CHAPTER 1: ENVIRONMENT SUSTAINABILITY

1. SUSTAINABILITY
a) Core Principles to improve the quality of
 Balancing economic growth life for both present and
 Protecting the environment future generations
 Promoting social responsibility

b) Principles of Sustainability can sustainability is the ability to achieve ongoing

 Stimulate technological innovation economic prosperity while protecting Earth’s
 Enhance competitiveness natural systems and ensuring a high quality of life
 Improve our overall quality of life for all people.

2. SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
 Meets present needs without affecting future generations
 To inspire public and private organisations to become better stewards
 Promote economic growth and social well-being.
 Environmental factors are often not fully integrated into development planning and
implementation.
 Proper planning, design, and implementation that consider environmental aspects can:
o Reduce development risks
o Lower associated costs
o Promote sustainable growth

3. SUSTAINABLE RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

a) Focus Areas:
 Water
 Land
 Air
 Human and economic resources

b) Sustainable Development Involves:

 Managing resource use rates (e.g. mineral depletion)
 Promoting energy efficiency and sustainable use
 Ensuring proper environmental management of natural assets

4. SOURCE OF ENERGY
 Solar Energy: from the sun
 Nuclear Energy: from atoms (Fission: splitting the nucleus, Fusion: combining nuclei)
 Fossil Fuels: coal, oil, natural gas
 Water Energy: hydroelectric power
 Wind Energy
 Geothermal Energy: heat from the Earth
 Biomass Energy: from living or organic matter
 CHAPTER 1: ENVIRONMENT SUSTAINABILITY
5. TYPES OF RESOURCES
Renewable Resources Non-Renewable Resources
Examples: fossil fuels (coal, oil, gas), non-
Examples: water, tides, soil, plants, solar
metallic minerals (salt, phosphate), metallic
energy, air, wind
minerals (iron, copper, aluminium)
Definition: Can be regenerated continuously Definition: Cannot be constantly
without depletion regenerated; finite supply
Can be used repeatedly Used only once
Unlimited supply Limited availability
Low carbon emissions High carbon emissions
(3–4% of global CO₂) (91–94% of global CO₂)
More expensive to create Cheaper to produce
Not a major cause of global warming The major cause of global warming
May still have some environmental impacts Greater negative environmental impact

6. COMPONENTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY

 Use of finite resources must decline faster than the depletion rate
 Use of renewable resources must not exceed the natural replenishment rate
 No irreversible pollution to the environment

7. DEVELOPMENT ISSUES
a) Negative
 Rapid depletion of natural resources, such as energy resources from projects
 Oil, gas, and mining industries can cause significant environmental impacts

b) Positive
 Generate substantial income, contributing to social prosperity
 Promote business growth and economic development
 Can help reduce tax burdens

8. FAILURE OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

 Environmental degradation refers to the damage caused to the biosphere as a result of
human activities
 Occurs when natural resources such as forests, habitats, soil, water, and air are consumed
faster than they can be replenished
 Happens when pollution causes irreversible harm to the environment or when human
development destroys or disrupts ecosystems
 CHAPTER 1: ENVIRONMENT SUSTAINABILITY
9. CAUSES OF ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION
 Overpopulation: demand for land, water & energy (overuse of natural resources)
 Urban sprawl: uncontrolled city expansion (loss of forests and agricultural land)
 Industrial pollution: factories release harmful chemicals into the air, water & soil
 Waste dumping: improper disposal of solid and hazardous waste
 Intensive farming: overuse of fertilizers and pesticides degrades soil & water quality
 Overfishing: depletes fish populations and disrupts marine ecosystems
 Industrialisation: rapid growth of industries increases emissions & waste
 Lack of environmental regulations: poor enforcement (harmful practices occur)

10. CAUSES OF URBAN SPRAWL

a) Lower Land Rates:
 Land and housing are cheaper there than in city centres

b) Rise in Standard of Living:

 Higher incomes allow families to afford private vehicles and longer commutes,
encouraging them to live farther from work areas

c) Lack of Urban Planning:

 Poor city planning and congestion push people to settle in quieter, less crowded areas,
leading to unplanned expansion

d) Rise in Population Growth:

 As city populations increase, space becomes limited, forcing communities to expand
outward to accommodate the growing number of residents

11. EFFECTS OF URBAN SPRAWL

a) Increase in Public Expenditure:
 Expanding cities require new roads, utilities, and services, which increase government
spending and often use taxpayers’ money

b) Increased Traffic:
 More people depend on cars, leading to traffic jams, higher air pollution, and a greater
risk of road accidents

c) Health Issues:
 Heavy car use and less walking contribute to obesity and related health problems, like
high blood pressure

d) Environmental Issues:
 Urban expansion destroys natural habitats, forcing wildlife to relocate and causing
environmental imbalance
 CHAPTER 1: ENVIRONMENT SUSTAINABILITY
12. GOAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY
 To minimize the causes of environmental degradation in order to stop and ideally reverse
their harmful effects.
 Harmful effects: erosion, landslide, loss of lives and property, flood

HOW TO PROMOTE SUSTAINABILITY

a) Wind Energy
 Use wind power to generate electricity
 In areas with strong wind, windmills can reduce or replace grid power, lowering long-
term energy costs

b) Solar Energy
 Use energy from the sun and convert it into electricity
 Allows homes and buildings to generate clean energy without relying on non-renewable
sources

c) Crop Rotation
 Helps maintain soil fertility and reduces plant diseases without using chemicals.
 It benefits both home gardeners and large-scale farmers, ensuring sustainable agricultural
production

d) Sustainable Construction
 Building designs that save energy, use recycled materials, and include renewable
resources promote sustainability
 Such construction methods reduce environmental impact in both residential and
commercial projects

e) Efficient water fixtures

 Installing water-saving devices like efficient showers and toilets helps conserve water
 This makes the best use of limited water resources and supports long-term sustainability

