Chapter 7

1. Describe the possible modes of lateral-directional motion of an aircraft when

disturbed slightly from steady flight.

An aircraft in steady horizontal flight is disturbed slightly in the lateral plane. If the
inertia forces associated with the angular accelerations in the resulting motion are
neglected, as well as the components of the acceleration and aerodynamic forces
along the oy axis, show that the resulting motion is either a divergence or a
subsidence depending in general on the sign of, (LvNr-LrNv). Describe how the
stability of an aircraft in this mode will change with increase of fin size.

Answer

Roll subsidence mode: a non-oscillatory lateral characteristic which is usually

substantially decoupled from the other lateral-directional modes. It is described by a
single real root of the characteristic equation and manifests itself as an exponential
lag in rolling motion. With reference to Figure S7.1, it is assumed that the aircraft is
constrained to one degree of freedom about the ox axis only and that it is initially
trimmed wings level. If the aircraft then experiences a positive disturbance in roll, the
wings will experience a component of velocity normal to the wing py, where y is the
spanwise coordinate measured from ox. This results in a small increase in incidence
on the down-going starboard wing and a small decrease in incidence on the up-going
port wing. The resulting differential in lift gives rise to a restoring rolling moment as
indicated. The corresponding resultant induced drag differential would also give rise
to a yawing moment but is usually sufficiently small that it is ignored. Thus,
following a disturbance, the roll rate builds up exponentially until the restoring
moment balances the disturbing moment and a steady roll rate is established.

Restoring rolling moment

Disturbing rolling moment

Roll
rate
V0 p

-α '
-py py α'
V0
Port wing Starboard wing
Reduction in incidence Increase in incidence

Figure S7.1 – Roll subsidence mode

Spiral mode: this is a non-oscillatory mode described by a real root in the

characteristic polynomial. When excited, the mode dynamics is usually slow to
develop and involves complex coupled motion in roll, yaw and sideslip, as shown in
Figure S7.2. The mode is usually excited by a disturbance in sideslip which typically
follows a disturbance in roll causing a wing to drop. Assume that the aircraft is
initially in trimmed wings level flight and that a disturbance causes a small positive
 roll angle φ to develop; left unchecked, this results in a small positive sideslip
velocity v as indicated at (a) in Figure S7.2. The sideslip puts the fin at incidence β
which produces lift, and which in turn generates a yawing moment to turn the aircraft
into the direction of the sideslip. The yawing motion produces differential lift across
the wing span which, in turn, results in a rolling moment causing the starboard wing
to drop further, thereby exacerbating the situation. The developing divergence is
indicated at (b) and (c) in Figure S7.2. Simultaneously, the dihedral effect of the wing
generates a negative restoring rolling moment due to sideslip, which acts to return the
wing to level attitude. Some additional restoring moment is also generated by the fin
lift force when it acts at a point above the roll axis ox.

Therefore, the situation is one in which the fin effect, or directional static stability,
and the dihedral effect, or lateral static stability, act in opposition. When the dihedral
effect is greater than the fin effect, the spiral mode is stable and hence convergent.
When the fin effect is greater than the dihedral effect, the spiral mode is unstable and
hence divergent. These opposing effects are usually very nearly equal so the mode’s
time constant can typically be 100s or more.

Sideslip Steadily increasing roll angle

Fin
lift force disturbance
v v
v

φ φ φ

β β Steadily increasing yaw β

Yawing moment
due to fin lift V0 V0
V0

Fin
lift force

(a) (b) (c)

