EMT 2339: Control Systems

Introduction to Control Systems and

Mathematical Background
Dr.-Ing. Edwin Kipchirchir

03.03.2026
Outline 1

Historical development of control theory

Definitions and control goals
Open-loop vs. closed-loop control
Design and compensation of control systems
Transfer functions and impulse response functions
Mathematical preliminaries
Mathematical review
Laplace transformation
Inverse Laplace transformation
Partial fraction expansion
Reading assignment

Introduction to Control Systems and Mathematical Background

Historical development of control theory I 2

Classical control (1930s-1940s)

Frequency-response methods: Nyquist stability criterion (1932), Bode diagram (1945),
Root-locus method for stability & analysis (1948)
Enabled design of linear closed-loop control systems that satisfied performance
requirements
Applied to Single-Input Single-Output (SISO) systems
State variable design (1950s)
State-space formulation of differential equations. (DEs) using vector-matrix notation
Suitable for implementation in digital computers (invented around this time)
Development of optimum design (Wiener 1949) and
dynamic programming (Bellman 1957)
Optimal control (1960-1980)
Complex Multi-Input Multi-Output (MIMO) systems with large equations render classical
control unsuitable
Time-domain analysis of MIMO systems using state-space
Kalman 1960: Controllability, Observability & Linear Quadratic (LQ) control
Kalman & Bucy 1961: Kalman filter > Linear Quadratic Gaussian (LQG) control

Introduction to Control Systems and Mathematical Background

Historical development of control theory II 3

Robust control (1980s-1990s)

Limitation of optimal control: Based on system model > errors and undesired
performance/instability
Robust control considers modeling errors and system uncertainties
Examples: H∞ & 𝝁 -synthesis
Intelligent control (1990s-date)
Achieves a goal or sustained behaviour under conditions of uncertainty
AI-based, e.g., ANN, fuzzy logic

Introduction to Control Systems and Mathematical Background

Definitions and control goals I 4

Definitions
Control: A process of making system variables conform to desired values to realize desired
performance
Controlled variable: Measured and controlled quantity (plant output)
Control signal/manipulated variable: Quantity varied by controller
Reference input/desired output: Actual signal input to the control system
Actuating/error signal: Difference between reference input and feedback signal
Plant: System to be controlled (has specified input(s) & output(s)
Sensor: Measures the variable to be controlled
Actuator: Receives control signal to influence the plant
Disturbance
Unknown signal influencing the plant
Adversely affects the output value of a system
Controller: Processes sensor information to generate an appropriate control signal to drive
the actuator to achieve the desired plant performance

Introduction to Control Systems and Mathematical Background

Definitions and control goals II 5

Control goals
Stabilization: Stabilize an unstable plant
Regulation: Plant to operate at some desired operating point
Tracking: The control output to follow a given commanded signal
Disturbance rejection: Rejection of system disturbances and/or measurement noise

Introduction to Control Systems and Mathematical Background

Open-loop vs. closed-loop control I 6

Open-loop control
Definition: A system in which the output does not affect the input signal
No disturbance compensation (no feedback)
No mechanism for checking the accuracy of output
Mostly control systems that operate on a time basis e.g., washing machine, conventional
traffic lights, etc.
Performance accuracy dependent on calibration (establishes an input-output relationship)

Introduction to Control Systems and Mathematical Background

Open-loop vs. closed-loop control II 7

Advantages of open-loop control

Not susceptible to instability
Simple construction & ease of maintenance
Less expensive
Convenient when output is hard or not feasible to measure
Disadvantages of open-loop control
Used only for simple applications with a known input-output relationship
Controlled variable is sensitive to changes in disturbance inputs > applied to systems
having no disturbances
Sensitive to changes in calibration > requires accurate and expensive components
(sensors & actuators) to obtain accurate control

