Chapter 24

Electric potential
Masatsugu Sei Suzuki
Department of Physics, SUNY at Binghamton
(Date: August 15, 2020)

1. Electric potential
The electrostatic force is a conservative force. This means that the work it does on a
particle depends only on the initial and final position of the particle, and not on the path
followed. With each conservative force, a potential energy can be associated.

K Wc  U , (energy-work theorem)

where K is the kinetic energy and Wc is the work due to the electrostatic force (conservative
force). The potential energy U associated with a conservative force F is defined in the
following manner

Wc  F  dr  dU .

To describe the potential energy associated with a charge distribution the concept of the
electric potential V is introduced. The electric potential V at a given position is defined as
the potential energy of a test particle divided by the charge q of this object:

U ( r )  qV ( r ) .

Since F  q E , this equation can be rewritten as

Wc  qE  dr  dU  qdV ,

or

E  dr  dV ,

or


E V   V
r

where V is the gradient of V.

For the Cartesian coordinate (x, y, z)

  
  ex  e y  ez
x y z
For the spherical coordinates [ x  r sin  cos  , y  r sin  sin  , z  r cos  ]

 1  1 
  er  e  e
r r  r sin 

For the cylindrical coordinates [ x   cos  ,  sin  , z  z ]

 1  
  e  e  ez
   z

The unit of the electric potential is the volt (V) and The unit of the electric field is V/m.

1 V = 1 J/C = 1 Nm/C.

1 N/C = 1 V/m

A unit for the energy commonly used in physics is defined the electron volt (eV).

1 eV = (1.602176487 x 10-19 C)(1V) = 1.602176487 x 10-19 J

qe is the charge of electron (negative charge) and is given

qe = -e

with e = 1.602176487 x 10-19 C

((Note-1)) Relation between work done and potential energy (Work-energy theorem)

F  qE

W   F  dr  q  E  dr   q  V  dr   qV  U

((Note-2))
We consider the work to move charge (q>0) from infinity to a finite distance r, where
the positive charge Q is located at r = 0.
 F

dr

r
W   ( F )  ( dr )

r
  F  dr

r
qQ
 er  er dr

4 0 r 2
r
qQ
 dr

4 0 r 2
qQ

4 0 r

where F is the repulsive force, and is given by

qQ
F er .
4 0 r 2

The displacement vector is

dr  drer  rd e  r sin  d e .

The scalar product is

 qQ qQ
F  dr  F  dr  e  drer  dr .
4 0 r 2 r
4 0 r 2

Using the work energy theorem, we have

eQ
W  U   ,
4 0 r

or

eQ Q
U  qV V .
4 0 r 4 0 r

Using the electric field E,

F  qE , U  qV ,

we have the final form for the electric potential,

r
V    E  dr


or

E  V .

((Note)) The path integral

Fig. Path integral  E  dr   E ds along the path 123 and the path 341
s
  E  dr   1 2 3
E  dr  
3 4 1
E  dr

We use the Stokes’ theorem for the path integral,

 E  dr   (  E )  dr
Suppose that the electric field E is expressed by

E  V .

Leading to   E  0 . Then we have

 E  dr  0
and


1 23
E  dr   
3 4 1
E  dr  
1 4 3
E  dr

Thus the path integral is independent of any path between the points 1 and 3.

2. Potential differences in a uniform electric field

We consider the two parallel conducting plates which are separated by a distance d. A
battery V is connected between these two plates. The electric field E is assumed to be
uniform.

V ( d )  V ( 0 )  V   E ( d  0 )   Ed

or

V  Ed

Note that the direction of the electric field is from the higher electric potential to the
lower electric potential.
or

((Example)) Walter Lewin: 8.02x-MIT Physics II Electricity and Magnetism (Chapter 5)

Suppose that the two parallel conducting plates are separated by a distance d. A battery
V is connected between these two plates. The electric potential V is linearly proportional to
the position x: V = 0 at x = 0 and V = 103 V at x = d = 0.01 m. So the electric potential V is
given by

V  105 x ( 0  x  d ).

as a function of x. The electric field is constant,

 dV
Ex    10 5 V/m,
dx

The direction of the electric field is from the high voltage point to the low voltage point.

0V 500 V 1000 V
x

d
The direction of the electric field (denoted by the green line) is along the negative direction.
The red line denotes the constant V with V = 0 – 1000 V. The equi-potential line with the
constant V is perpendicular to the electric field E.
3. Electric potential due to point charges
The electric field due to a point charge q is given by

1 q
E er
4 0 r 2

r r r
1 q q 1 1 q
V ( r )  V (  )  V ( r )    E  dr    e  er dr   r dr 
 
4 0 r 2 r
4 0 
2
4 0 r

where V ( )  0 .

or

1 q
V (r )  (electric potential)
40 r

((Mathematica))
Plot3D of the electric potential due to a positive charge located at x = y = 0

((Mathematica))
Plot3D of the electric potential due to a negative charge located at x = -0.1, y = 0 and a
negative charge located at x = 0.1 and y = 0.
The electric potential at a point P in space due to two, or more point charges is obtained
from the superposition principle.

n
1 qi
V 
4 0
ri 1 i

where ri is the distance from the point P to the charge qi.