Figure S7.2 – Spiral mode development

Dutch roll mode: This is a classical damped oscillation in yaw about the oz axis,
which couples into roll and, to a lesser extent, sideslip. Its characteristics are
described by a pair of complex roots in the characteristic equation. One cycle of the
mode is shown in Figure S7.3. The physical situation applying can be appreciated by
imagining that the aircraft is restrained in yaw by a torsional spring acting about the
oz axis, the spring stiffness being aerodynamic and determined largely by the fin.
When in straight, level, trimmed equilibrium flight a disturbance in yaw causes the
‘aerodynamic spring’ to produce a restoring yawing moment which results in
classical oscillatory motion. However, once the yaw oscillation is established the
relative the relative velocity of the air over the port and starboard wings also varies in
an oscillatory manner giving rise to oscillatory differential lift and drag. This
aerodynamic coupling, in turn, gives rise to an oscillation in roll which lags the
oscillation in roll by approximately 90 degrees. This phase difference means that the
forward going wing panel is low and the aft going wing panel is high, as indicated in
Figure S7.3. Consequently, the classical manifestation of the dutch roll mode is given
by the path described by the wing tips relative to the horizon and which is usually
elliptical.
 V0

(a)

φ φ
(a)
(b)
ψ V0
(d)
ψ
(b) (c)
Path traced by starboard wing tip
In one dutch roll cycle

(a) Starboard wing yaws aft with

wing tip high
(c) (b) Starboard wing reaches maximum
aft yaw angle as aircraft rolls through
φ wings level in positive sense
(c) Starboard wing yaws forward with
wing tip low
ψ
(d) Starboard wing reaches maximum
(d)
forward yaw angle as aircraft rolls
through wings level in negative sense

Oscillatory cycle then repeats decaying

to zero with positive damping

Figure S7.3 – Dutch roll mode

Assuming steady level flight and motion referred to wind axes, the dimensional
lateral-directional equations of motion are given by,

o o
⎛ o ⎞
mv& − Yv v − Y p p − ⎜ Yr − mU e ⎟r − mgφ = 0
⎝ ⎠
o o o
− Lv v + I x p& − L p p − I xz r& − Lr r = 0 (S7.1)
o o o
− N v v − I xz p& − N p p + I z r& − N r r = 0

where it as been assumed that perturbations from the trim aileron and rudder
deflections are zero.

If the inertia terms and the acceleration and aerodynamic force along the oy axis are
neglected, equations (S7.1) reduce to

U e r − gφ = 0
o o o
− Lv v − L p p − L r r = 0 (S7.2)
o o o
− Nv v − N p p − Nr r = 0
 Taking the Laplace transform of the above equations and assuming zero initial
conditions, (S7.2) can be expressed in matrix form as,

⎡ 0 −g sU e ⎤ ⎡ v ⎤
⎢ o o ⎥
− sLr ⎥ ⎢⎢ φ ⎥⎥ = 0
o
⎢ − Lv − s Lp (S7.3)
⎢ o o ⎥
⎢ ⎥
− s N r ⎥⎦ ⎣ψ ⎦
o
⎢− N v −sNp
⎣

Using Cramer’s rule, the characteristic equation is found to be,

⎛ o o o o
⎞ ⎛ o o o o
⎞
Δ(s ) = s 2U e ⎜ Lv N p − L p N v ⎟ + sg ⎜ Lv N r − Lr N v ⎟ = 0 (S7.4)
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

and the roots are obtained as,

⎛ o o o o
⎞
⎜ Lv N r − L r N v ⎟
g ⎝ ⎠
s = 0 and s = − (S7.5)
Ue ⎛ o o o o
⎞
⎜ Lv N p − L p N v ⎟
⎝ ⎠

Hence, from equation (S7.5), it can be seen that the mode will be convergent if,

⎛ o o o o
⎞
⎜ Lv N p − L p N v ⎟ > 0 (S7.6)
⎝ ⎠

o
and vice versa. The magnitude of the derivative N v will rise with an increase in fin
area S F . Therefore, an increase in the fin size will lead to the mode being less stable.

2. A transport aircraft whose wing span is 35.8 m is flying at 262 kts at an altitude
where the lateral relative density parameter μ2=24.4. The dimensionless controls
fixed lateral-directional characteristic equation is,

λ4 + 5.8λ3 + 20.3λ2 + 79.0λ + 0.37 = 0 (S7.7)

(i) What can be deduced about the lateral-directional stability of the aircraft from
inspection of the characteristic equation?
(ii) Solve the characteristic approximately; determine estimates for the time constants
of the non-oscillatory modes and the frequency and damping ratio of the
oscillatory mode.
(iii) Comment on the acceptability of this aircraft.