f) Green Space
 Creating parks, gardens, and natural areas in cities supports biodiversity and improves
residents’ quality of life
 Green spaces also help reduce air pollution and provide recreational opportunities

g) Sustainable Forestry
 Practising green logging, where harvested trees are replaced with new ones, ensures the
forest can regenerate naturally
 This maintains the balance of ecosystems and supports long-term timber supply

h)Sustainable Fishing Practices

 The fishing industry can remain sustainable by farming fish (aquaculture) instead of
overfishing wild populations
 These practices help preserve marine biodiversity and maintain food sources for the
future
 CHAPTER 1: ENVIRONMENT SUSTAINABILITY
13. ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT TOOLS & TECHNIQUES
a) Water Footprint
 Everything we use, wear, buy, sell, and eat requires water to produce
 The water footprint measures the amount of freshwater used to create goods or services
 It can be calculated for;
o A single process (growing rice)
o A Product (a pair of jeans)
o A company or an entire country
 It helps identify how much water is consumed (evaporated) or polluted per unit of time

b) Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)

 To measure environmental impacts at each stage of a product’s life cycle, from raw
material extraction to disposal
 Involves: collecting and evaluating data & assessing potential environmental impacts
 Helps industries design more sustainable products and reduce overall environmental harm

c) Carbon Footprint
 measures how much greenhouse gases (GHGs) our activities produce, expressed as
carbon dioxide equivalents (CO₂e)
 reflects the impact of human activities such as transportation, energy use, and
manufacturing
 Advantages:
o Useful for energy & environmental management
o Helps reduce climate change impacts
o Encourages actions toward climate neutrality or net-zero goals

14. SIGNIFICANCE OF CARBON FOOTPRINT

 The global temperature stops rising when CO₂ emissions reach net zero, where emissions
are balanced by carbon removal
 Achieving net zero requires:
o Reduce human-caused emissions (vehicles & factories) as much as possible
o Balancing remaining emissions through carbon removal
(reforestation or carbon capture)
 CHAPTER 1: ENVIRONMENT SUSTAINABILITY
15. KEY SOLUTIONS TO MITIGATE CLIMATE CHANGE
 Retire the coal plant
 Invest in clean energy & efficiency
 Retrofit & decarbonize buildings
 Decarbonize cement, steel & plastic
 Shift to EV
 Increase public transport, biking & walking
 Decarbonize aviation & shipping
 Halt deforestation & restore degraded lands
 Reduce food loss & waste and improve agricultural practices
 Eat more plants & less meat

16. CARBON DIOXIDE REMOVAL OPTIONS

 CHAPTER 2: WATER POLLUTION
1. DEFINITION
 Presence of harmful materials & objectionable material from sewers, industrial waste, and
runoff in concentrations high enough to make water unfit for use

2. SOURCE OF WATER POLLUTANT

 Dumps, hazardous waste
 Wastewater
 Pesticides & fertilizers
 Underground storage tanks
 Groundwater discharge
 City/road runoff
 Fuel & chemical storage
 Surface water bodies (rivers, lakes)
 Groundwater (aquifer)

3. TYPES OF POLLUTION SOURCES

 Point-Source  from a specific discharge point (discharge from factory pipe, tanker spill)
 Non-Point Source (NPS)  diffuse, widespread (farm runoff)
 Trans-boundary  pollutants travel far (radioactive waste, oil spills)

4. NITROGAEN & PHOSPHORUS POLLUTION

 Agriculture: excess manure and fertilisers wash off the field to the streams
 Atmospheric deposition: NOx (exhaust, factory, power plant) & NH3 (fertilizer)
 Developed land runoff: stormwater carrying pet waste, leaves & detergents
 Wastewater plants: not entirely treated (human waste, food residues, soap & detergents)

5. TYPES OF NPS
 Sediment  field, construction sites, mining or logging operations
 Nutrients (N, P)  cropland, nurseries, farmland, orchard
 Heavy metals  fluid from vehicles, runoff from mine sites, roads & parking lots
 Toxic chemicals  farmland, nurseries, orchards, construction sites, landfill
 Pathogens  Sewage, farms, fluid leaking from landfill
 CHAPTER 2: WATER POLLUTION
6. METHOD TO CONTROL NPS
a) Reduce Fertilizer Use
 Nitrogen & Phosphorus cause eutrophication, lead to algal blooms, fish kills & poor WQ
o Use slow-release fertilizer
o apply only what the plant needs

b) Plant Vegetative Buffer Zones

 strips of plants (grass, trees) located between farmland, roads & nearby water bodies
o Slows down runoff
o Traps sediments, chemicals, fertilizers
o Absorbs nutrients
o Stabilizes soil & prevents erosion

c) Wetland Buffer Protection

 Wetland & buffer zones are highly effective at filtering pollutants from runoff
o Wetland's trap sediments
o Microorganisms in wetland soils break down pollutants
o Plants absorb excess nutrients
o Buffers prevent direct disturbance to the wetland

d) Reforestation
 Replanting trees in areas where forests were cleared
o Tree roots hold soil in place → reducing erosion
o Forest canopies slow the rainfall impact
o Leaves and organic matter improve soil structure
o Forests filter pollutants and regulate water flow

e) Install Sedimentation Basin/Silt Traps

 Capture and store runoff before it enters natural water bodies
o Slow down the water flow
o Allow suspended soil particles (sediment) to settle at the bottom
o Prevent muddy, sediment-rich water from polluting rivers or reservoirs

f) Proper Road Cleaning

 Roads accumulate sediment, oil, trash, and metals.
o Removing pollutants that would enter the runoff
o Preventing drain blockages
o Reducing debris-related flooding
 CHAPTER 2: WATER POLLUTION
7. TYPES OF WATER POLLUTANTS
a) Ecosystem Impact
 Oxygen-demanding waste: bacteria use dissolved oxygen (DO) to break down organic
waste
 Organic chemicals: toxic to aquatic life (reduce biodiversity, disrupt hormones)
 Inorganic nutrients: cause eutrophication (low sunlight, low oxygen)
 Sediments: low sunlight, low photosynthesis, carry attached pollutants (metal, pesticides)
 Heat: warmer water, low oxygen, sudden temp change kills fish, increases metabolism

b) Health Impact
 Disease-causing agents: E. Coli, protozoa (waterborne disease)
 Radioactive substances: damage cells & DNA, cause cancer, birth defects