In the case of a continuous charge distribution, the electric potential is the integral of
all the contributions from the point-like charge elements

1  (r ')dr '
V (r ) 
4 0  r r'
.

4. Electric field and equipotential surface

The electric field lines are everywhere perpendicular to the equipotential surfaces.
 If the points A and B are lie on the same equipotential surface, then by definition, we
have VA = VB, or

V = 0.

The electric potential difference is described as

V   E  dr ,

where dr is a displacement (= AB) that lies entirely on an equipotential surface (V = 0).
leading to

E  dr  0

or, E must be perpendicular to the equipotential surface.

Fig. The electric field line is perpendicular to the equipotential surface.

5. Electric potential energy

5.1 Two charges (proton and electron) Bohr model in a hydrogen atom
 We now consider the potential energy of a system of the two charged particles. If V2 is
the electric potential at a point P due to a charge q2, the work an external agent must do to
bring a second charge q1 from infinity to the point P without acceleration is q1V2. The
electric potential energy of a pair of point charges is given by

1 q1q2
U  q1V2 
40 r12

The hydrogen atom consists of a proton (a charge e) and an electron (a charge –e). The
potential energy is given by

1 e2
U 
4 0 r

where the electron rotates around a proton, with a radius r. U is negative since the
interaction is attractive.

The total energy of the electron is

 1 2 1 e2 1 1 e2
E  K U  mv   ( )
2 4 0 r 2 4 0 r

v2 1 e2 1 e2
since m  or mv 
2

r 4 0 r 2 4 0 r

where r = rB is the Bohr radius; rB = 0.529177 x 10-10 m.

E is negative and equal to -13.6 eV.

((Mathematica))

Physconst = 9eV → 1.602176487 10−19 , qe → 1.602176487 10−19 ,

me → 9.1093821545 10−31 , rB → 0.52917720859 10−10 , ε0 → 8.854187817 10−12 =

9eV → 1.60218 × 10−19 , qe → 1.60218 × 10−19 ,

me → 9.10938 × 10−31 , rB → 5.29177 × 10−11 , ε0 → 8.85419 × 10−12 =

1 1 qe2
E1 = −
2 4 π ε0 rB

qe2
−
8 π rB ε0

E1 ê eV ê. Physconst
− 13.6057

5.2 More than two charges

If there are more than two charges present, the potential energy of the system is
obtained by finding the energy of each pair of charges and then summing to obtain the total
energy. For three charges we obtain

1q1q2 q2q3 q3q1

U (  )
40 r12 r23 r31
For q1, the electric potential V1 due to q2 and q3 and the potential energy U1 are given by

1  q2 q3 
V1    
4 0  r12 r31 
q1  q2 q3  1  q1q2 q3q1 
U1        
4 0  r12 r31  4 0  r12 r31 

For q2, the electric potential V2 due to q1 and q3 and the potential energy U2 are given by

1  q1 q3 
V2    
40  r12 r23 
q2  q1 q3  1  q1q2 q2 q3 
U2        
40  r12 r23  40  r12 r23 

For q3, the electric potential V3 due to q1 and q2 and the potential energy U3 are given by

1  q1 q2 
V3    
40  r31 r23 
q3  q1 q2  1  q3q1 q2q3 
U3        
40  r31 r23  4 0  r31 r23 

Therefore we get the potential energy for the three charges as

1 1 1 q1q2 q2q3 q3q1

U  (q1V1  q2V2  q3V3 )  (U1  U 2  U3 )  (   )
2 2 40 r12 r23 r31

where the factor 1/2 is necessary since we count twice for each pair. In general case,

1 N
U   qiVi
2 i 1

for the N-charges system. This equation can be rewritten as

1
2
U  (r )V (r )d 3r

for the continuous system.

((Example)) Potential energy of sphere with constant charge density  .

The electric potential is given by

 1
V (r )  (R2  r 2 ) (for r  R )
2 0 3

(see APPENDIX). Then the potential energy is obtained as

1 
R
1
U  ( R 2  r 2 )4 r 2 dr
2 0 2 0 3
 2R 2 2 1 4
   ( R r  r )dr
0 0 3
4 2 5
  R
15 0
3Q 2

20 0 R
1 Q2

2 4 ( 5 R )
0
6

The energy is proportional to the square of the total charge and inversely proportional to
the radius. We can also interpret this equation as saying that the average of 1 / rij for all
pairs of points in the sphere is 6 / (5 R ) .

6. Electric potential due to an electric dipole moment

Find the electric potential due to an electric dipole moment far from the dipole.
 z

A q
r
a
O
a
B q

Fig. Finding the electrical potential V at the point P.