Answer

(i) The unfactorised lateral-directional characteristic equation can be written in the

form,

Aλ4 + Bλ3 + Cλ2 + Dλ + E = 0 (S7.8)

 Typically, A and B are relatively large whilst D and E are relatively small; in fact E is
often very close to zero. Further, it is observed that B » A and E « D. So, from
inspection of characteristic equation, the following approximate solutions for the real
roots can be obtained,

(λ + 1 Tr ) ≅ (s + B A)
(S7.9)
(λ + 1 Ts ) ≅ (s + E D )
where Tr and Ts are the time constants of the roll mode and spiral mode respectively.
No such simple approximation for the pair of complex roots describing the dutch roll
made may be determined.

It should be noted that, as equation (S7.7) is in dimensionless form, the expressions in

(S7.9) are modified to,

(λ + σ Tr ) ≅ (s + B A)
(S7.10)
(λ + σ Ts ) ≅ (s + E D )

where σ is the aerodynamic time parameter.

(ii) The lateral relative density factor is defined as,

m
μ2 = (S7.11)
1
2
ρSb

while the aerodynamic time parameter is given by the expression,

m
σ= (S7.12)
1
2
ρV0 Sb

Combining equations (S7.11) and (S7.12) leads to,

μ 2b
σ= (S7.13)
V0

Using the values μ2 = 24.4, b = 35.8m and V0 = 262kts = 134.9m/s, the aerodynamic
time parameter is found to be σ = 6.475s.

Utilising the expressions in (S7.10) and the numerical coefficients in (S7.7), the roll
mode and spiral mode time constants are found approximately to be,

A
Tr ≅ σ = 1.116s
B
(S7.10)
D
Ts ≅ σ = 1383s
E

The characteristic equation can then be expressed as,

(λ + 5.805)(λ + 0.0047 )(λ2 + Fλ + G ) = 0 (S7.11)

 Multiplying out the terms in equation (S7.11) leads to,

λ4 + (F + 5.805)λ3 + (G + 5.805F + 0.0273)λ2

(S7.12)
+ (5.805G + 0.0273F )λ + 0.0273G = 0

By comparing the coefficients in equation (S7.12) with those in (S7.7), the values for
F and G can be obtained. Comparison of λ0 coefficients leads to G = 1.158 and
comparison of λ2 coefficients yields F = 13.553. The dutch roll natural frequency and
damping are then found to be

1.158
ω d = 13.553rad/σ = 0.569rad/s and ζ d = = 0.157 (S7.13)
2 × 13.553

(iii) Assume that, because V0 =134.9m/s, the aircraft is in cruise, which for handling
qualities analysis is flight phase category B. The requirements for each of the
modes is as follows:

Roll Mode: For Level 1 Tr must not exceed 1.4 seconds. As Tr is 1.116 seconds,
this requirement is met.

Spiral Mode: For Level 1, Ts must be greater than 28.9 seconds. As Ts is 1383
seconds, this requirement is met.

Dutch Roll Mode: For Level 1, ς d ≥ 0.08 , ω d ≥ 0.5 and ς d ω d ≥ 0.15 . As

ς d ω d = 0.09 , the aircraft fails to meet this requirement and only meets Level 2.

3. (i) What is the lateral-directional weathercock stability of an aircraft?

(ii) State the main aerodynamic contributions to weathercock stability.

Answer

(i) The weathercock, or directional static stability, quantifies the tendency of the
aircraft to turn into the wind in the presence of a sideslip disturbance.
(ii) The main contribution to directional static stability at low angles of attack is
made by the fin. A sideslip disturbance will also result in differential lift across
the wing span and associated differential induced drag. This will lead to a
resultant yawing moment. At high angles of attack, the differential drag effect
may become the most significant contribution to directional static stability as a
large part of the fin is likely to be immersed in the forebody wake, resulting in a
decrease in its aerodynamic effectiveness.