8. OXYGEN DEMANDING WASTE

 Organic matter decomposed by bacteria → uses up DO
 Low DO leads to fish death, anaerobic zones (H₂S, CH₄)
 Low DO occurs when:
o High volume of waste: more organic matter
o High temperature: increases the metabolism of bacteria
o Lower Flow Velocity: water slow lead to slow replenishment of oxygen in the water
o Closer Distance to Source: less time for natural dilution

Clean zone  Decomposition zone  Septic zone  Recovery zone  Clean zone
 CHAPTER 2: WATER POLLUTION
9. ORGANIC CHEMICAL
 Source: Industrial disposal, pesticides, oil spills
 Examples: Oil, gasoline, solvents
 Real-world situation: Exxon Valdez, Deepwater Horizon (drill rig exploded)

10. INORGANIC NUTRIENTS

 Cause eutrophication → algal bloom → DO depletion → fish kills
 Side effect: bad smell, high treatment cost, health issue (blue-baby syndrome by nitrate)

11. SEDIMENTS/SUSPENDED SOLIDS

 Reduce sunlight → reduce photosynthesis
 Carry toxic chemicals
 Causes siltation, reduces reservoir lifespan

12. HEAT
 Source: Industrial cooling water, urban runoff
 Effect: high heat, high bacteria activity, lower DO, disrupts the ecosystem, interferes
reproduction of organisms

13. WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS

 DO, BOD, COD, N & P, heavy metal, oil & grease, suspended solids, trace elements
 Temp increase, DO decrease

14. WATER QUALITY ASSESSMENT

a) Biological Assessment
 Aquatic organisms are sensitive to changes in the environment (natural or human-caused)
 Response: death or inhibition of certain physiological processes

b) Ecological Method
 Analysis of communities in a water body
 Presence or absence of specific species (shows pollutant level)
 Use indicator organism (Cladophora detect P, sludge worms, Chironomus for acute
toxicity)

c) Physiological & Biochemical Method

 Respiration and growth of an organism suspended in water
 To check the quantity of biodegradable organic & the tendency for eutrophication
 Oxygen production & consumption, stimulation & inhibition
 To measure oxygen production potential

d) Bioassays
Test toxic effects under controlled conditions (白老鼠)
 CHAPTER 2: WATER POLLUTION
15) LAKE POLLUTION & EUTROPHICATION
 Lakes: high retention time, little flushing  high risk of eutrophication
 Eutrophication  process of anaerobic decomposition caused by an algal bloom
 Algal bloom  accumulation of nitrates and phosphates in water

16) STAGE OF EUTROPHICATION

a) Oligotrophic
 Low nutrient & productivity with high clarity, deep lake

b) Mesotrophic
 Moderate nutrients & productivity (planktonic) with sufficient clarity
 Some sediment accumulates over most of the lake bottom

c) Eutrophic
 High nutrients & productivity with low clarity
 Much sediment accumulates on the bottom
 Rooted plants are abundant along the shore and out into the lake

d) Senescent
 Swamp

17) NUTRIENTS CONTRIBUTE TO ALGAL GROWTH

 Carbon: obtain carbon from CO2 dissolved in water or from the atmosphere
 Nitrogen: it forms nitrate & comes from an external source
 Phosphorus: originates from an external source & is taken up by algae in organic form

18) WETLAND
 Transition between terrestrial & aquatic environments
 Permanently or seasonally inundated (flooded with water)
 Supported by hydrophytic vegetation
 Soil is waterlogged (no air void) for a sufficient time to become anaerobic
 CHAPTER 2: WATER POLLUTION
19) NATURAL FUNCTION OF WETLAND
a) Biodiversity Reservoir
 Provide a home for many species
 Maintains genetic diversity\

b) Habitat for Wildlife

 Offers food, shelter & breeding ground
 Support both terrestrial & aquatic organisms

c) Climate regulation
 Vegetation absorbs CO2, helping reduce greenhouse gases
 Forests, wetlands & mangrove moderate local temperature & influence rainfall pattern

d) Hydrological Functions
 Storm & flood protection: natural areas absorb and slow down excess rainwater
 Coastal erosion reduction: roots of plants stabilize shorelines
 Soil erosion control: vegetation binds soil, preventing it from being washed away

e) Water Quality Improvement

 Sediment filtration: plants and soil trap sediments, keeping the water clearer
 Nutrient stripping: remove excess nitrogen and phosphorus from water
 Heavy metal removal: soil and plants can absorb or immobilize toxic metals
 Biodegradation: microorganisms break down organic pollutants

20) TREATMENT PROCESS

a) Biodegradable Organic Matter Remover
 provide a support medium for microbial degradation
 convey oxygen for aerobic degradation

b) Solids Removal
 Settled solids removed via gravity sedimentation (wetland has long hydraulic retention)
 Filtering of solids by plant stems
 CHAPTER 2: WATER POLLUTION
21) CONSTRUCTED WETLAND
a) Free Water Surface (FWS)
 Divided into several compartments parallel at low permeability nature of soil
 Allow different amount of O2 to be present in water that work to optimize the treatment
 Inlet pump in horizontal flow into wetland treatment area & discharge to receiving water
 Large variety of physical & biological process contribute to removal of nutreints,
pathogen s & metals

b) Subsurface Flow System (SFS)