(a) Approximation-1
Line BA is on the z axis. The positive charge is at (0, 0, a) and the negative charge is
at (0, 0, -a). We consider an electrical potential at the point P, due to the electric dipole
moment ( p  2 qa ).

r  r  acos , r  r  acos .

where  is an angle between the vector OP  r and the z axis. The electric potential due
to the electric dipole moment p  (0, 0, p ) is given by
 1 q q
V (  )
4 0 r r
1 q q
 (  )
4 0 r  a cos  r  a cos 
q 1 1
 (  )
4 0 r 1  a cos  1  a cos 
r r
q a a
 [1  cos   (1  cos  )]
4 0 r r r
p
 cos 
4 0 r 2

or

p pr pz
V r cos   .
4 0 r 3
4 0 r 4 0 r 3
3

where p  (0, 0, p ) and p r  p  r  pr cos  . p  2 qa . Using the electric potential given

by
 p cos
V ,
4 0 r 2

the electric field can be expressed by

V 3 pzx 3 pzx 3p
Ex      sin  cos ,
x 4 0 r 4 0 ( z  x )
5 2 2 5/2
4 0 r 3

V
Ez  
z
p 3z 2 1
 [  2 ]
4 0 (z  x )
2 2 5/2
( z  x 2 )3/ 2
p
 (3cos 2   1)
4 0 r 3

Note that in the polar coordinate

E  V (r, )
V 1 V 1 V
 er  e  e
r r  r sin  
V 1 V
 er  e
r r 

leading to

V 2 p cos 1 V p sin 
Er    , E   
r 4 0 r 3 r  4 0r 3

since

V
 0.

 Ez  Er cos  E sin 
2 p cos2  p sin 2 
 
4 0 r 3 4 0 r 3
p(3cos 2   1)

4 0 r 3
p (3z 2  r 2 )

4 0 r5

E x  Er sin   E cos 
3 p sin  cos 

4 0 r 3
p 3 zx

4 0 r 5

1
When cos   , Ez becomes equal to zero.
3
In general case, the electric field due to the electric dipole moment can be expressed by

1
E [3( p  er )er  p]
4 0 r 3
1
 [3( p  r )r  r 2 p]
4 0 r 5
 4

0 p

4
4 2 0 2 4

Fig. Electric field of the electric dipole moment p at the origin.

Fig. Electric field due to an electric dipole moment (Purcell and Morin). E.M. Purcell
and D.J. Morin, Electricity and Magnetism, 3rd edition (Cambridge, 2013).

((Mathematica))
Electric field produced by an electric dipole moment

P
Clear "Global` " ; V1 r , : Cos ;
4 0r
z
2 2 2
r2xRule r x y z , ArcCos ,
x2 y2 z2

ArcTan x, y ;

V2D1 V1 r, . r2xRule . y 0 Simplify;

rule1 P 1, 0 1 ;

V2D11 V2D1 . rule1;

Ex1 D V2D11, x Simplify;

Ez1 D V2D11, z Simplify;

g1 ContourPlot Evaluate Table V2D11 , , 1, 1, 0.01 ,

x, 4, 4 , z, 4, 4 ,
ContourStyle Table Thick, Hue 0.03 i , i, 0, 60 ,
2 2
RegionFunction Function x, z , x z 0.2 ;
g2 StreamPlot Evaluate Ex1, Ez1 , x, 4, 4 , z, 4, 4 ,
RegionFunction Function x, z , x 2 z2 0.2 ;

g3 Graphics Blue, Thick, Arrowheads 0.05 ,

Arrow 0, 0.4 , 0, 0.4 ,
Text Style "p", Italic, Bold, 15, Black , 0.3, 0 ;
Show g1, g2, g3, PlotRange All
4

0 p

4
4 2 0 2 4

(b) Approximation-2: Calculation using the Legendre generating function

q 1 1
V (  )
40 r1 r2

where
 1 1 1 1
 
r1 a  r  2ar cos r 1  ( a ) 2  2 a cos
2 2

r r
1 1 1 1
 
r2 a 2  r 2  2ar cos r 1  ( a ) 2  2 a cos
r r

We use the generating function of the Legendre function,


1
g (t , x)    Pn ( x)t n
1  2xt  t 2 n 0 for t  1
 P0 ( x)  P1 ( x)t  P2 ( x)t 2  P3 ( x)t 3  ..

where x = cos, t = a/r, Pn(x) is a Legendre polynomial.

P0 ( x)  1
P1 ( x)  x
1
P2 ( x)  (3x 2  1)
2
1
P3 ( x )  x (5 x 2  3)
2
1
P4 ( x)  x(35 x 4  30 x 2  3)
8
1
P5 ( x )  x(63 x 4  70 x 2  15)
8

Then we have

q 1 1
V (  )
4 0 r1 r2
q
 {[ P0 ( x)  P1 ( x)t  P2 ( x)t 2  P3 ( x)t 3  ..]  [ P0 ( x)  P1 ( x)t  P2 ( x)t 2  P3 ( x)t 3  ..]
4 0 r
q
 {[ P0 ( x)  P1 ( x)t  P2 ( x)t 2  P3 ( x)t 3  ..]  [ P0 ( x)  P1 ( x)t  P2 ( x)t 2  P3 ( x)t 3  ..]
4 0 r
3 5
q a a a
 [ P1 (cos )  P3 (cos )   P5 (cos )   ...]
2 0 r r r r

The first term (and the dominant term for r>>a) is

 q a 2aq P1 (cos ) p P1 (cos ) 1 p cos
V [ P1 (cos ) ]   
20r r 40 r 2
40 r 2
40 r 2

which is the electric dipole potential and p = 2aq is the electric dipole moment.