Introduction to Control Systems and Mathematical Background

Open-loop vs. closed-loop control III 8

Closed-loop control
Based on feedback
Feedback exists in a system when a closed sequence of cause-and-effect exists between
system variables.
Output compared with input to obtain appropriate control action
Example: Car cruise control

Introduction to Control Systems and Mathematical Background

Open-loop vs. closed-loop control IV 9

Advantages of closed-loop control

Less sensitive to measurement noise & disturbances
Possible to use relatively inaccurate & inexpensive components to obtain accurate control
Increased bandwidth
Steady state error and transient response can be easily controlled
Reduced sensitivity to external disturbances & internal variations in system parameters due
to the use of feedback.
Disadvantages of closed-loop control
Susceptible to instability as they tend to overcorrect errors
Higher in cost and power since they use more components

Introduction to Control Systems and Mathematical Background

Design and compensation of control systems I 10

Compensation: Modification of the system dynamics to satisfy the given specifications

Approaches for control system design and compensation
Root-locus
Frequency-response
State-space
Choice of compensator (electronic, hydraulic, pneumatic) based on nature of plant
Performance specification
Requirements imposed on a control system
Transient response: Overshoot and settling time to step input
Steady-state response: Steady-state error following a ramp input
Disturbance rejection
Defined precisely prior to design process to yield optimal performance
Should not be more stringent than necessary to perform the given task

Introduction to Control Systems and Mathematical Background

Design and compensation of control systems II 11

System compensation
Design of gain: First step to achieve satisfactory system performance
Gain adjustment may not be sufficient
Increasing the gain value improves steady-state behaviour but triggers instability
Necessitates system redesign (modifying structure or incorporating additional components)
to alter the overall behaviour
Compensation: Redesign or addition of a suitable device
Control design steps
1. Choice of feedback sensor(s) to get a measure of the controlled output.
2. Choice of actuator to drive (manipulate) the plant. e.g. opening and closing a valve,
adjusting the excitation or armature voltage of a motor.
3. Developing mathematical models of plant, sensor, & actuator.
4. Controller design based on models developed in step 3 & the performance specifications
5. Simulating the system performance and fine-tuning
6. Iterate above steps if necessary
7. Building the control system or its prototype and testing

Introduction to Control Systems and Mathematical Background

Design and compensation of control systems III 12

Prerequisites for control design and implementation

Desired value
Control parameter accuracy, range, etc.
Performance specification defined
Output or actual value
Measured by a suitable feedback sensor
Necessary resolution and dynamic response to meet accuracy required from
performance specs.
Controlling device (controller)
Accepts measurements of desired and actual values
Computes a control signal in a suitable form to drive an actuating element
Actuating device (actuator)
Amplifies the control signal
Provides the ’effort’ to move the output of plant towards the desired value
Plant
Static and dynamic characteristics
Obtained from measurements and/or physical laws

Introduction to Control Systems and Mathematical Background

Design and compensation of control systems IV 13

Summary of steps in the design of a Challenges associated with control design

control system Uncertain knowledge of plant e.g. time-
variance against fixed control strategy
Measurement contaminated with noise and
disturbance effects

Introduction to Control Systems and Mathematical Background

Transfer functions and impulse response functions I 14

Properties of transfer functions

Transfer function of a system is the Laplace transform of its impulse response
Denominator roots are the system poles while numerator roots are the system zeros.
System stability described in terms of the location of the roots of the transfer function
Description of transfer functions
Consider the LTI system described by the following DE

Its transfer function is the ratio of the Laplace transformed output to the Laplace
transformed input with zero initial conditions

Introduction to Control Systems and Mathematical Background

Transfer functions and impulse response functions II 15

Example: Transfer function of an RC network

Based on KVL

Laplace transforming eqns.