4. The Navion is a small light aeroplane of conventional layout and in a low speed level
flight condition the coefficients of the dimensionless lateral-directional stability
quartic are given by,

λ 4 + B 2 λ3 + C 2 λ 2 + D 2 λ + E 2 = 0 (S7.13)

where,
B2=20.889
C2=46.714-kv
D2=115.120-18.636kv
 E2=55.570+1.994kv

and,
μ2 Nv
kv = − (S7.14)
iz

The lateral relative density parameter μ2=11.937, and the dimensionless moment of
inertia in yaw iz=0.037. The quartic factorises to,

⎛
(λ + B2 )⎜⎜ λ + E2
(
⎞ 2
)
⎟⎟ λ + k1 λ + k 2 = 0 (S7.15)
⎝ D2 ⎠

Show that if the fin were made too large the aircraft would become dynamically
unstable. What would happen to the aircraft if a critical value were exceeded?

Answer

From equation (S7.15), the spiral mode is described by,

⎛ E ⎞
⎜⎜ λ + 2 ⎟⎟ (S7.16)
⎝ D2 ⎠

Using the given expressions D2 and E2 and equation (S7.14), equation (S7.16) can be
written as,

⎛ 55.570 − 643.30 N v ⎞
⎜⎜ λ + ⎟⎟ (S7.17)
⎝ 115.120 + 6012.35 N v ⎠

where the spiral mode time constant is approximated by,

115.120 + 6012.35 N v
Ts ≅ (S7.18)
55.570 − 643.30 N v

For an aircraft with positive directional static stability, Nv takes a positive value and
for a stable spiral mode, Ts must also be positive. Therefore, from equation (S7.18),
the condition for a stable spiral mode is,

55.570 − 643.30 N v > 0 or N v < 0.0864 (S7.19)

The size of Nv is proportional to fin area. Hence, an increase in fin area will reduce
the size of the denominator term in (S7.18). Eventually, a critical value will be
reached where Ts becomes negative and the spiral mode becomes unstable.

If the unstable spiral mode is excited, the aircraft flies a slowly divergent path in roll
and yaw. Lift and weight will no longer be in equilibrium so the aircraft will also lose
height and, if left uncorrected, the resulting flight path will be a spiralling descent.

5. Describe explain the physical characteristics of the roll subsidence stability mode.

Assuming the motion associated with the mode comprises pure rolling only write
down the equation of motion assuming the rudder to be fixed (ζ=0). By taking the
Laplace transform of this equation show that the roll control transfer function is given
by,

p(s ) −k
= (S7.20)
ξ (s ) (1 + sTr )

o o o
where k = Lξ L p and Tr = − I x L p . State any assumptions made in obtaining the
transfer function.

Obtain the inverse Laplace transform of the transfer function to show that the roll rate
response to a unit step of aileron is given by,

⎛ −
t
⎞
⎜
p(t ) = −k 1 − e Tr ⎟ (S7.21)
⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠

The Republic F-105 Thunderchief aircraft has a wing span of 10.4 m, a wing area of
36.45m2 and moment of inertia in roll of 13965 kg.m2. In a cruise flight condition at
Mach 0.9 at an altitude of 35,000 ft, the dimensionless derivatives have the following
values, Lp=-0.191 and Lξ=-0.029. Sketch the roll rate response to a one degree step of
aileron deflection and comment on the roll handling of the aircraft.

Answer

The roll subsidence mode is a non-oscillatory lateral characteristic which is usually

substantially decoupled from the other lateral-directional modes. It is described by a
single real root of the characteristic equation and manifests itself as an exponential
lag in rolling motion. With reference to Figure S7.1, it is assumed that the aircraft is
constrained to one degree of freedom about the ox axis only and that it is initially
trimmed wings level. If the aircraft then experiences a positive disturbance in roll, the
wings will experience a component of velocity normal to the wing py, where y is the
spanwise coordinate measured from ox. This results in a small increase in incidence
on the down-going starboard wing and a small decrease in incidence on the up-going
port wing. The resulting differential in lift gives rise to a restoring rolling moment as
indicated. The corresponding resultant induced drag differential would also give rise
to a yawing moment but is usually sufficiently small that it is ignored. Thus,
following a disturbance, the roll rate builds up exponentially until the restoring
moment balances the disturbing moment and a steady roll rate is established.

