLE OSCILLATOR

Describe the working of a single stage astable oscillator using an op-amp.
Solution:
An single stage astable oscillator that produces a square wave output can be built using just
one operational amplifier, as shown in Fig. 5 below,

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Dept of Electronics & Communication, Ghousia College of Engineering
Introduction to Electronics Engineering BESCK104C/204C

Figure 5 Single-stage astable oscillator using an operational amplifier

 The Op-amp Multivibrator is an astable oscillator circuit that generates a rectangular output
waveform using an RC timing network connected to the inverting input of the op-amp and
a voltage divider network connected to the other non-inverting input.
 The astable multivibrator is also called as a free-running multivibrator. It
has two quasi-stable states i.e. no stable state such. No external signal is required to
produce the changes in state. The component values used to decide the time for which
circuit remains in each state. Usually, as the astable multivibrator oscillates between two
states, is used to produce a square wave.
 The upper threshold voltage (i.e. the maximum positive value for the voltage at the
inverting input) will be given by:
𝑹𝟐
𝑽𝑼𝑻 = 𝑽𝑪𝑪
𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹 𝟐
 The lower threshold voltage (i.e. the maximum negative value for the voltage at the
inverting input) will be given by:
𝑹𝟐
𝑽𝑼𝑻 = −𝑽𝑪𝑪
𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐
 Finally, the time for one complete cycle of the output waveform produced by the astable
oscillator is given by:
𝑹𝟐
𝑻 = 𝟐𝑹𝑪𝒍𝒏 (𝟏 + 𝟐 ( ))
𝑹𝟏

CRYSTAL CONTROLLED OSCILLATORS

In order to maintain exact frequency of oscillations crystal-controlled oscillators are used. In

such cases, a quartz crystal can be used as the frequency determining element. The quartz
crystal vibrates whenever a potential difference is applied across its faces (this phenomenon is

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Dept of Electronics & Communication, Ghousia College of Engineering
Introduction to Electronics Engineering BESCK104C/204C

known as the piezoelectric effect). The frequency of oscillation is determined by the crystal’s
‘cut’ and physical size.
Crystals can be manufactured for a frequency range extending from 100 kHz to around 20 MHz
and for overtone operation from 20 MHz to well over 100 MHz
Below figure shows a simple crystal oscillator circuit in which the crystal provides feedback
from the drain to the source of a junction gate FET.

Mohammed Mujammil Ahmed, Assistant Professor

Dept of Electronics & Communication, Ghousia College of Engineering