PETROVIETNAM UNIVERSITY

FUNDAMENTAL SCIENCES DEPARTMENT

FLUID MECHANICS
Fundamentals and Applications

Chapter 7: DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

AND MODELING

Instructor: Le Van Sy, PhD, Assoc. Prof

E-mail : sylv@[Link]
 Introduction

A 1:46.6 scale model

of an Arleigh Burke
class U.S. Navy fleet
destroyer being tested
in the 100-m long
towing tank at the
University of Iowa.
The model is 3.048 m
long. In tests like this,
the Froude number is
the most important
nondimensional
parameter.
Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 7 2
 Objectives

• Develop a better understanding of dimensions, units,

and dimensional homogeneity of equations
• Understand the numerous benefits of dimensional
analysis
• Know how to use the method of repeating variables to
identify nondimensional parameters
• Understand the concept of dynamic similarity and how to
apply it to experimental modeling

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 7 3

 Summary
❖ Dimensions and units
❖ Dimensional homegeneity
▪ Nondimensionalization of Equations
▪ Vapor Pressure and Cavitation
❖ Dimensional analysis and similarity
❖ The method of repeating variables and the Buckingham pi theorem
❖ Experimental testing, modeling and, incomplete similarity
▪ Setup of an Experiment and Correlation of Experimental Data
▪ Incomplete Similarity
▪ Wind Tunnel Testing
▪ Flows with Free Surfaces

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 7 4

 7–1 DIMENSIONS AND UNITS

Dimension: A measure of a physical quantity (without numerical values).

Unit: A way to assign a number to that dimension.
There are seven primary dimensions (also called fundamental or basic
dimensions): mass, length, time, temperature, electric current, amount of light,
and amount of matter.
All nonprimary dimensions can be formed by some combination of the seven
primary dimensions.

A dimension is a measure of a physical quantity

without numerical values, while a unit is a way to
assign a number to the dimension. For example,
length is a dimension, but centimeter is a unit.

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 7 5

 7–1 DIMENSIONS AND UNITS

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 7 6

 Example 7-1

The water strider is an insect that can walk

on water due to surface tension.

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 7 7

 7–2 DIMENSIONAL HOMOGENEITY

The law of dimensional homogeneity: Every additive term in an equation must

have the same dimensions.

Total energy
of a system
at state 1
and at state
2.

You can’t add apples and oranges!

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 7 8
 7–2 DIMENSIONAL HOMOGENEITY

An equation that is not dimensionally

homogeneous is a sure sign of an
error.

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 7 9

 Example 7-2

The Bernoulli equation is a good example of a

dimensionally homogeneous equation. All additive
terms, including the constant, have
the same dimensions, namely that of pressure. In
terms of primary dimensions, each term has
dimensions
{m/(t2L)}.

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 7 10

 Example 7-2

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 7 11

 Nondimensionalization of Equations
Nondimensional equation: If we divide each term in the equation by a collection
of variables and constants whose product has those same dimensions, the
equation is rendered nondimensional.
Normalized equatiion: If the nondimensional terms in the equation are of order
unity, the equation is called normalized.
Each term in a nondimensional equation is dimensionless.
Nondimensional parameters: In the process of nondimensionalizing an equation
of motion, nondimensional parameters often appear—most of which are named
after a notable scientist or engineer (e.g., the Reynolds number and the Froude
number).
This process is referred to by some authors as inspectional analysis.

A nondimensionalized form of the

Bernoulli equation is formed by dividing
each additive term by a pressure (here we
use P). Each resulting term is
dimensionless (dimensions of {1}).
Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 7 12
 Nondimensionalization of Equations

Dimensional variables: Dimensional quantities that

change or vary in the problem. Examples: z
(dimension of length) and t (dimension of time).
Nondimensional (or dimensionless) variables:
Quantities that change or vary in the problem, but
have no dimensions. Example: Angle of rotation,
measured in degrees or radians, dimensionless units.
Dimensional constant: Gravitational constant g,
while dimensional, remains constant.
Parameters: Refer to the combined set of
dimensional variables, nondimensional variables, and
dimensional constants in the problem. Object falling in a vacuum.
Pure constants: The constant 1/2 and the exponent Vertical velocity is drawn
2 in equation. Other common examples of pure positively, so w < 0 for a
constants are  and e. falling object.
Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 7 13
 Nondimensionalization of Equations
To nondimensionalize an equation, we need to select scaling parameters, based
on the primary dimensions contained in the original equation.