 Horizontal & vertical flow constructed wetlands
 Move effluent through a gravel (limestone, volcanic rock lay stone, snad medium) plant
rooted at
 Inlet distribution move either horziontally or vertically
 CHAPTER 2: WATER POLLUTION
22) TREATMENT PROCESS IN WETLAND
a) Nitrogen Removal
 Nitrification & denitrification
 Uptake by plant

b) Phosphorus Removal
 Uptake by plant
 Microbial degradation
 Adsorption & precipitation onto soil

c) Heavy Metal Remover

 Uptake into roots, rhizomes & leaves of wetland vegetation
 CHAPTER 3: AIR POLLUTION
1. DEFINITION
 The presence of 1 or more contaminants in the atmosphere
 Such as gases, particulates, and biological molecules in concentration & duration
 Harmful to human health, living organisms, property or interfere environmental quality

2. IMPORTANCE OF AIR
 Support life  oxygen for the respiration of living organisms
 Maintain environmental balance  regulate earth temperature (hydrological cycle)
 Dilution & dispersion of pollutants  disperse air pollutants, reduce concentration

3. TYPES OF AIR POLLUTANT PROBLEMS

a) Type 1 (Indoor, Local & Urban)
 Isolated factories
 Power plants
 Waste disposal sites

b) Type 2 (Regional, Continental)

 Transport of sulfur & nitrogen oxides
 Regional transport of ozone
 Transport of particulates from forest fires & slash burning

c) Type 3 (Hemispheric, Global)

 Climate change
 Global Warming
 Ozone depletion

4. SOURCE OF AIR POLLUTANTS

a) Urban & Industrial
 Industrial facilities  manufacture products from raw materials
 Transportation  Emissions per unit area, traffic density, speed
 Waste disposal  landfills, sewage treatment plants, incineration facilities
 Construction activities  land clearing, demolition, digging, paving

b) Agricultural & Rural

 Slah burning  burning of forest, straw, wild grass
 Soil emissions  fertilizers containing nitrates & phosphate
 Pesticides  spraying by aircraft may transport to residential areas
 Decaying wastes  Release ammonia, methane & noxious vapors

c) Natural
 Wind erosion  SiO2, heavy metals
 Forest fires  smoke, HC, CO, CO2 & NOx
 Volcanic eruptions  CO2, SO2 & PM
 Biogenic emissions  HC (isoprene), CH4, NH3
 CHAPTER 3: AIR POLLUTION
5. CLASSIFICATION OF AIR POLLUTION
a) Primary
 Enter directly into the atmosphere from natural events or human activities
 Doesn’t undergo any chemical or physical transformation
 CO, CO2, SO2, NO, hydrocarbons

b) Secondary
 Formed in the atmosphere through chemical reaction & solar reaction
 NO2, SO3, HNO3, H2SO4, H2O2, PAN

6. TYPE OF AIR POLLUTANTS

 Gaseous
 Particulate
 Hazardous Air Pollutants (HAPs)

7. GASEOUS
a) Sulfur
 Primary  SO2 (colourless, corrosive), HS (from volcanoes, anaerobic decay)
 Secondary  SO3, H2SO4
 Sources  burning fuels containing sulfur (vehicle, power plant), sulfide ores
 Effects  acid rain, hampers the growth of plants & causes respiratory problems

b) Nitrogen
 Primary  NO, NH3
 Secondary  NO2, NH4+
 Sources  motor vehicles, power plant, open burning
 Effects  acid rain, global warming, hampers plants’ growth

c) Carbon
 Inorganic  CO & CO2
 Organic  primary (methane, isoprene), secondary (organic nitrate, peroxide)
 Source inorganic  vehicle, power plant, industry, methane oxidation
 Source organic  landfill, solvent evaporation, industry, refineries
 CO2 ( primary greenhouse gases), CO (reduce capacity of blood to carry O2)
 CH4 (greenhouse gases, react with NOx & UV to form ozone
 Ozone (smog)  irritate eyes, damage lungs & cause respiratory problems\
 Aromatic (carcinogenic, reproductive problems)

d) Ozone
 Found in troposphere & stratosphere
 Secondary pollutant  not emitted directly to atmophere
 Complex photochemical reaction involves NOx, VOCs & require UV energy
 Effects  elevated levels above may cause lung & respiratory disorders
 Short term exposure  shortness of breath, coughing, chest tightness or irritattion of nose
 CHAPTER 3: AIR POLLUTION
8. PARTICULATE MATTER (PM)
 Complex & varying mixture of different compounds (size, composition) that are
suspended in the air

a) Harmful to human health

 Exposure to PM caused adverse health effects
 Respiratory illness, bronchitis, or even death
 acute & chronic exposures  increasing of hospital admissions & mortality

b) Classification
 PM 10  diameter less than 10 micrometres (penetrate upper respiratory tract)
 PM 2.5  diameter less than 2.5 micrometres (penetrate deep into lungs & bloodstream)

c) Main source
 Coarse particle  produced by mechanical process (road dust, construction, mining)
 Fine particle  from combustion sources (vehicle exhaust, power plant, industry)

9. OUTDOOR AIR POLLUTION

 Source  smog
 Caused by chemical reactions from automobile exhaust & industrial emissions

10. INDOOR AIR POLLUTION

 Sources  tobacco smoke, cooking, heating appliances, cleaning products, paint

11. FACTORS AFFECTING AIR POLLUTION LEVEL

 Wind
 Atmospheric stability
 Topography

12. WIND
 Air in natural motion (move horizontally at any velocity along earth’s surface)
 Moves based on differences in pressure in the atmosphere
 Horizontal dispersion of air pollution depends on wind speed & direction
 Wind speed high  low concentration of pollutants
 Building in the city can block wind flow & aggravate air pollution problems
 CHAPTER 3: AIR POLLUTION
13. ATMOSPHERIC STABILITY
 Stability  tendency of the atmosphere to resist & enhance vertical motion
 Depends on the relationship between air, temperature & altitude
 Affects the vertical movements of air
 Unstable atmosphere  air parcel rises upward, good dispersion
 Stable atmosphere  air parcel sinks downward, poor dispersion

a) Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate, Γ

 Without gain or loss of heat
 Air parcel rises = low pressure = low temperature
 Fixed rate & independent of surrounding air temperature

b) Ambient (actual) Lapse Rate, Γact

 Neutral  Γ = Γact (air parcel same temperature as surrounding, no rise or sink)
 Unstable/Superadiatic  Γact > Γ (warm & light, srong verical mixing, rise)
 Stable/Subadiabatic  Γact < Γ (cool & heavy, vertical motion suppressed. sink)

c) Temperature Inversion
 Special case of subadiabatic or stable atmospheric conditions
 When the air temperature actually increases with altitude instead of decreasing
 A layer of warm air exists over a layer of cold air
 Colder air near the ground is denser & trapped
 Vertical air mixing is suppressed & become very stable
 Pollutants accumulate close to the surface  high pollution concentration
 Smog episodes, increase respiratory problems, elevated PM & ozone concentrations