7. Electric potential of the electric dipole (general case)

The electric potential of the electric dipole is given by

1 r p
V (r ) 
4 0 r 3

The entire electric potential at point r is obtained by summing the contributions from all
parts of electric dipoles at the point r’,

1 (r  r ')  P (r ')
V (r ) 
4 0  r r'
3

where P is the electric polarization vector. Using the relation

1 r r'
' 
r r ' r r '3

we have

1 1
V (r )   P (r ')  ' r  r ' d r '
3

4 0

Note that

P (r ') 1 1
 '   ' P (r ')  P (r ')  '
r r' r r' r r'

or

1 P (r ') 1
P (r ')  '   '   ' P (r ')
r r' r r' r r'

Thus we get
 1 1 1 P (r ')
V (r )    r  r '  ' P (r ')d r '  4   ' r  r ' d r '
3 3

4 0 0

1 1 1 P (r ')
  r  r '  ' P (r ')d r '  4  r  r '  da '
3

4 0 0

1 1 1 P (r ')  n '
  r  r '  ' P (r ')d r '  4 
3
da '
4 0 0 rr'

The volume charge density is defined by

  P (r )   b (r ) ,

The surface charge density is defined by

P (r )  n   b (r )

Thus we have

1 b (r ') 1  b (r ')
V (r )   r  r ' d r '  4  r  r ' da ' .
3

4 0 0

7. Electric potential due to ring

Charge Q is uniformly distributed on a ring of radius a. Determine the electric potential

at a point on the axis of the ring a distance z from the center.

1 Q
V
40 z  a2 2
The electric field E is directed along the z axis.

V Q d 1 Q z
Ez    
z 4 0 dz z2  a2 
4 0 z 2  a 2 
3/ 2

V
Ex   0
x
V
Ey   0
x

8. Electrical potential due to disk

(a) Simple case
A disk of radius (a) carriers a uniform surface charge density . Find the potential on
the axis at point A, a distance z from the center.

1  2rdr
dV 
40 z2  r2

1
a
 2rdr  a
rdr
V
4 0 
0 z2  r2

2 0 
0 z2  r2

 ( z2  a2  z )
2 0
 VêHsaê2e0L
1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

zêa
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6

The electric field E is along the z axis.

For z>0, we have

V  d
Ez    ( z 2  a2  z)
z 2 0 dz
 z
 (  1)
2 0 z  a2
2

For z<0, we have

V  d
Ez    [ z 2  a 2  z ]]
z 2 0 dz
 z
 (  1)
2 0 z 2  a 2
((Mathematica))

(b) The application to the calculation of the electric potential due to sphere
(outside)

We show that the electric potential V (outside the sphere charged with Q) is given by

Q
V .
40r

In the previous calculation, we choose the following replacement in the the calculation of
V due to the disk.

z  ( r   ),
a  R2   2 ,
  d 
or

Then we have an electric potential outside the sphere (radius R),

R
d
V   dV   2 [ ( r   ) 2  R 2   2  ( z   )]
R 0

 R

2 0 R
 d [ (r   ) 2  R 2   2  ( z   )]

 R
 
2 0  R
d [ r 2  2r  R 2  ( z   )]

 2 R 3  R3 Q
  
2 0 3r  0 3r 4 0 r

((Note))
This is a good lesson for the calculation of V. Through this calculation, we realize that
it is much easier for one to calculate the electric field first using Gauss’ law. Then the
electric potential can be calculated from the integral of electric field.

((Mathemtatica))
9. Electric potential due to spherical shell
A spherical shell of radius R carries charge Q uniformly distributed over the surface.
Determine V inside and outside.

A spherical shell of radius R carries charge Q uniformly distributed over the surface.
1 Q
Determine V inside and outside. For r>R, we have V  . For r<R, there is no charge.
40 r
V
So we have E = 0 (Gauss’ law). leading to E    0 . V should be constant
r
1 Q
(V  ) inside the shell. Note that V should be continuous at r = R (boundary
40 R
condition). The potential inside a shell is equal to the potential at the surface of the shell.

((Mathematica))
10. Electric potential due to sphere
10.1 Direct calculation of the electric potential (method-1)
 An insulating sphere of radius R has uniform volume charge density . Determine the
potential everywhere. Later we realize that the method-2 (using the Gauss’ law) is much
easier than the method-1. The method-2 will be shown after this discussion.

For r>R, we have the electric potential given by

1 Q 1 1 4 R 3 R 2 R
V    .
4 0 r 4 0 r 3 3 0 r

The electric field is directed along the radial direction.

V 1 Q
Er    .
r 4 0 r 2

For r<R, the charge within a sphere (radius r) is

4r 3 4r 3 Q Qr 3
Q'    .
3 3 4R 3 R3
3
Then the electric potential V1 arising from the part within r (0 – r)

1 Q' 1 1 4R 3  R 2 R
V1    (2 ) .
4 0 r 4 0 r 3 6 0 r
The electric potential V2 arising from the charge between r and R, is calculated as a sum
of the shell (r’ – r’+dr’) (r<r’<R). We note that the potential inside a shell is equal to the
potential at the surface of the shell.

Out[8]=

Fig. Sphere (blue) with radius r. Sphere (black) with radius R. Spherical shells (regions
between spheres with black and brown, brown and green, green and red, red and
blue), and so on are schematically shown.