Froude
number

In a typical fluid flow problem, the

scaling parameters usually include a
characteristic length L, a characteristic
velocity V, and a reference pressure
difference P0 − P. Other parameters
and fluid properties such as density,
viscosity, and gravitational
acceleration enter the problem as well.
Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 7 14
 Nondimensionalization of Equations

The two key advantages of nondimensionalization of an equation.

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 7 15
 Example 7-3

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 7 16

 Example 7-3

Trajectories of a steel ball falling in a vacuum. Data of

Fig. 7–12a and b are nondimensionalized and
combined onto one plot.

Trajectories of a steel ball falling in a vacuum: (a) w0

fixed at 4 m/s, and (b) z0 fixed at 10 m (Example 7–3).

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 7 17

 Example 7-4

Throwing a baseball on the moon

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 7 18
 Example 7-4

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 7 19

 Example 7-4

In a general unsteady fluid flow problem with a free surface, the scaling
parameters include a characteristic length L, a characteristic velocity V, a
characteristic frequency f, and a reference pressure difference P0 − P.
Nondimensionalization of the differential equations of fluid flow produces four
dimensionless parameters: the Reynolds number, Froude number, Strouhal
number, and Euler number (see Chap. 10).
Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 7 20
 7–3 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AND SIMILARITY
In most experiments, to save time and money, tests are performed on a
geometrically scaled model, rather than on the full-scale prototype.
In such cases, care must be taken to properly scale the results. We introduce here
a powerful technique called dimensional analysis.
The three primary purposes of dimensional analysis are
• To generate nondimensional parameters that help in the design of experiments
(physical and/or numerical) and in the reporting of experimental results
• To obtain scaling laws so that prototype performance can be predicted from
model performance
• To (sometimes) predict trends in the relationship between parameters
The principle of similarity
Three necessary conditions for complete similarity between a model and a
prototype.
(1) Geometric similarity—the model must be the same shape as the prototype,
but may be scaled by some constant scale factor.
(2) Kinematic similarity—the velocity at any point in the model flow must be
proportional (by a constant scale factor) to the velocity at the corresponding
point in the prototype flow.
Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 7 21
 7–3 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AND SIMILARITY
(3) dynamic similarity—When all forces in the model flow scale by a constant
factor to corresponding forces in the prototype flow (force-scale equivalence).

Kinematic similarity is achieved when, at

all locations, the speed in the model flow
is proportional to that at corresponding
locations in the prototype flow, and
points in the same direction.

In a general flow field, complete similarity between a model and prototype is

achieved only when there is geometric, kinematic, and dynamic similarity.
Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 7 22
 7–3 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AND SIMILARITY

We let uppercase Greek letter Pi () denote a nondimensional parameter.

In a general dimensional analysis problem, there is one  that we call the
dependent , giving it the notation 1.
The parameter 1 is in general a function of several other ’s, which we call
independent ’s.

To ensure complete similarity, the model and prototype must be geometrically

similar, and all independent groups must match between model and prototype.

To achieve similarity

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 7 23

 7–3 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AND SIMILARITY

The Reynolds number Re is formed by the

ratio of density, characteristic speed, and
characteristic length to viscosity. Alternatively,
Geometric similarity between a it is the ratio of characteristic speed and length
prototype car of length Lp and to kinematic viscosity, defined as  =/.
a model car of length Lm.