14. FORMATION & DECAY OF TEMPERATURE INVERSION

a) Evening (5.15 pm before sunset)
 Ground starts to lose heat
 Air near the surface cools rapidly
 Upper air remains relatively warm
 Inversion begins to form

b) Night Time (10 pm – 6 am)

 Ground continues cooling by radiation
 Cold air accumulates near the surface
 The inversion deepens & sharpens
 Strongest just after sunrise

c) After Sunrise (8.15 am)

 The sun heats the ground
 The lower air layer warms
 Inversion starts to break from the bottom upwards

d) Late Morning to Afternoon (3 pm)

 Inversion fully disappears
 Normal temperature profile returns
 Atmosphere becomes unstable & neutral
 CHAPTER 3: AIR POLLUTION
15. TYPE OF PLUME
 Emission of waste gases, fumes, and smokes to the atmosphere via a stack or chimney
 The plume is an area of concentrated waste emissions that slowly become dilute with
other atmospheric gases

a) Looping Plume (very unstable atmosphere)

 High degree of convective turbulence (large vertical oscillations)
 Super-adiabatic lapse rate (very unstable atmospheric condition)
 Associated with clear daytime conditions (strong solar heat & light winds)
 High concentrations are sporadically at ground level close to the stack

b) Coning Plume (neutral atmospheric)

 Stable small-scale turbulence
 Associated with overcast moderate to strong winds
 Pollutants travel fairly long distances before reaching ground level

c) Fanning Plume (very stable atmosphere)

 Occur under a large negative lapse rate
 Strong inversion at a considerable distance above the stack
 Little turbulence

d) Lofting Plume
 Favourable in the sense that fewer impacts at ground level
 Pollutants go up into the environment (little downward mixing)
 Unstable (above plume), Stable (below flume)

e) Fumigration Plume
 Contaminants accumulate close to ground level (most dangerous plume)
 Stable (above plume), Unstable (below plume)
 Happens after daylight sun has warmed the atmosphere, when nighttime fanning flume
into fumigation about half an hour
 CHAPTER 3: AIR POLLUTION
16. TOPOGRAPHY
 Physical features of the land surface (valleys, hills, mountains, basins)
 When combined with atmospheric stability, can cause aggravation of air pollutants

a) Valleys & Basins

 Cold air sink & accumulate in low-lying areas
 Temperature inversions frequently form
 Pollutants trap near ground level

b) Mountain Bariers
 Mountain block wind flow
 Reduce the horizontal dispersion of pollutants
 Concentrated pollution reaches the urban area

17. AIR POLLUTION CONTROL

a) Cyclone Separator
 Pros:
- Low capital cost
- Easy operate & maintain
- Only efficient for particles > 10 μm

 Cons:
- Not adequate to meet stringent air pollution regulations

b) Baghouse Filter
 Pros:
- Highly efficient even for particles < 5 μm
- Can operate for a wide variety of dust types
- Modular design & can be pre-assembled at the factory

 Cons:
- Require large floor areas
- Filter fabrics can be harmed by high temperatures or corrosive chemicals
- Cannot operate in a moist environment (causes clogging)
- Potential for fire & explosion
- High capital cost

c) Electrostatic Precipitator
 Pros:
- High efficiency even for small particles
- Can handle a large volume of gases
- Can be designed for a wide range of gas temperatures

 Cons:
- High capital cost
- Cannot control gaseous emissions
- Once the unit is installed, it is not flexible to change the operating conditions
- Require large floor areas
- Might not work with particulates with very high electrical resistivity
 CHAPTER 3: AIR POLLUTION
d) Wet Scrubber
 Pros:
- Can handle flammable & explosive dust with little risk
- Provide gas absorption & dust collection in a single unit
- Can handle mist or moist type pollutants
- Provide cooling of hot gases
- Acidic gases & dust can be neutralised

 Cons:
- High potential of corrosive problems
- High capital cost
- Effluent liquid can create water pollution problems

18. ACID DEPOSITION

 Emissions of SO & NO, when combined with sunlight & water vapour
 Produce mild H2SO4 & HNO3

a) Dry Acid Deposition

 Windborne ammonia gas & particles of cultivated soils partially neutralize acids
 Form dry sulphate & nitrate salt

b) Wet Acid Deposition

 Droplets of H2SO4 & HNO3 dissolved in rain & snow

c) Effects
 Aggravates respiratory illness
 Damage material/property (building, metal, car paint)
 Destroys aquatic life
 Damage & kills plants
 Release of toxic metal ions (mercury, cadmium, aluminium)
 Leaching of soil nutrients
 Nutrients & metal contamination of the surface & groundwater
 Kill essential soil microorganisms