Transfer function of the system is given as

Introduction to Control Systems and Mathematical Background

Transfer functions and impulse response functions III 16

Transfer function concept: Represents system dynamics using algebraic equations in 𝑠

𝑛th-order system: Highest power of 𝑠 in transfer function denominator equal to 𝑛
Applicability of transfer function concept is limited to LTI systems
Transfer function approach used in analysis & design of LTI systems
Attributes of a transfer function
A mathematical model: Relates output variable to input variable
A property of a system itself: Independent of the magnitude & nature of the input
Provides no information concerning the physical structure of the system > not unique
For an unknown transfer function of a system: Output/response can be studied
(experimentally) for various inputs to understand the system’s nature
Gives a full description of the dynamic characteristics of the system
Convolution integral

Multiplication in complex domain

is = convolution in time domain
Condition: 𝑔(𝑡) and 𝑥(𝑡) at 0 for 𝑡 < 0

Introduction to Control Systems and Mathematical Background

Transfer functions and impulse response functions IV 17

Impulse response functions

Consider the output (response) of a LTI system to a unit-impulse input with zero initial
conditions
Laplace transform of the unit-impulse function is unity

Inverse Laplace transform of 𝑌(𝑠) gives the impulse response of the system
Impulse-response function (weighting function) 𝑔(𝑡): Inverse Laplace transform of 𝐺(𝑠)

𝑔(𝑡): Response of a LTI system to a unit-impulse input when the initial conditions are zero
Laplace transform of 𝑔(𝑡) = transfer function
𝐺(𝑡) & 𝑔(𝑡) of a LTI system contain the same information about the system dynamics
NB: It is possible to obtain complete information about the dynamic characteristics of the
system by exciting it with an impulse input and measuring the response

Introduction to Control Systems and Mathematical Background

Mathematical preliminaries I 18

Mathematical review
Euler identity

Polar representation

Matrices

Introduction to Control Systems and Mathematical Background

Mathematical preliminaries II 19

Laplace transformation I
To compute time response of a dynamic system, DEs need to be solved for given inputs.
Several analytical and numerical techniques are available
Laplace transform favoured by control engineers
Transforms the problem from time (𝑡) domain to Laplace (𝑠) domain
> Complex time domain DEs become relatively simple s domain algebraic equations
Suitable solution is inverse transformed back to time domain

Introduction to Control Systems and Mathematical Background

Mathematical preliminaries III 20

Laplace transformation II
Definition: Laplace transformation of 𝑓(𝑡)

𝑠 is a complex variable 𝑠 = 𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔, called the Laplace operator

Examples: Unit step function (𝑓 𝑡 = 1) and (𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑒 )

Introduction to Control Systems and Mathematical Background

Mathematical preliminaries IV 21

Inverse Laplace transformation

Definition: Laplace transformation of 𝐹(𝑠)

Most easily achieved using partial fractions to break down solutions into standard
components
Tables of Laplace transform pairs are then used

Partial fraction expansion I

Case 1: Real and distinct roots

Inverse Laplace transformation

Introduction to Control Systems and Mathematical Background

Mathematical preliminaries V 22

Partial fraction expansion II

Case 2: Real and repeated roots

First find the function

Then the general expression of 𝑎 for multiple roots given by

Introduction to Control Systems and Mathematical Background

Mathematical preliminaries VI 23

Partial fraction expansion III

Case 3: Complex conjugate roots 𝑠 = 𝛿 ± 𝑗𝑏

Completing the square gives

Introduction to Control Systems and Mathematical Background

Mathematical preliminaries VI 24

Partial fraction expansion IV

Example 1

Solving for constants

Solution from Laplace transform table

Introduction to Control Systems and Mathematical Background

Mathematical preliminaries VI 25

Partial fraction expansion V

Example 2

Solution from Laplace transform table

Example 3

Solution from Laplace transform table

Introduction to Control Systems and Mathematical Background

Reading assignment 26

Derive the Laplace transform for the following functions

Impulse
Parabola
Ramp
Sinusoidal

Introduction to Control Systems and Mathematical Background