The Reynolds number is the most well known and useful dimensionless parameter
in all of fluid mechanics.
Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 7 24
 Example 7-5

A drag balance is a device used in a wind

tunnel to measure the aerodynamic drag
of a body. When testing automobile
models, a moving belt is often added to
the floor of the wind tunnel to simulate the
moving ground (from the car’s frame of
reference).
Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 7 25
 Example 7-5

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 7 26

 Example 7-6

A drag balance is a device used in a

wind tunnel to measure the
aerodynamic drag of a body. When
testing automobile models, a moving
belt is often added to the floor of the
wind tunnel to simulate the moving
ground (from the car’s frame of
reference).
Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 7 27
 Example 7-6

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 7 28

 Example 7-6

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 7 29

 Example 7-6
If a water tunnel is used instead of a wind tunnel to test their one-fifth scale model,
the water tunnel speed required to achieve similarity is

One advantage of a water tunnel is that

the required water tunnel speed is much
lower than that required for a wind
tunnel using the same size model (221
mi/h for air and 16.1 mi/h for water) .

Similarity can be achieved even when

the model fluid is different than the
prototype fluid. Here a submarine model
is tested in a wind tunnel.
Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 7 30
7–4 THE METHOD OF REPEATING VARIABLES AND THE BUCKINGHAM PI THEOREM

How to generate the

nondimensional parameters, i.e., the
’s?
There are several methods that
have been developed for this
purpose, but the most popular (and
simplest) method is the method of
repeating variables.

A concise summary of the six steps

that comprise the method of
repeating variables.
Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 7 31
7–4 THE METHOD OF REPEATING VARIABLES AND THE BUCKINGHAM PI THEOREM

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 7 32

7–4 THE METHOD OF REPEATING VARIABLES AND THE BUCKINGHAM PI THEOREM

Step 1

Step 2

Step 3

Step 4

Setup for dimensional analysis of a ball

falling in a vacuum. Elevation z is a
function of time t, initial vertical speed w0,
initial elevation z0, and gravitational
constant g.
Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 7 33
7–4 THE METHOD OF REPEATING VARIABLES AND THE BUCKINGHAM PI THEOREM

Step 5

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 7 34

7–4 THE METHOD OF REPEATING VARIABLES AND THE BUCKINGHAM PI THEOREM

The mathematical
It is wise to choose The  groups that result from the
rules for adding
common parameters as method of repeating variables are
and subtracting
repeating parameters since guaranteed to be dimensionless
exponents during
they may appear in each of because we force the overall
multiplication and
your dimensionless  exponent of all seven primary
division,
groups. dimensions to be zero.
respectively.
Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 7 35
7–4 THE METHOD OF REPEATING VARIABLES AND THE BUCKINGHAM PI THEOREM

Established nondimensional parameters are

usually named after a notable scientist or
engineer.

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 7 36

7–4 THE METHOD OF REPEATING VARIABLES AND THE BUCKINGHAM PI THEOREM

Step 6

The method of repeating variables cannot predict the exact mathematical form of
the equation.

A quick check of your algebra is always wise.

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 7 37

 Example 7-7

The pressure inside a soap bubble is greater than

that surrounding the soap bubble due to surface
tension in the soap film.

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 7 38

 Example 7-7

If the method of repeating

variables indicates zero
’s, we have either made
an error, or we need to
reduce j by one and start
over.

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 7 39

 Example 7-7

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 7 40

 Example 7-7

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 7 41

 Example 7-8

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 7 42

 Example 7-8

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 7 43

 Example 7-8

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 7 44

 Example 7-8
Oftentimes when performing the method of repeating
variables, the most difficult part of the procedure is
choosing the repeating parameters. With practice,
however, you will learn to choose these parameters
wisely.

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 7 45

 Example 7-8

A parameter that is dimensionless

(like an angle) is already a
nondimensional  all by itself—we
know this  without doing any
further algebra.

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 7 46

 Example 7-8

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 7 47

 Example 7-8

In Examples 7–5 and 7–6 the air speed of the prototype car is 50.0 mi/h, and that of the
wind tunnel is 224 mi/h. At 25°C, this corresponds to a prototype Mach number of Map =
0.065, and at 5°C, the Mach number of the wind tunnel is 0.29—on the borderline of the
incompressible limit. In hindsight, we should have included the speed of sound in our
dimensional analysis, which would have generated the Mach number as an additional .
Another way to match the Reynolds number while keeping the Mach number low is to use
a liquid such as water, since liquids are nearly ncompressible, even at fairly high speeds.
Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 7 48
 Example 7-9