19. PHTOCHEMICAL SMOG

 Directly related to automobile use & sunlight
 NO2 + UV  NO + O (inside engine)
 + O2  O3 / NO + O3  NO2 + O2 / HC + NO + O2  NO2 + PAN (atmosphere)

a) Effects
 Respiratory illness
 Throat, eyes, nose irritation
 Inhibit plant growth
 CHAPTER 3: AIR POLLUTION
20. HAZE
 Caused by the presence of a large number of particles suspended in the atmosphere
 Particles can be from nature or human activities

a) Occurs when:
 High level of pollutants
 Dry atmospheric conditions (allow particles to remain suspended longer)
 Stable atmospheric conditions (suppress vertical movement & prevent dispersion)
 Haze episodes are often transboundary
 Pollutants originate from a country & trnasported by wind to neighbour country
 Large-scale biomass burning, forest fire

b) Effects
 PM10 & PM 2.5 can penetrate deep into the lungs
 Exposure to particulate pollution
- Difficult breathing
- Aggravated asthma
- Respiratory problems
- Premature death
 Several compounds in haze affect the global environment & climate
 Transport activities are disrupted by haze (affecting road & route vision)
 Economic losses from travel disruption (fewer tourists)

21. OZONE
 Naturally occurring gas in the stratosphere
 Formed when sunlight (UV) strikes stratosphere, dissociating O2 molecules to atomic O
 The atomic O quiclkly combine with O2 molecules to form ozone

a) Effects
 Stratospheric ozone  protects life on earth from harmful UV radiation
 Tropospheric ozone  nausea, headaches, respiratory problems, damage to plants

b) Depletion of Stratospheric Ozone

 CFC, halons, methyl bromide, methyl chloroform, carbon tetrachloride
 CHAPTER 3: AIR POLLUTION
22. EFFECT OF UV RADIATION
 Skin cancer
 Eye cataracts (blurred vision & blindness)
 Severe sunburn
 Suppression of the human immune system
 Decrease yields in food crops
 Increase global warming

23. GREENHOUSE EFFECT

24. EFFECTS OF GLOBAL WARMING

a) Sea Level Rise
 Increase intensity & frequency of storm surges & coastal flooding
 Increase salinity of rivers, bays & coastal aquifers (saline intrusion)
 Increase coastal erosion
 Loss of mangroves & wetlands

b) Warmer Temperature
 Increase evaporation, more condensation & more energy potential for storms
 More storms will increase coastal erosion

c) Weather pattern changes

 Causing some regions to get drier & some wetter

d) Enhance Economic & Health Problems

 Warmer weather provide suitable breeding ground for insects to grow
 Ex. Malaria-carrying mosquitoes

e) Loss of Coral Reef

 Large areas of coral reef & organisms lives there may be permanently lost due to global
warming
 CHAPTER 3: AIR POLLUTION
25. REDUCE GLOBAL WARMING
 Stop deforestation
 Reduce current fossil fuel use
 Shifting to renewable energy (reduces CO2 emissions)
 Stop marine pollution that kills phytoplankton
 CHAPTER 4: WASTE MANAGEMENT
1. HOW TO REDUCE WASTE GENERATION
 3R  Reduce, Reuse, Recycle
 4R  Reduce, Reusem Recycle, Recover
 5R  Refuce, Reduce, Reuse, Repurpose, Recycle
 6R  Rethink, Reuse, Recycle, Repair, Reduce, Refuse
 7R  Resuse, Repurpose, Rot, Repair, Return, Refill, Refuse

2. REQUIREMENTS FOR RECYCLING

 Reliable supply of waste material
- Continuous & sufficient quantity of recyclable waste is required
- Ensure recycling plants can operate efficiently
- Inconsistent supply makes recycling uneconomical
 System to collect the material & transport them to a place to be re-processed
- Proper system to collect waste materials (kerbside, drop-off centres)
- Efficient transportation to move materials to recycling facilities
- Poor collection leads to contamination & material loss
 System & facilities to reprocess the materials into suitable raw materials & products
- Availability of recycling plants & technologies
- Waste must be processed into usable raw materials or new products
- Requires sorting, cleaning & treatment to meet quality standards
 Available markets for raw materials & products produced by the recycling process
- Demand for recycled raw materials & products
- Ensure recycled materials can be sold & used
- Without market demand, recycling is not sustainable
 CHAPTER 4: WASTE MANAGEMENT
3. GENERAL ISSUES AFFECTING RECYCLING
a) Contamination
 Household wastes are mixtures of potentially reclaimable & contaminated materials
 Residual contamination  can’t be removed during pre-treatment & processing operation
 Non-residual contaminant  can be removed by procesing but where removal
- Reduces the quality of reclaimed product
- Extends processing times
- Leads to the discharge of toxic fumes. Effluents or solid waste

b) Collection
 Bring systems  bring recyclables to collection points (bottle banks, paper skips)
- Pros: low collection cost, simple system
- Cons: require public participation, low recovery rates if participation is poor
 Collect systems  door-to-door & kerbside collection
- Pros: high participation rate, higher & better quality of recyclables
- Cons: high operational & labour costs
 Centralised System
- Waste delivered to the central facility
- Sorting & separation of recyclables carried out at Material Recovery Facilities (MRF)
- Pros: efficient large-scale processing, reduce need for household separation
- Cons: high capital cost, possible contamination of recyclables

c) Standards
 Raw materials must conform to specifications
(particle size, purity level, moisture content)
 Recycler certification schemes exist at regional or national levels
 Schemes:
- Verify proper cycling practices,
- Promote quality assurance
- Increase confidence in recycled products
 Lack of international standards for recycler certification
 Results:
- Variations in quality requirements between regions
- Barriers to the international trade of recycled materials

