Distributed Database Unit – 1

Distributed DBMS Architectures

DDBMS architectures are generally developed depending on three parameters −
 Distribution − It states the physical distribution of data across the different sites.
 Autonomy − It indicates the distribution of control of the database system and the degree
to which each constituent DBMS can operate independently.
 Heterogeneity − It refers to the uniformity or dissimilarity of the data models, system
components and databases.

Architectural Models
Some of the common architectural models are −

 Client - Server Architecture for DDBMS

 Peer - to - Peer Architecture for DDBMS
 Multi - DBMS Architecture

Client - Server Architecture for DDBMS

This is a two-level architecture where the functionality is divided into servers and
clients. The server functions primarily encompass data management, query
processing, optimization and transaction management. Client functions include
mainly user interface. However, they have some functions like consistency checking
and transaction management.
The two different client - server architecture are −

 Single Server Multiple Client

 Multiple Server Multiple Client (shown in the following diagram)
Peer- to-Peer Architecture for DDBMS

In these systems, each peer acts both as a client and a server for imparting database
services. The peers share their resource with other peers and co-ordinate their
activities.
This architecture generally has four levels of schemas −
 Global Conceptual Schema − Depicts the global logical view of data.
 Local Conceptual Schema − Depicts logical data organization at each site.
 Local Internal Schema − Depicts physical data organization at each site.
 External Schema − Depicts user view of data.

Multi - DBMS Architectures

This is an integrated database system formed by a collection of two or more

autonomous database systems.
Multi-DBMS can be expressed through six levels of schemas −
 Multi-database View Level − Depicts multiple user views comprising of subsets of the
integrated distributed database.
 Multi-database Conceptual Level − Depicts integrated multi-database that comprises of
global logical multi-database structure definitions.
 Multi-database Internal Level − Depicts the data distribution across different sites and
multi-database to local data mapping.
 Local database View Level − Depicts public view of local data.
  Local database Conceptual Level − Depicts local data organization at each site.
 Local database Internal Level − Depicts physical data organization at each site.
There are two design alternatives for multi-DBMS −

 Model with multi-database conceptual level.

 Model without multi-database conceptual level.
Design Alternatives
The distribution design alternatives for the tables in a DDBMS are as follows −

 Non-replicated and non-fragmented

 Fully replicated
 Partially replicated
 Fragmented
 Mixed

Non-replicated & Non-fragmented

In this design alternative, different tables are placed at different sites. Data is placed
so that it is at a close proximity to the site where it is used most. It is most suitable for
database systems where the percentage of queries needed to join information in
tables placed at different sites is low. If an appropriate distribution strategy is adopted,
then this design alternative helps to reduce the communication cost during data
processing.
Fully Replicated

In this design alternative, at each site, one copy of all the database tables is stored.
Since, each site has its own copy of the entire database, queries are very fast
requiring negligible communication cost. On the contrary, the massive redundancy in
data requires huge cost during update operations. Hence, this is suitable for systems
where a large number of queries is required to be handled whereas the number of
database updates is low.

Partially Replicated

Copies of tables or portions of tables are stored at different sites. The distribution of
the tables is done in accordance to the frequency of access. This takes into
consideration the fact that the frequency of accessing the tables vary considerably
from site to site. The number of copies of the tables (or portions) depends on how
frequently the access queries execute and the site which generate the access
queries.

Fragmented

In this design, a table is divided into two or more pieces referred to as fragments or
partitions, and each fragment can be stored at different sites. This considers the fact
that it seldom happens that all data stored in a table is required at a given site.
Moreover, fragmentation increases parallelism and provides better disaster recovery.
Here, there is only one copy of each fragment in the system, i.e. no redundant data.
The three fragmentation techniques are −

 Vertical fragmentation
 Horizontal fragmentation
 Hybrid fragmentation

Mixed Distribution

This is a combination of fragmentation and partial replications. Here, the tables are
initially fragmented in any form (horizontal or vertical), and then these fragments are
partially replicated across the different sites according to the frequency of accessing
the fragments.
Data Replication
Data replication is the process of storing separate copies of the database at
two or more sites. It is a popular fault tolerance technique of distributed databases.

Advantages of Data Replication

 Reliability − In case of failure of any site, the database system continues to work since a
copy is available at another site(s).
 Reduction in Network Load − Since local copies of data are available, query processing
can be done with reduced network usage, particularly during prime hours. Data updating
can be done at non-prime hours.
 Quicker Response − Availability of local copies of data ensures quick query processing
and consequently quick response time.
 Simpler Transactions − Transactions require less number of joins of tables located at
different sites and minimal coordination across the network. Thus, they become simpler
in nature.

Disadvantages of Data Replication

 Increased Storage Requirements − Maintaining multiple copies of data is associated
with increased storage costs. The storage space required is in multiples of the storage
required for a centralized system.
 Increased Cost and Complexity of Data Updating − Each time a data item is updated,
the update needs to be reflected in all the copies of the data at the different sites. This
requires complex synchronization techniques and protocols.
 Undesirable Application – Database coupling − If complex update mechanisms are not
used, removing data inconsistency requires complex co-ordination at application level.
This results in undesirable application – database coupling.
Some commonly used replication techniques are −

 Snapshot replication
 Near-real-time replication
 Pull replication

Fragmentation
Fragmentation is the task of dividing a table into a set of smaller tables. The subsets
of the table are called fragments. Fragmentation can be of three types: horizontal,
vertical, and hybrid (combination of horizontal and vertical). Horizontal fragmentation
can further be classified into two techniques: primary horizontal fragmentation and
derived horizontal fragmentation.
Fragmentation should be done in a way so that the original table can be reconstructed
from the fragments. This is needed so that the original table can be reconstructed
from the fragments whenever required. This requirement is called
“reconstructiveness.”

Advantages of Fragmentation
 Since data is stored close to the site of usage, efficiency of the database system is
increased.
 Local query optimization techniques are sufficient for most queries since data is locally
available.
 Since irrelevant data is not available at the sites, security and privacy of the database
system can be maintained.

Disadvantages of Fragmentation
 When data from different fragments are required, the access speeds may be very high.
 In case of recursive fragmentations, the job of reconstruction will need expensive
techniques.
 Lack of back-up copies of data in different sites may render the database ineffective in
case of failure of a site.

Vertical Fragmentation
In vertical fragmentation, the fields or columns of a table are grouped into fragments.
In order to maintain reconstructiveness, each fragment should contain the primary
key field(s) of the table. Vertical fragmentation can be used to enforce privacy of data.
For example, let us consider that a University database keeps records of all registered
students in a Student table having the following schema.

Horizontal Fragmentation
Horizontal fragmentation groups the tuples of a table in accordance to values of one
or more fields. Horizontal fragmentation should also confirm to the rule of
reconstructiveness. Each horizontal fragment must have all columns of the original
base table.
For example, in the student schema, if the details of all students of Computer Science
Course needs to be maintained at the School of Computer Science, then the designer
will horizontally fragment the database as follows −
CREATE COMP_STD AS
SELECT * FROM STUDENT
WHERE COURSE = "Computer Science";
Hybrid Fragmentation
In hybrid fragmentation, a combination of horizontal and vertical fragmentation
techniques are used. This is the most flexible fragmentation technique since it
generates fragments with minimal extraneous information. However, reconstruction
of the original table is often an expensive task.
Hybrid fragmentation can be done in two alternative ways −
 At first, generate a set of horizontal fragments; then generate vertical fragments from one
or more of the horizontal fragments.
 At first, generate a set of vertical fragments; then generate horizontal fragments from one
or more of the vertical fragments.