Electronic Principles and
Circuits / BEC303
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By
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Dr. Ramalingam. H.M,
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Mangalore Institute of Technology & Engineering
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Moodabidri-Karnataka
Module-3
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Linear Opamp Circuits: Summing Amplifier and D/A Converter, Nonlinear Op-
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amp Circuits: Comparator with zero reference, Comparator with non-zero
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references. Comparator with Hysteresis.
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Oscillator: Theory of Sinusoidal Oscillation, The Wein-Bridge Oscillator, RC
Phase ShiftOscillator, The Colpitts Oscillator, Hartley Oscillator, Crystal
Oscillator.
The 555 timer: Monostable Operation, Astable Operation.
Summing Amplifier Circuits
The Subtracter
A circuit that subtracts two input voltages to produce an output voltage equal to the difference of v1 and v2. Here is how
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it works: Input v1 drives an inverter with a voltage gain of unity. The output of the first stage is v1. This voltage is one of
the inputs to the second-stage summing circuit. The other input is v2. Since the gain of each channel is unity, the final
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output voltage equals v1 minus v2.
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Summing Amplifier Circuits
Summing on Both Inputs
The gain of each noninverting channel is:
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Summing amplifier using both sides of op amp.
Summing Amplifier Circuits
The Averager
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An averager, a circuit whose output equals the average of the input voltages. Each channel
has a voltage gain of
Summing Amplifier Circuits
D/A Converter
A digital-to-analog (D/A) converter takes a binary represented value and converts it into a voltage or current. This voltage or
current will be proportional to the input binary value. Two methods of D/A conversion are often used, the binary-weighted
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D/A converter and the R/2R ladder D/A converter
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This circuit produces an output voltage
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equal to the weighted sum of the inputs.
The weight is the same as the gain of the
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channel.
Binary-weighted D/A converter changes digital input to analog voltage
Summing Amplifier Circuits
D/A Converter R/2R ladder D/A converter.
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To determine the D/A converter’s output voltage, you must first change the binary input value to its decimal equivalent value,
BIN. This can be done by:
Comparators with Zero Reference
A comparator is similar to an op amp because it has two input voltages (noninverting and inverting) and one output voltage. It
differs from a linear op-amp circuit because it has a two-state output, either a low or a high voltage. Because of this,
comparators are often used to interface with analog and digital circuits.
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input/output response;
(c) 741C response.
Comparators with Zero Reference
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(a) Inverting comparator with clamping diodes;
(b) input/output response.
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Comparators with Zero Reference
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Narrow linear region of typical comparator
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Comparators with Zero Reference
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Comparator interfaces with (a) power FET;
(b) CMOS
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Comparators with Zero Reference
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Using a compensating resistor to minimize the effect of Iin(bias)
Comparators with Zero Reference
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Bounded outputs: (a) Zener diodes;
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(b) rectifier diode.
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Comparators with Nonzero References
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(a) Positive threshold;
(b) positive input/output response;
(c) negative threshold;
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(d) negative input/output response
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Comparators with Nonzero References
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(a) Single-supply comparator; (b) input/output response
Comparators with Nonzero References
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(a) Simplified schematic diagram of IC comparator; (b) using pullup resistor with open collector output stage.
Comparators with Nonzero References
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(a) LM339 comparator; (b) input/output response.
Comparators with Hysteresis
If the input to a comparator contains a large amount of noise, the output will be erratic when vin is near the trip
point. One way to reduce the effect of noise is by using a comparator with positive feedback. The positive feedback
produces two separate trip points that prevent a noisy input from producing false transitions.
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Noise
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Thermal noise: (a) Random electron motion in resistor;
(b) noise on oscilloscope. Noise produces false triggering of comparator.
Comparators with Hysteresis
Schmitt Trigger
The standard solution for a noisy input is to use a comparator like the one shown in Fig. The input voltage is applied to the
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inverting input. Because the feedback voltage is aiding the input voltage, the feedback is positive. A comparator using positive
feedback like this is usually called a Schmitt trigger.
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(a) Inverting Schmitt trigger; (b) input/output response has hysteresis.
Comparators with Hysteresis
Schmitt Trigger
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(a) Noninverting Schmitt trigger; (b) input/output response.
Comparators with Hysteresis
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Speed-up capacitor compensates for stray capacitance
Theory of Sinusoidal Oscillation
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(a) Feedback voltage returns to point x; (b) connecting points x and y; (c) oscillations die out;
(d) oscillations increase; (e) oscillations are fixed in amplitude.
The Wien-Bridge Oscillator
Lag Circuit
The voltage gain of the bypass circuit
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(a) Bypass capacitor;
(b) phasor diagram.
The Wien-Bridge Oscillator
Lead Circuit
The voltage gain of the circuit is
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(a)Coupling capacitor;
(b) phasor diagram.
The Wien-Bridge Oscillator
Lead – lag Circuit
The voltage gain of the circuit is
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Lead-lag circuit.
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The feedback fraction given has a maximum value at the resonant frequency. At
this frequency, XC R
(a) Voltage gain;
b) phase response; (c) phasor diagram
The Wien-Bridge Oscillator
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Wien-bridge oscillator.
RC Phase Shift Oscillator
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Twin-T oscillator
RC Phase Shift Oscillator
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Phase-shift oscillator with three lag circuits
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Phase-shift oscillator with three lead circuits
The Colpitts Oscillator
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Colpitts oscillator Equivalent circuit of Colpitts oscillator
Hartley Oscillator
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Crystal Oscillator
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The 555 timer
The NE555 (also LM555, CA555, and MC1455) is a widely used IC timer, a circuit that can run in either of two
modes: monostable (one stable state) or astable (no stable states). In the monostable mode, it can produce accurate
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time delays from microseconds to hours. In the astable mode, it can produce rectangular waves with a variable duty
cycle.
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Monostable Operation
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The 555 timer
The NE555 (also LM555, CA555, and MC1455) is a widely used IC timer, a circuit that can run in either of two
modes: monostable (one stable state) or astable (no stable states). In the monostable mode, it can produce accurate
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time delays from microseconds to hours. In the astable mode, it can produce rectangular waves with a variable duty
cycle.
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Astable Operation
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