4. TECHNICAL ISSUES AFFECTING RECYCLING

a) Glass
 The amount of waste glass that manufacturers can use depends on:
- The desired colour of the product
- The colour mix of available waste glass
 Mixing colours reduces product quality, especially for clear glass, because:
- Coloured glass contains metal oxide
- Colour can’t be removed during melting
- Even small amounts of coloured glass contaminate clear glass
 Removal of contaminants is essential
- Ceramics, Stones, Metals, Heat-resistant glass
 Contaminants can:
- Cause defects in glass products
- Damage to furnaces during melting
 CHAPTER 4: WASTE MANAGEMENT
b) Paper
 Technical barrier  properly separated into grades specified by the industry
 Shrinkage of fibres during repeated recycling
 Reduced fibre strength after multiple recycling cycles
 Presence of heavy metals from inks, coating & additives
 Contamination lowers paper quality & limits reuse options

c) Metal
 Ferrous scrap is a cheap & valuable source of iron for steel production
 Scrap metal often contains contaminants
 Metallic contaminants  Zinc, Copper
 Non-metallic contaminants  paint, plastics, oils
 Galvanised steel produces zinc oxide during melting
 Require high cost to control emissions & treat the hazardous byproducts

d) Plastics (conventional)
 Relatively new activity
 Major technical challenges:
- Low packing density  increase transport & storage costs
- Need for sorting by polymer type (PET, HDPE, PVC)
 Health & safety concerns:
- Some additives can be toxic when heated (flame retardants, plasticisers)
- Potential risk to recycling workers
 Environmental concerns:
- Recycling processes may consume high energy
- Uncertainty whether recycling procedures are fully environmentally friendly

e) Plastics (bioplastic)
 Indistinguishable from conventional plastics
 Mixing bioplastics with normal plastic can:
- Damage recycling streams
- Reduce the quality of the recycled product
 Existing recycling systems are not designed to separate bioplastics efficiently
 Environmental & Economic Issues:
- Production requires crops  deforestation, competition with food supply
- Partly reliant on fossil fuels
- Higher production cost
 CHAPTER 4: WASTE MANAGEMENT
d) Compostables
 Cmposting  nature’s way of recycling
 Biological aerobic process involves bacteria, fungi
 Organic waste includes  food waste, leaves, paper, coffee grounds
 Compostable materials:
- Biodegradable  broke down into CO2, water & biomass
- Compostable  converted into humus
- Final product  nutrient-rich organic material & improves soil quality
 Benefits of composting:
- Reduce waste sent to landfills
- Prevent methane generation compared to landfilling food waste
- Reduce pesticide use
- Improve soil health & plant growth
- Reduce the need for chemical fertilizer
 Technical Issues:
- Limit use  lack of knowledge, poor public perception, presence of contaminants
- Operation issues  require large space & high temperature, difficult pile management

e) Textiles
 Recycling is very labour-intensive
 Requires manual sorting
 Results in high processing costs
 Quality of recycled textile fibres is often lower

f) Waste Oils
 Used as fuel after  removal of water, sludge & emulsions
 Oil laundering & refining for reuse
 Issues:
- Requires careful treatment to avoid environmental pollution & equipment damage
- Improper handling can cause soil contaminant & water pollution

5. INTEGRATED WASTE MANAGEMENT (IWM)

 Minimise all component waste fraction
 Recycle what is possible of paper, cardboard, glass, non-ferrous metal, and textile
 Reuse plastics, ferrous metals & glass
 Incinerate only the remaining plastics & food waste
 Landfill only the remaining waste
 CHAPTER 4: WASTE MANAGEMENT
6. OPEN DUMPING
 Disposal of waste in open & uncontrolled areas without proper environmental protection
 Require a large space
 Create  aesthetic nuisance, pest & vermin breeding, serious health hazards

a) Air Pollution:
 Decomposition of organic waste releases ammonia, methane, and hydrogen sulphide
 Cause  bad odour, respiratory problems & risk of fire & explosion (methane)

b) Water Pollution:
 Rainwater percolates through the soil & forms leachate
 Leachate contains organic pollutants, heavy metals, and toxic chemicals
 Groundwater pollution  leachate infiltrates soil to GW & making unsfae to drink
 Surface water pollution  surface runoff carries leachate to the river (harm aquatic life)

c) Soil Pollution:
 Heavy metals are retained in the soil  soil fertility is reduced
 Long-term land degradation occurs

d) Impacts On Plants:
 Plants absorb heavy metals from contaminated soil & leachate
 Heavy metals enter the food chain
 Poses health risks to humans & animals

e) Health Hazards:
 Breeding ground for flies, mosquitoes, and rodents
 Spread diseases
 Cause air, water & soil pollution are affecting nearby communities

X. EXTRA
OPEN DUMP SANITARY LANDFILLS
Waste is piled openly Engineered disposal facilities
No soil cover Concentrate & contain waste
No environmental protection Prevent nuisance & hazards to the public

Results: Key features:

- Odour - Waste is compacted
- Pest breeding - Waste is covered wit hsoil every day
- Air, water, soil pollution - Controlled operation & monitoring
- Serious health hazards
 CHAPTER 4: WASTE MANAGEMENT
8. SALINARY LANDFILL
 Confining waste to the smallest practical area
 Reducing it to the smallest practical volume by compacting
 Covering the waste with compacted soil daily

a) Landfill Leachate
 Liquid formed when:
 Water percolates through the waste
 Dissolves soluble components of waste
 Contains products of waste degradation

b) Factor Affecting Leachate Generation

 Water availability (rainfall, infiltration)
 Landfill surface conditions
 Solid waste conditions (age, composition, compaction)

c) Characteristics of Leachate
 Fresh waste  Low pH (acidic), High COD/BOD, High organic content & volatile acids
 Aged water  High pH (near neutral), Low COD/BOD, High inorganic ions
 Leachate becomes less biodegradable but more mineralised with time

d) Site Criteria for Landfill

 Dry area  reduce water infiltrate  less leachate produced  prevent contamination
 Flat or low-relief topography  easy & cheap, reduces runoff velocity, min soil erosion
 Far from surface bodies  prevent leachate & contaminated runoff enter lake, river
 Underlain by low-permeability soil  slows down leachate movement (protect GW)
 Groundwater table far belwo surface  safe vertical seperation waste & GW

e) Advantages
 Cheaper than incineration
 Fewer environmental problems compared to open dumping (less pollution)
 Better aesthetic value
 Suitable for large volumes of waste

f) Disadvantages
 More expensive than open dumping
 Require large amount of soil for daily cover
 Require long post-closure care  minimum 30 years monitoring
 After closure  land use is limited, suitable only for low-value uses (parks, golf courses)
 CHAPTER 4: WASTE MANAGEMENT
9. INCINERATION
 Thermal treatment process
 Solid waste is burned at high temperatures
 To reduce volume & mass & to recover energy

