GENERAL CHEMISTRY II
Quarter 3 Module 1
Intermolecular Forces and the Properties of Liquids and Solids
I. Intermolecular Forces
Intermolecular forces are the attractive forces holding particles together in the condensed (solid and
liquid) phases of matter.
Resulting from coulombic attractions. These attraction are dependent on:
- the magnitude of the charges
- the distance between charges
Weaker than forces of ionic bonding and involve partial charges.
Gas Liquid Solid
Types of Intermolecular Forces Condensed phases
1. van der Waals forces – occurs between atoms and molecules of pure substances
Dipole-dipole interactions – attractive forces between polar molecules
Hydrogen bonding - attractive force in polar molecules containing an H atom bonded
to a small, highly electronegative element (N, O and F).
London (Dispersion) Forces - attractive forces arising from instantaneous dipoles and
induced dipoles
Arrangement of Polar Molecules in Liquid and Solid
2. Ion-dipole Interactions
Occur in mixtures of ionic and polar species
Coulombic attraction between ions and polar molecules
Dependent upon:
-Size and charge of ion
-Dipole moment of the molecule
-Size of the molecule
Can also be repulsive
II. Properties of Liquids
Surface tension – a quantitative measure of the elastic force at the surface
of liquid. It is the tendency of liquid surfaces to shrink into the minimum
surface area possible.
Manifestations:
- Formation of meniscus
- Capillary action which results from a combination of:
Cohesion (attraction between like molecules, cohesive
forces)
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Adhesion (attraction between unlike molecules, adhesive forces)
Viscosity – measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow
- Unit: N(s/m2)
- The higher the viscosity the greater the resistance to flow
- Varies inversely with temperature
- Stronger intermolecular forces produce higher viscosities
Vapour pressure of a liquid – depends on the magnitude of intermolecular forces
- Temperature dependent
Equilibrium vapour pressure – a dynamic state
Evaporation (vaporization) – liquid molecules escape into the gas phase
Condensation – gas molecules return to the liquid phase
Clausius - Clapeyron Equation – linear relation between temperature and vapour pressure
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III. Crystal Structure
Crystalline solid – possesses rigid and long-ranged order
Lattice structure – arrangement of particles in crystalline structure. Depends on:
Nature of particles
Size of particles
Stability depends on type of force between particles (ionic or covalent bonds and/or intermolecular
forces)
Unit cell – basic repeating structural unit of a crystalline solid
Lattice point – each atom ion or molecule in a unit cell
Coordination number – number of atoms (particles)
surrounding an atom in a crystal lattice. This indicate how
tightly atoms are packed , larger coordination numbers indicate
tighter packing
Simple/Primitive Body-Centered Face-Centered
cubic (SCC) cubic (BCC) cubic (FCC)
Seven types of unit cells Types of cubic unit cells
IV. Types of Crystals
Ionic crystals – composed of anions and cations (anions are generally bigger than cations). They are
held together by coulombic forces. Their size and relative number of each ion determines the crystal
structure. Examples of ionic crystals are CsCl, ZnS and CaF2
Covalent crystals – are crystals held together by covalent bonds. Diamond and graphite are examples
of covalent crystals.
Molecular crystals – are crystals with lattice points occupied by molecules. They are being held by
intermolecular forces. An example of this is water (ice).
Metallic crystals - are crystals with lattice points occupied by atoms. They are generally in the form of
BCC, FCC or hexagonal closest packed. Their bonding arises from delocalized electrons. Some of the
most common examples are Zn and Fe.
V. Amorphous Solids
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Amorphous solids lack regular arrangement of atoms. Glass is a familiar and important amorphous
solid which is a transparent fusion of inorganic materials with SiO2 as its chief component and behaves
more as a liquid than a solid.
VI. Phase Changes
Phase – homogenous part of a system that is
separated from the rest of the system by a
well-defined boundary.
Phase changes – is the transition from one
phase to another caused by the removal or
addition of energy. The energy involved is
usually in the form of heat.
Specific heat - is the amount of heat per unit
mass required to raise the temperature by
one degree Celsius. The relationship between
heat and temperature change is usually
expressed in the form shown below where c is the specific heat. The relationship does not apply if
a phase change is encountered, because the heat added or removed during a phase change does not
change the temperature.
Q=mc ∆ T
Where:
Q = heat energy in J
M = mass in g
C = specific heat of the substance in J/goC
ΔT =change in temperature in oC
Liquid-Vapor phase transition
Boiling Point – the temperature at which the
vapor pressure equals the atmospheric pressure.
Molar heat of vaporization (ΔHvap) –the amount of heat required to vaporize one mole of a
substance at its boiling point usually in kJ/mol
.
Qvap =n Δ H vap
Where:
Qvap = energy required
n = number of moles
ΔHvap = molar heat of vaporization
Dependent on the strength of intermolecular forces
Condensation–opposite of vaporization
Critical temperature (Tc) –the temperature above which a gas cannot be liquefied by
application of pressure
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Critical pressure (Pc) –the pressure that must be applied to liquefy a gas at Tc.
Supercritical fluid–the fluid that exists above Tc and Pc.
Solid-Liquid Phase Transition
Freezing – transformation of liquid to solid
Melting (fusion) –opposite of freezing
Melting point of solid (or freezing point of liquid) – temperature at which the solid and liquid
phases coexist in equilibrium. Dynamic equilibrium in which the forward and reverse processes
are occurring at the same rate
Molar heat of fusion (ΔHfus) – energy to melt one mole of a solid usually in kJ/mol
Qfus =n Δ H fus
Where:
Qfus = energy required
n = number of moles
ΔHfus = molar heat of fusion
Solid-Vapor Phase Transition
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Sublimation – process by which molecules go directly from the solid phase to the vapor phase
Deposition – reverse of sublimation
Molar heat of sublimation(ΔHsub) – energy required to sublime one mole of solid usually in
kJ/mol
Sample Problem:
Calculate the amount of energy (in kJ) required to convert 125 g of ice at -10.0oC to liquid water at the normal
boiling point. Assume that the specific heat of ice is 2.11 J/goC.
Step 1: Solve for the energy required to raise the temperature of ice from -10oC to 0oC.
Q=mc ∆ T
Q=125 g(2.11 J /g ℃)[0 ℃− (−10℃ ) ]
Q=2. 6375 k J
Step 2: Solve for energy required to change ice into water. Note that the molar mass of H2O is 18.01468 g/mol,
which is 2x1.00784 for H2 + 15.999 for O. Thus, a 125g of water has 6.93875 moles
Qfus =n ∆ H fus
Qfus =(6.93875 mol)(6.02 kJ /mol)
Qfus =41.771275 kJ
Step 3: for the energy required to raise the temperature of water from 0oC to 100oC.
Q=mc ∆ T
Q=(125 g)(4.18 J /℃)(100 ℃−0 ℃)
Q=52.250 kJ
Step 4: Solve for the total energy required for the entire process by adding all energy required for each sub-
process
Qtotal=2.6375 kJ + 41.771275 kJ +52.250 kJ
Qtotal=96.658775 kJ