Then we have

1 1
dV2   (4r '2 dr ' ) ,
4 0 r '
or

1
R
 ( 4r '2 ) dr '  R 
V2 
4 0 
r
r'
 
0 r
r ' dr ' 
2 0
(R2  r 2 ) .

Thus the resulting electric potential is

r 2 
V  V1  V2   (R2  r 2 )
3 0 2 0
r 2 r 2 R 2 r 2 R 2
    
3 0 2 0 2 0 6 0 2 0
R 2 r2
 (3  2 )
6 0 R
 VêH rR2ê6e0L
3.0

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0 rêR
0 1 2 3 4 5

10.2 Method-2 (using the Gauss’ law)

The electric field E is given by

Q
Eout  for r>R.
4 0 r 2

Qr
Ein  for 0<r<R
4 0 R3

Then the electric potential inside the sphere is

R r
V    Eout dr   Ein dr
 R
R r
Q Qr 3 1
  dr   dr

4 0 r 2 R
4 0 r 2 R 3
R r
Q 1 Qr
  dr   dr

4 0 r 2
R
4 0 R 3
2
Q 3 r
 (  )
4 0 2R 2R 3
R 2 r2
 (3  2 )
6 0 R

11. Electric potential due to a charged rod (case-I)

 A total charge Q is distributed uniformly along a straight rod of length L. Find the
potential at point P at a distance h from the midpoint of the rod. The potential at P due to a
small segment of the rod, with length dx and charge dQ, located at the position is given by

1 dQ 1 dx
dV  
40 x h
2 2 40 x 2  h2

with the line charge density  = Q/L

 L/ 2
dx Q
L/2
dx
V   dV    
4 0 L / 2 x 2  h 2 2L 0 0 x 2  h2
Q L  4h 2  L2
 ln[ ]
2L 0 2h

((Mathematica))
12. Electrical potential due to a charged rod (Case-II)
A rod of length L has a uniform linear density . Determine the potential at a point P
on the axis of the rod a distance from one end.

1
L
 dx   d  L
V   dV   L  d  x   4 ln[ L  d  x ] |0L  ln  
4 0 0 0 4 0  d 

13. Electric potential due to a circled wire

A rod with uniform linear charge density  is bent into the shape above. Find the
potential at the center for this configuration. We use the above results. Then we have
  R R 1  (2 R ) 1  ( R )
V 2 ln   
4 0  R  4 0 2 R 4 0 R
  
 ln 2  
2 0 4 0 4 0
 
 ln 2 
2 0 2 0

 2(  ln 2)
4 0

14. Method of images

(a) A point charge near a conductor plane
We assume that there are two point charges as shown in this figure. The distance
between the two point charges is 2a. We notice that the plane, since it is halfway between
the two charges, has zero potential. This implies that the right-half plane picture is the same
as that obtained from a point charge in front of a conducting sheet.
 (Feynman Lectures on Physics)

- +

0 +

-1

-2

-3
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

We consider a point on the conducting sheet at the distance from the point directly
beneath the positive charge. The electric field at this point is normally to the surface and is
directed into it. The electric field resulting from both the positive point charge and the
negative point charge is normal to the sheet and is given by
 2aq
E(  )   .
40 (  2  a2 )3 / 2

From the Gauss’ law, the surface charge density is given by

2aq
 ()   0E()   .
4 ( 2  a2 )3 / 2

We note that the total induced charge is - q as it should be.

  (  ) 2 d   q
0

We show the ContourPlot of the normalized surface charge density which is given by

 ( ) 1
 
 q  x 2
y2
 2 ( 2  2  1)3 / 2
 2a  a a

Fig. ContourPlot of the normalized surface charge density in the (x/a, y/a) plane.

((Mathematica))
(b) A point charge near a conducting sphere
We find the fields around a conducting sphere which has a point charge near it. Now
we must look for a simple physical situation which gives a sphere for an equipotential
surface. As shown in this figure, the field of two unequal point charges has an equipotential
that is a sphere. If we choose the location of an image charge- and pick the right amount of
charge- may be we can make the equipotential surface fit our sphere.
Fig. Electric field lines for a = 1, b = 3, q = 3, and q '   q ( a / b )   1 . The zero-
equipotential surface exists as a sphere of radius 1 centered at x = 0 and y = 0. The
charge of (q = 3) and the charge (q’=-1) are located at x = 1/3 and x = 3, respectively.

Fig. The point charge q induces charges on a grounded conducting sphere whose fields
are those of an image charge q’ placed at the point shown. AP = r1, P’A = r2, OA =
a, OP = b, OP’ = a2/b, q’ = (-a/b)q. We choose b = 3, a = 1, q = 3, q’=-1. OP’ = 1/3,
OA = 1, OP = 3 in the above figure (using Mathematica).

Assume that one wants the equipotential surface to be a sphere of radius a with its center
at the distance b from the charge. Put an image of the strength q '   ( a / b ) q on the line
from the charge to the center of the sphere, and at a distance a2/b from the center. The
sphere will be at zero potential.
The mathematical proof is given as follows. The potential V at P from q and q’ is given
by

1 q q'
V (  ).
40 r1 r2

The potential will be zero at all points for which

q q' r2 q'
 0 or  .
r1 r2 r1 q

If q’ is placed at the distance OP’ = a2/b from the center, the ratio (r2/r1) has the constant
value a/b.
In fact, suppose that AOP' is similar to POA . Then we have

AP ' OA OP ' r2 a OP'

  or  
AP OP OA r1 b a

or
 a2 q' a
OP' and 
b q b

What is the attractive force between the point charge q and the conducting sphere? This
force is equal to the attractive Coulomb force between q and q’.