Assuming pure rolling motion, all sideforce and yawing terms can be removed from
the lateral-directional equations of motion. Further, it is assumed that the rudder input
ζ is zero. Hence, the rolling motion of the aircraft can be described by the equation,
o o
I x p& (t ) = L p p(t ) + Lξ ξ (t ) (S7.22)

Taking the Laplace transform of (S7.22) and assuming zero initial conditions,

o o
I x sp(s ) = L p p(s ) + Lξ ξ (s ) (S7.23)

Equation (S7.23) can then be arranged to obtain the transfer function,

 o
p(s ) Lξ
= (S7.24)
ξ (s ) o
I xs − Lp

o
Dividing through equation (S7.24) by − L p leads to the required expression (S7.20),

o o
p(s ) − Lξ L p −k
= = (S7.25)
ξ (s ) 1 − x s 1 + sTr
I
o
Lp

o o o
where k = Lξ L p and Tr = − I x L p .

A unit step of aileron is represented by the Laplace transform,

1
ξ (s ) = (S7.26)
s

Substituting this into equation (S7.25), the roll rate response is given by,

−k
p (s ) = (S7.27)
s (1 + sTr )

Equation (S7.27) can be expressed in terms of partial fractions,

−k
p (s ) =
A B
= + (S7.28)
s (1 + sTr ) s 1 + sTr

Multiplying through (S7.28) by s(1 + sTr ) and comparing coefficients of s,

expressions for A and B are found be A = -k and B = kTr. So, (S7.28) becomes,

⎛ ⎞
kTr ⎜1 1 ⎟
p(s ) = − +
k
= −k ⎜ − ⎟ (S7.29)
s 1 + sTr ⎜ s s + 1T ⎟
⎝ r ⎠

Taking the inverse Laplace transform of (S7.29), the time response of the roll rate is
found to be,

⎛ −
t
⎞
⎜
p(t ) = −k 1 − e Tr ⎟ (S7.30)
⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠

as required.

When dealing with dimensionless derivatives, k can be expressed as,

 o
Lξ 1
2
ρV02 SbLξ V0 Lξ
k= = = (S7.31)
o
Lp
1
2
ρV0 Sb L p
2
bL p

At 35,000 ft, Mach 0.9 corresponds to a speed of V0 = 266.85 m/s. Hence,

substituting the given numerical values into (S7.31), k is found to have the value
k = 3.896 , and the time constant Tr = 0.1135s . These values have been inserted into
(S7.30) and used to plot the roll rate response to a one degree step of aileron
deflection, as shown in Figure S7.4.

1
Roll rate p (deg/s)

0
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (s)
Aileron Input ζ (deg)

1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (s)

Figure S7.4 – Roll rate response to a one degree step of aileron deflection

6. The aircraft described below is flying at a true airspeed of 150 m/s at sea level. At
this flight condition the aircraft is required to have a steady roll rate of 60 deg/s, when
each aileron is deflected through 10 deg. Assuming that the outboard edges of the
ailerons are at the wing tip, calculate the required aileron span. If the ailerons produce
17,500 Nm of adverse yawing moment, calculate the rudder deflection required for
trim.