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 7 49

 Example 7-9

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 7 50

 Example 7-9

Although the Darcy friction factor for pipe flows is

most common, you should be aware of an
alternative, less common friction factor called the
Fanning friction factor. The relationship between
the two is f = 4Cf .
Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 7 51
 Example 7-9

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 7 52

 Example 7-9
To verify the validity of Eq. 1 of Example 7–9, we use computational fluid
dynamics (CFD) to predict the velocity profiles and the values of wall shear stress
for two physically different but dynamically similar pipe flows:
• Air at 300 K flowing at an average speed of 14.5 ft/s through a pipe of inner
diameter 1.00 ft and average roughness height 0.0010 ft.
• Water at 300 K flowing at an average speed of 3.09 m/s through a pipe of inner
diameter 0.0300 m and average roughness height 0.030 mm.
The two pipes are clearly geometrically similar since they are both round pipes.
They have the same average roughness ratio (/D = 0.0010 in both cases).
We have carefully chosen the values of average speed and diameter such that the
two flows are also dynamically similar.
Specifically, the other independent  (the Reynolds number) also matches
between the two flows.

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 7 53

 Example 7-9

Normalized axial velocity profiles for fully

developed flow through a pipe as predicted
by CFD; profiles of air (circles) and water
(crosses) are shown on the same plot.

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 7 54

 7–5 EXPERIMENTAL TESTING, MODELING, AND INCOMPLETE SIMILARITY

One of the most useful applications of dimensional analysis is in designing

physical and/or numerical experiments, and in reporting the results of such
experiments.
In this section we discuss both of these applications, and point out situations in
which complete dynamic similarity is not achievable.

Setup of an Experiment and Correlation of Experimental

Data
Consider a problem in which there are five original parameters (one of which is the
dependent parameter).
A complete set of experiments (called a full factorial test matrix) is conducted.
This testing would require 54 = 625 experiments.
Assuming that three primary dimensions are represented in the problem, we can
reduce the number of parameters from five to two (k = 5 − 3 = 2 nondimensional
groups), and the number of independent parameters from four to one.
Thus, for the same resolution we would hen need to conduct a total of only 51 = 5
experiments.

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 7 55

 7–5 EXPERIMENTAL TESTING, MODELING, AND INCOMPLETE SIMILARITY

For a two- problem, we plot

dependent dimensionless parameter
(1) as a function of independent
dimensionless parameter (2). The
resulting plot can be (a) linear or (b)
nonlinear. In either case, regression
and curve-fitting techniques are
available to determine the relationship
between the ’s.

If there are more than two ’s in the

problem (e.g., a three-  problem ora
four-  problem), we need to set up a
test matrix to determine the relationship
between the dependent  and the
independent ’s. In many cases we
discover that one or more of the
dependent ’s has negligible effect and
can be removed from the list of
necessary dimensionless parameters.

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 7 56

 Incomplete Similarity

We have shown several examples in which the nondimensional groups

are easily obtained with paper and pencil through straightforward use of
the method of repeating variables.
In fact, after sufficient practice, you should be able to obtain the ’s with
ease—sometimes in your head or on the “back of an envelope.”
Unfortunately, it is often a much different story when we go to apply the
results of our dimensional analysis to experimental data.
The problem is that it is not always possible to match all the ’s of a
model to the corresponding ’s of the prototype, even if we are careful to
achieve geometric similarity.
This situation is called incomplete similarity.
Fortunately, in some cases of incomplete similarity, we are still able to
extrapolate model test data to obtain reasonable full-scale predictions.

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 7 57

 Wind Tunnel Testing
We illustrate incomplete similarity with
the problem of measuring the
aerodynamic drag force on a model truck
in a wind tunnel.
One-sixteenth scale.
The model is geometrically similar to the
prototype.
The model truck is 0.991 m long. Wind
tunnel has a maximum speed of 70 m/s.
The wind tunnel test section is 1.0 m tall
and 1.2 m wide.

Measurement of aerodynamic drag on a model truck in a wind tunnel equipped with

a drag balance and a moving belt ground plane.