1 qq ' 1 abq 2
F  
4 0 P ' P 2 4 0 (b 2  a 2 ) 2

(c) A conducting sphere in the presence of a uniform electric field

How does the electric field change when the conducting sphere (radius a) is put in the
uniform electric field E0 along the x axis. Suppose that this electric field is generated by
two point charges of Q at x = -R and –Q at x = R. The electric field at the sphere is
2Q/(40R2). In the limit of R→0, the field is parallel to the x axis.
 2Q
E0 
40 R2

Now we consider the image charges of Q at x = -R and –Q at x = R, concerning the

a
conducting sphere. The image charges (  Q ) are located at x   a 2 / R . Then these
R
image charges form an electric dipole with the electric dipole moment,

2Qa a 2 2Qa3 40 R 2 E0 a 3

p  2  2
 40 E0 a 3
R R R R

The electric potential of the electric dipole moment is given by

p 4 0 E0 a 3 E0 a 3
Vdipole  cos  cos  2 cos
4 0 r 2 4 0 r 2 r

From the superposition principle, the resulting potential is a sum of Vdipole and original
uniform field (E0) along the x axis,

E0a3 a3
Vtot  E0 x  2 cos  const  E0 (r  2 ) cos  const
r r
Fig. Electric field distribution near a conducting sphere in the presence of a uniform
electric field. a = 3 and E0 = 1. The electric field should be zero everywhere inside
the sphere.

15. Typical examples

15.1 Problem 24-22 (SP-24)

In Fig.(a), a particle of charge +e is initially at coordinate z = 20 nm on the dipole axis

through an electric dipole, on the positive side of the dipole. (The origin of z is at the dipole
center.) The particle is then moved along a circular path around the dipole center until it is
at coordinate z = -20 nm. Figure (b) gives the work Wa done by the force moving the
particles versus the angle  that locates the particle. The scale of the vertical axis is set by
Was = 2.0 x 10-30 J. What is the magnitude of the dipole moment?
((My solution))
R = 20 nm

pr pR cos  p cos 

Vp   
4 0 r 3
4 0 R3 4 0 R 2
ep cos 
U  eVp 
4 0 R 2

U can be rewritten as

U Was cos

where

ep
Was   4.0 1030 J
40 R 2

Then we have

Was 40 R2
p = 1.11114 x 10-36 Cm
e

15.2 Problem 24-30 (SP-24)

Figure shows a thin plastic rod of length L = 12.0 cm and uniform positive charge Q = 56.1
fC lying on an x axis. With V = 0 at infinity, find the electric potential at point P1 on the
axis, at distance d = 2.50 cm from one end of the rod.
((Solution))
Q = 56.1 fC
d = 2.50 cm
L = 12.0 cm

Q
 
L

1
L
dx
V 
4 0 dx
0

1
L
dx 
   [ln( d  x )]0L
4 0 0
d  x 4 0

 dL
 ln( )
4 0 d
Q dL
 ln( )]  7.39 mV
4 0 L d

15.3 Problem 24-114

A point charge q1 = +6.0e is fixed at the origin of a rectangular coordinate system, and a
point charge q2 = -10e is fixed at x = 8.6 nm, y = 0. The locus of all points in the xy plane
for which V = 0 (other than infinity) is a circle centered on the x axis, as shown in Fig. Find
(a) the location xc of the center of the circle and (b) the radius R of the circle. (c) Is the xy
cross section of the 5 V equipotential surface also a circle?
((Solution))
q1 = 6 e
q2 = -10 e
a = 8.6 nm
e = 1.602176487 x 10-19 C Charge of electron

(a) and (b)

The electric potential V is equal to zero,

q1 q2
V  0
40r1 40r2

or

r1 q
 1
r2 q2

Noting that
 r1  x 2  y 2
r2  ( x  a ) 2  y 2
q1 3

q2 5

we have

25(x2  y2 )  9[(x  a)2  y2 ]

or

9 9 2
x 2  y 2   ax  a
8 16

or
2 2
9  9a  9  9a 
[( x 2  ax    ]  y 2   a 2    ]
8  16  16  16 
2
9a  15 
( x  )2  y 2   a 
16  16 

This is the circle of radius (15a/16) at the center (-9a/16, 0).

(c)

q1 q2 q1 q2
V   
4 0 r1 4 0 r2 4 0 x 2  y 2 4 0 ( x  a) 2  y 2
q1 q2
 
2 2 2
 x  y x  y
4 0 a      4 0 (  1) 2   
a a a a
A1 A1
 
 
2 2
(  1) 2   2

where
 x

a
y

a
q1
A1 
4 0 a
q2
A2 
4 0 a

16. Hint of HW-24

16.1 Problem 24-11 ***
A nonconducting sphere has radius R = 2.31 cm and uniformly distributed charge q = +
3.50 fC. Take the electric potential at the sphere’s center to be V0 = 0. What is V at radial
distance (a) r = 1.45 cm and (b) r = R.