Aircraft Data
Rectangular unswept wing Fin
Span = 15 m Area = 3 m2
Area = 27 m2 Moment arm from cg = 6 m
Lp=-0.2 Rudder
Aileron Rudder Area = 1.2 m2
dCL/dξ = 2.0 1/rad dCL/dζ = 2.3 1/rad
Answer

Pure rolling motion of an aircraft can be described by the equation,

o o
I x p& (t ) = L p p(t ) + Lξ ξ (t ) (S7.32)

If the aircraft is in a steady roll, p& = 0 , so equation (S7.32) reduces to

o o
L p p + Lξ ξ = 0 (S7.33)

Equation ([Link]) can then be written in terms of the non-dimensional derivative Lp,

o
1
2
ρV0 Sb 2 L p p + Lξ ξ = 0 (S7.34)

and by inserting the given numerical values into the above expression, the value for
o o
the derivative Lξ is obtain as Lξ = −6.698 × 10 5 Nm/rad. Note that for a positive roll
rate p, the aileron deflection ξ is negative.

Now, the lift increment due to aileron deflection on a chordwise strip element on the
right wing panel is given by,

1 ∂C
L′ = ρV02 c L ξdy (S7.35)
2 ∂ξ

where c is the wing chord and dy is the spanwise length of the strip element.
Assuming that the normal force increment on the right wing, δZ (right ) , acting on the
strip is due solely to lift then,

1 ∂C L
δZ (right ) = − L ′ = − ρV02 c ξdy (S7.36)
2 ∂ξ

The resulting increment in rolling moment is then given by,

1 ∂C L
δL(right ) = yδZ (right ) = − ρV02 c ξydy (S7.37)
2 ∂ξ

where y is the spanwise location of the strip. The corresponding increment arising
from the aileron deflection on the left wing panel is given by,

1 ∂C L
δL(left ) = − yδZ (left ) = − ρV02 c ξydy (S7.38)
2 ∂ξ

Note that the aileron deflection ξ on the left wing has the opposite sign to that for the
right wing.

The total rolling moment due to aileron deflection is obtained by summing the
increments from the right and left chord strips and integrating across the length of the
ailerons,
 ∂C L b2
Ltotal = − ρV02 c
∂ξ
ξ ∫
y1
ydy (S7.39)

where y1 is the spanwise location of the ailerons’ inboard edges. Equation (S7.39) can
o
then be differentiated with respect to ξ to obtain an expression in terms of Lξ ,

o ∂C L b2
Lξ = − ρV02 c
∂ξ ∫
y1
ydy (S7.40)

By integrating (S7.40) and inserting the given numerical values, the spanwise
location of the inboard edge of the ailerons is found to be y1 = 6.538m, so the required
span of the ailerons is 0.962m.

The yawing moment produced due to a positive rudder deflection is given by,

1 ∂C L
N = −YF l F = − ρV02 S F l F ζ (S7.41)
2 ∂ζ

where lF is the moment arm from the aerodynamic centre of the fin to the cg and SF
is the fin area. For a positive rolling moment, the adverse yaw will be negative, hence
for N = -17,500Nm and the given numerical values, the required rudder deflection is
ζ = 0.0307rad = 1.76deg.

7. Using a simple model show that the time to half amplitude of the roll subsidence
mode may be approximated by,

ln(2)
Ix
t1 = − o
(S7.42)
2 Lp

Given that the rolling moment due to roll rate derivative may be written,

o s⎛ dC L ⎞
L p = − ρV0 ∫ ⎜⎝ C
0
D + ⎟ c y y 2 dy
dα ⎠ y
(S7.43)

Determine the time to half amplitude of the roll subsidence mode for an aircraft with
the following characteristics, when it is flying at sea level at 100 m/s.

Wing span =10 m dCL/dα at root = 5.7 1/rad

Wing root chord =1.5 m dCL/dα at tip = 0.0 1/rad
Wing tip chord =0.75 m CD = 0.005 (constant) Inertia in roll =8000 kg.m2

Assume dCL/dα varies linearly along the span.