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 7 58

 Wind Tunnel Testing
To match the Reynolds number between model and prototype, the wind
tunnel should be run at 429 m/s. This is impossible in this wind tunnel.
What do we do? There are several options:
(1) Use a bigger wind tunnel. Automobile manufacturers typically test with
three-eighths scale model cars and with one-eighth scale model trucks
and buses in very large wind tunnels.
(2) We could use a different fluid for the model tests. For example, water
can achieve higher Re numbers, but more expensive.
(3) We could pressurize the wind tunnel and/or adjust the air temperature
to increase the maximum Reynolds number capability.
(4) If all else fails, we could run the wind tunnel at several speeds near the
maximum speed, and then extrapolate our results to the full-scale
Reynolds number.
Fortunately, it turns out that for many wind tunnel tests the last option is
quite viable.

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 7 59

 Wind Tunnel Testing
(a) The Langley full-scale wind tunnel (LFST) is
large enough that full-scale vehicles can be
tested. (b) For the same scale model and
speed, water tunnels achieve higher Reynolds
numbers than wind tunnels.

For many objects, the drag coefficient levels off at

Reynolds numbers above some threshold value.
This fortunate situation is called Reynolds number
independence. It enables us to extrapolate to
prototype Reynolds numbers that are outside of
the range of our experimental facility.

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 7 60

 Example 7-10

Measurement of aerodynamic drag on a model

truck in a wind tunnel equipped with a drag
balance and a moving belt ground plane.

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 7 61

 Example 7-10

Aerodynamic drag
coefficient as a
function of the
Reynolds number.
The values are
calculated from wind
tunnel test data on a
model truck (Table
7–7).

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 7 62

 Example 7-10

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 7 63

 Flows with Free Surfaces

For the case of model testing of flows with free surfaces (boats and ships,
floods, river flows, aqueducts, hydroelectric dam spillways, interaction of
waves with piers, soil erosion, etc.), complications arise that preclude
complete similarity between model and prototype.
For example, if a model river is built to study flooding, the model is often
several hundred times smaller than the prototype due to limited lab space.
Researchers often use a distorted model in which the vertical scale of
the model (e.g., river depth) is exaggerated in comparison to the
horizontal scale of the model (e.g., river width).
In addition, the model riverbed slope is often made proportionally steeper
than that of the prototype.
These modifications result in incomplete similarity due to lack of geometric
similarity.
Model tests are still useful under these circumstances, but other tricks
(like deliberately roughening the model surfaces) and empirical
corrections and correlations are required to properly scale up the model
data.
Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 7 64
 Flows with Free Surfaces
In many flows involving a liquid with a free
surface, both the Reynolds number and
Froude number are relevant
nondimensional parameters. Since it is not
always possible to match both Re and Fr
between model and prototype, we are
sometimes forced to settle for incomplete
similarity.

To ensure complete similarity we would need to use a liquid whose kinematic

viscosity satisfies this equation.
Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 7 65
 Flows with Free Surfaces

A NACA 0024 airfoil being tested in a

towing tank at Fr (a) 0.19, (b) 0.37,
and (c) 0.55. In tests like this, the
Froude number is the most important
nondimensional parameter.

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 7 66

 Example 7-11

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 7 67

 Example 7-11

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 7 68

 Example 7-11
In many experiments involving free
surfaces, we cannot match both the
Froude number and the Reynolds number.
However, we can often extrapolate low Re
model test data to predict high Re
prototype behavior.

We mention the importance of similarity in the production of Hollywood movies in

which model boats, trains, airplanes, buildings, monsters, etc., are blown up or
burned.
Movie producers must pay attention to dynamic similarity in order to make the
small-scale fires and explosions appear as realistic as possible.
You may recall some low-budget movies where the special effects are
unconvincing.
In most cases this is due to lack of dynamic similarity between the small model
and the full-scale prototype.
If the model’s Froude number and/or Reynolds number differ too much from those
of the prototype, the special effects don’t look right, even to the untrained eye.
The next time you watch a movie, be on the alert for incomplete similarity!

Assoc. Prof. Le Van Sy, PhD Fluid Mechanics – Chapter 7 69