((Solution))
 r

4
q  R 3  3 .50 fC
3
R = 2.31 cm

Gauss’ theorem

 4 3
E ( 4r 2 )  r
4 0 3
r
E
3 0

r
r
V   dr
0
3 0

16.2 Problem 24-33***

The thin plastic rod shown in Fig has length L = 12.0 cm and a nonuniform linear charge
density  = cx’, where c = 28.9 pC/m2. With V = 0 at infinity, find the electric potential at
point P1 on the axis, at distance d = 3.00 cm from one end.
((Solution))
L = 12.0 cm
c = 28.9 PC/m2
d = 3 cm

1
L
 dx  dL
V 
4 0  d  x  4
0 0
ln(
d
)

16.3 Problem 24-56

Figure a shows an electron moving along an electric dipole axis toward the negative side
of the dipole. The dipole is fixed in place. The electron was initially very far from the
dipole, with kinetic energy 100 eV. Figure b gives the kinetic energy K of the electron
versus its distance r from the dipole center. The scale of the horizontal axis is set by rs =
0.10 m. What is the magnitude of the dipole moment?
((Solution))
rs = 0.1 m
Intial kinetic energy Ki = 100 eV at x = ∞

pr ( pxˆ)  r  px
V  
4 0r 3
4 0r 3
4 0r 3

When r = x

 px p
V 
40 x 3
40 x2

The potential energy is given by

ep
U  (e)V 
40 x2

_______________________________________________________________________

APPENDIX-I Van der Graaff generator

R.A. Serway and J.W. Jewett, Jr. Physics for Scientists and Engineers, 8th edition
(Brooks/Cole, 2010).
 In 1929, Robert J. Van de Graaff (1901–1967) used this principle to design and build
an electrostatic generator, and a schematic representation of it is given in Fig. This type of
generator was once used extensively in nuclear physics research. Charge is delivered
continuously to a high-potential electrode by means of a moving belt of insulating material.
The high-voltage electrode is a hollow metal dome mounted on an insulating column. The
belt is charged at point A by means of a corona discharge between comb-like metallic
needles and a grounded grid. The needles are maintained at a positive electric potential of
typically 104 V. The positive charge on the moving belt is transferred to the dome by a
second comb of needles at point B. Because the electric field inside the dome is negligible,
the positive charge on the belt is easily transferred to the conductor regardless of its
potential. In practice, it is possible to increase the electric potential of the dome until
electrical discharge occurs through the air. Because the “breakdown” electric field in air is
about 3 x 106 V/m, a sphere 1.00 m in radius can be raised to a maximum potential of 3 x
106 V. The potential can be increased further by increasing the dome’s radius and placing
the entire system in a container filled with high-pressure gas.
The electric potential V of the Van der Graaff generator is given by

Q
V ,
4 0 R

where Q is the surface charge of the conducting sphere (radius R) for the Van der Graaf
generator. The electric field E is expressed by

Q
E ,
40 R2

or

V  ER .

The capacitance C is given by

C  40 R .

For the Earth, C = 708.981 F. For the Sun, C = 0.0774393 F. For the Van de Graaff, C =
700 pF (for R = 0.27 m).
 Suppose that E  3  10 6 V/m.

V  ER  (3106 )R

Using this relation, we have

R V
3mm 10 kV
3 cm 100 kV
30 cm 1 MV
3m 10 MV

APPENDIX-II
The electric potential from a uniformly charged sphere
(Griffiths Example 2.8)
We find the electric potential of a charged sphere of radius R, which carries a uniform
density  . The electric potential at the point P is given by

1 
V ( z)   r'd r
3

4 0

where
 d3r  r2 sindrdd

r '  r 2  z 2  2rz cos

Q

4 3
R
3

2
Noting that  d  2 , we have
0


 R
r 2 dr sin  d
V ( z)  2  dr 
4 0 0 0 r 2  z 2  2 rz cos 

Using the integral formula


sin  d 1

0 r  z  2 rz cos 
2 2

rz
[r  z  r  z ]

we get

 R
1
V ( z)  2  r 2 dr [ r  z  r  z ]
4 0 0
rz

(a) zR (outside the sphere)


R
1
V ( z)  2  r 2 dr [ r  z  ( z  r )]
4 0 0
rz
 4 2
R

4 0 z 0
 r dr

 4 R 3

4 0 z 3
Q

4 0 z

(b) zR (inside the sphere)

  z
1
R
1
V (z)  2 [  r dr [r  z  r  z ]   r 2dr [r  z  r  z ]
2

4 0 0
rz z
rz
 z
1
R
1
 4 [  r 2 dr r   r 2 dr z ]
4 0 0
rz z
rz
 1 2
z R

 0 z 0
 ( r dr   rdr )
z

 R2 z2
 (  )
0 2 6
Q r2
 (3  )
8 0 R R2

APPENDIX-III: Lightning rod

A lightning rod (US, AUS) or lightning conductor (UK) is a metal rod mounted on a
structure and intended to protect the structure from a lightning strike. If lightning hits the
structure, it will preferentially strike the rod and be conducted to ground through a wire,
instead of passing through the structure, where it could start a fire or cause electrocution.
Lightning rods are also called finials, air terminals or strike termination devices.
In a lightning protection system, a lightning rod is a single component of the system.
The lightning rod requires a connection to earth to perform its protective function.
Lightning rods come in many different forms, including hollow, solid, pointed, rounded,
flat strips or even bristle brush-like. The main attribute common to all lightning rods is that
they are all made of conductive materials, such as copper and aluminum. Copper and its
alloys are the most common materials used in lightning protection.
[Link]

Now, suppose two metal spheres with radii r1 and r2 are connected by a thin conducting
wire, as shown in Figure 1.