Answer

A simple model of the roll subsidence mode is as follows,

I x p& (t ) = L (S7.44)
Assuming small perturbations and zero sideslip and yaw (v = ψ = 0),

∂L o
L= = Lp (S7.45)
∂p

Combining equations (S7.44) and (S7.45) yields,

o
I x p& (t ) = L p (S7.46)

The roll response given in (S7.46) can also be described by the equation,

o
Lp
t
p(t ) = p 0 e I x (S7.47)

where p 0 is the initial roll rate amplitude, p(0). The time to half amplitude, t 1 , is
2
defined as the point in time where p = 0.5 p 0 . Inserting this expression into (S7.48)
leads to,

o
Lp
t1
Ix 2
0.5 p 0 = p 0 e (S7.49)

Rearranging (S7.49) and taking logarithms of each side, the required expression is
obtained,

Ix
t1 = − o
ln(2 ) (S7.50)
2 Lp

For the wing depicted in Figure S7.5, the local chord length cy at a spanwise location
y is given by the equation,

c r − ct
c y = cr − y = 1.5 − 0.15 y (S7.51)
b/2

dC L
Similarly, if varies linearly along the span, then its value for a particular
dα
spanwise location y is found from,

dC L
= 5.7 − 1.14 y (S7.52)
dα

dC L
Inserting the expressions for cy and into equation (S7.43), along with values for
dα
ρ, V0, s and CD gives

∫ (8.5575 y )
o 5
2
L p = −122.5 − 2.5658 y 3 + 0.171 y 4 dy (S7.53)
0
 o o
and performing the integration yields L p = 7611 Nms/rad. So, for this value of L p
and a roll inertia of 8000 kg.m2, the time to half amplitude is t 1 = 0.723 s.
2

cr dy ct

b/2

Figure S7.5 – Wing geometry

8. For the aircraft described below, determine the value of wing dihedral required to
make the spiral mode neutrally stable. The rolling moment due to sideslip derivative
is given by,

1 s
Lv = −
Ss 0 ∫
c y a y Γydy (S7.54)

and the time to half (double) amplitude for the spiral mode is given by,

V0 ⎛ Lv N p − L p N v ⎞
t1 = ⎜ ⎟ ln(2) (S7.55)
⎜ L N −L N ⎟
2
g ⎝ v r r v ⎠

Aircraft data:

Wing area S=52 m2

Wing span B=14.8 m
Wing root chord 5.0 m
Wing tip chord 2.0 m
Fin area SF=8.4 m2
Fin roll arm hF=1.8 m
Wing lift-curve slope ay=3.84 1/rad
Fin lift curve slope a1F=2.2 1/rad
Lr -0.120
 Nr -0.120
Nv 0.158

Discuss how the geometry of the wing and fin influence the stability of the spiral
mode.

Answer

For a neutrally stable spiral mode,

t1 = ∞ (S7.56)
2

So, from equation (S7.55),

Lv N r = L r N v (S7.57)

Therefore, using the given numerical values, Lv = 0.159 .

The major contributions to the derivative Lv come from wing dihedral, wing sweep,
wing-fuselage geometry and the fin. The fin contribution is calculated from the
equation,

S F hF
Lv( fin ) = − = −0.0432 (S7.58)
Sb

So the wing contribution to the derivative must be Lv( wing ) = 0.159 + 0.0432 = 0.2022 .

The dihedral is found by rearranging equation (S7.54) to give,

− Lv sS
Γ= s
(S7.59)
∫0
c y a y ydy

Assuming that the wing is linearly tapered, the local chord length cy at a spanwise
location y is given by the equation,

c r − ct
c y = cr − y = 5 − 0.405 y (S7.60)
b/ 2

By then inserting the numerical values and performing the integration, the wing
dihedral is found to be Γ = −0.246rad = -14.1deg .

For a stable spiral mode,

Lv N r > L r N v (S7.61)

Contributions to all four derivatives come from both the wing and the fin.

Lv – function of wing dihedral, wing sweep, wing-fuselage geometry and fin

geometry V F , a1F , l F , hF
Nr – function of wing planform, C D , fin geometry l F and N v

Lr – function of wing planform, C L , and fin geometry V F , a1F , hF

Nv – function of wing dihedral, wing sweep, wing-fuselage geometry and fin

geometry V F , a1F