Fig. Two conducting spheres connected by a wire.

Charge will continue to flow until equilibrium is established such that both spheres are at
the same potential V1  V2  V . Suppose the charges on the spheres at equilibrium are q1
and q2 . Neglecting the effect of the wire that connects the two spheres, the equipotential
condition implies

q1 q2
V1  ,, V2  ,, V1  V2  V
40r1 4 0 r2

or

q1 q2

r1 r2

assuming that the two spheres are very far apart so that the charge distributions on the
surfaces of the conductors are uniform. The surface charge densities on spheres 1 and 2
are related to the charges q1 and q2 as

q1 q
2 ,
1  2  2 2 .
4 r1 4 r2

The two equations can be combined to yield

r12 1 r2 2 2
 or r11  r22  r
r1 r2

The surface charge density  is inversely proportional to the radius r. It is concluded

that the regions with the smallest radii of curvature have the greatest  . Thus, the
electric field strength on the surface of a conductor is greatest at the sharpest point. The
design of a lightning rod is based on this principle.
((Feynman))

R.P. Feynman, R.B. Leighton, and M. Sands, The Feynman Lectures on Physics vol. II
(Basic Books, 2010).

We would like now to discuss qualitatively some of the characteristics of the fields
around conductors. If we charge a conductor that is not a sphere, but one that has on it a
point or a very sharp end, as, for example, the object sketched in Fig., the field around the
point is much higher than the field in the other regions. The reason is, qualitatively, that
charges try to spread out as much as possible on the surface of a conductor, and the tip of
a sharp point is as far away as it is possible to be from most of the surface. Some of the
charges on the plate get pushed all the way to the tip. A relatively small amount of charge
on the tip can still provide a large surface density; a high charge density means a high field
just outside.
Fig.1 The electric field near a sharp point on a conductor is very high.

One way to see that the field is highest at those places on a conductor where the radius
of curvature is smallest is to consider the combination of a big sphere and a little sphere
connected by a wire, as shown in Fig.2 It is a somewhat idealized version of the conductor
of Fig.1. The wire will have little influence on the fields outside; it is there to keep the
spheres at the same potential. Now, which ball has the biggest field at its surface?

QB

RB

QA

RA
Fig.2 The field of a pointed object can be approximated by that of two spheres at the same
potential.

The electric potential is the same when two spheres are connected with a wire,

QA QB

4 0 RA 4 0 RB

or

QA RA QB RB

4 RA2 4 RB2

or

RAA  RBB

where

AA  4 RA2 , AB  4 RB2 .

Noting that the electric field is

A B
EA  , EB 
0 0

we have

RAEA  RBEB

Thus the electric field becomes large when the radius of curvature becomes small.

APPENDIX-IV Van de Graaff generator and standard value of electric field

for air dielectric break down
 Although air is normally an excellent insulator, when stressed by a sufficiently high
voltage (an electric field of about 3 x 106 V/m or 3 kV/mm), air can begin to break down,
becoming partially conductive. Across relatively small gaps, breakdown voltage in air is
a function of gap length times pressure.
 V

Fig. Schematic diagram of the van de Graaff. R = 0.3 m. C = 33.4 pF. The standard
value of air dielectric breakdown is 3kV/mm = 3000 kV/m=3MV/m).

The voltage and the electric field of the Van de Graaff;

Q
V .
4 0 R

Q
E .
40 R2

V  ER

The capacitance:

C  40 R

When R = 0.3 m, C  33.4 pF.

For E  3  10 6 V/m = 3000 kV/m (which is the breakdown electric field of air),
 V = 3x105 V = 300 kV, Q  10 C.

REFERENCES
R.A. Ford, Homemade Lightning, Creative Experiments in Electricity, 3rd edition
(McGraw-Hill, 2002).

APPENDIX

d r
P x,z
z
x
Q x,0
r
d

q
Here we find the electric potential at the point P ( x , z ) due to the electric dipole moment
with p  2 qd . We also find the expression of the electric field at the point Q ( x, 0).

Electric potential from the electric dipole moment:

For x  (d  z) and x  (d  z) , the distances between the electric dipolements
2 2 2 2

and the point P ( x , z ) ;

(d  z ) 2
r  (d  z )  x  x 1 
2 2

x2

(d  z )2
r  (d  z )2  x 2  x 1 
x2

or
 (d  z)2
r  x  ,
2x

(d  z)2
r  x 
2x

where

1
r  r  [(d  z )2  (d  z ) 2 ]
2x
2 zd

x

The electric potential:

q 1 1
V ( x, z )  (  )
4 0 r r
q
 (r  r )
4 0 x 2
pz

4 0 x3

where p  2 qd . Thus the electric field is obtained as

V 3z
Ex    0
x 4 0 x4

V p
Ez   
z 4 0 x3