10. INCINERATION SYSTEM (PROCESS FLOW)

 Solid waste is collected
 Waste is shredded to reduce size  ensure uniform & efficient burning
 Waste is burned in a furnace at high temperature (> 800)
 Heat from combustion is used to produce steam
 Steam generates electricity or heat
 Wet scrubber  remove acidic gases & particulates
 Electrostatic precipitator  removes fine particles
 Exhaust gases treated in the smoke stack are released to the atmosphere
 Residue  bottom ash (landfill), fly ash (hazardous landfill), sludge (treated & disposed)

a) Advantages
 Large volume reduction  extends landfill lifespan
 Energy recovery  generate electric & heat
 Less land requirement  require small space & can be located near cities
 Environmental benefits  low methane emissions, avoid land contamination
 Economic location advantage  land value does not depreciate compared to landfill sites

b) Disadvantages
 High capital & operating cost
 Air pollution risk  dioxins, heavy metals, acidic gases
 Ash disposal problem  large amount of fly ash produced (highly toxic)
 Not suitable for high moisture waste  wet waste burns inefficiently
 Require high temperature  to destroy dioxin completely
 CHAPTER 5: EIA
1. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT (EIA)
 A study to identify, evaluate & communicate information
 Impact on the environment from a proposed project
 Detail out the mitigating measures prior to project approval & implementation

2. OBJECTIVE
 To examine & select the best from project options
 To identify & incorporate into the project plan, appropriate abatement & mitigating
measures
 To predict & determine significant residual environmental impact
 To identify the environmental costs & benefits of the project to the community

3. CONCEPT OF EIA
 Need for a project (social, economic, cultural)
 Project options (sites, design, etc)
 Environmental data collection (geology, soil, water, ecology, air quality
 Mitigating & abatement measures
 Public participation (community needs, social acceptability)
 Cost & benefits (implied value, monetary value)
 Monitoring environmental impacts (check to improve future planning)

4. TYPES OF EIA
Preliminary EIA (PEIA) Detaield EIA (DEIA)
No Terms of Reference (TOR) required Terms of Reference (TOR) require DOE &
between the consultant & DOE ad-hoc panel of experts' approval

No cost-benefit analysis required in the Cost-benefit analysis is required in the

report report

Report is reviewed by the EIA committee at Report is reviewed by the EIA committee &
the state DOE ad-hoc panel of experts at DOE HQ

Doesn’t require public display & public Require public display & public comment
comment
Example project:
1. Iron & steel industry
2. Cement plant
3. Land reclamation
4. Incineration plant
5. Construction of the dam

5. TYPICAL CONTENT OF EIA

 Project development  6W + 1H
 Description of the existing environment  physical, chemical, Biological, Human
 Identification & assessment of impacts  residue, environmental loss, cost-benefits
 Mitigation measures  prevention, abatement, control, mitigation of adverse impact
 Environmental monitoring program (EMP)  monitoring & auditing
 CHAPTER 5: EIA
6. FUNDAMENTAL METHOD
 System approach  study of nature, sort change caused by project, screening (yes/no)
 Preliminary site & project evaluation  review report, site visit, meet local people
 Scoping  geographic scope, time horizon, meeting, ranking priorities & alternatives
 Baseline data  in-situ, desk study, analysis, surveys, refer to other studies
 Prediction methods  extrapolation, interpolation, model
 Formatting  check-list, matrix, sequence diagram, mapping

7. ELEMENTS NEED TO BE CONSIDERED FOR MITIGATION

a) Biological Environment
 Conservation needs often relate to specific plant & animal species
 Many species depend on particular habitats for survival
 Development impacts:
- Cause habitat loss
- Fragmentation of ecosystems
 Migitation should:
- Protect important habitats
- Maintain ecosystem integrity
- Ensure long-term sustainability of biodiversity

b) Chemical Environment
 Development discharges often enter river systems
 Rivers are sensitive to changes in water quality
 Upstream areas are critical sources of water supply for downstream users
 Mitigation should:
- Protect beneficial uses of water (drinking, agriculture, ecosystems)
- Maintain the highest achievable water quality
- Prevent cumulative pollution impacts downstream

c) Socio-Economic Environment
 Land acquisition may cause the displacement of communities
 Key issues include  compensation & resettlement
 Mitigation must:
- Address cultural, social & economic needs
- Ensure fair treatment & livelihood restoration
- Minimize social disruption

d) Aesthetic Environment
 Important for highland areas, recreational & tourism development
 Mitigation should:
- Preserve visual quality & landscape character
- Meet expectations of local residents & visitors
- Enhance the attractiveness of the area
 CHAPTER 5: EIA
8. MITIGATION OF IMPACTS
a) Adequate Buffer Zone
 Create separation distances between development & sensitive areas
 Reduce impacts such as noise, pollution & habitat disturbance

b) Air Pollution Control & Wastewater Treatment

 Install air pollution control devices
 Provide comprehensive wastewater treatment systems
 Prevent contamination of air, rivers & groundwater

c) Separate Drainage Systems for Spillages

 Prevent accidental spills from mixing with stormwater
 Reduce risk of soil & water pollution

d) Proper Storage & Handling of Materials

 Adopt alternative process technologies
 Use environmentally friendly raw materials
 Reduce hazardous emissions & waste generation

e) Waste Minimisation
 Apply closed-loop processing systems
 Reduce waste generation at source

f) Recycling & Recovery of Waste

 Recover usable materials from waste streams
 Reduce disposal requirements & environmental impacts
 CHAPTER 5: EIA
9. EXAMPLES OF MITIGATION MEASURES IN EIA
a) Air Quality
 Water spraying on construction sites to suppress dust
 Covering trucks transporting soil, sand, or debris
 Regular maintenance of machinery to reduce exhaust emissions
 Use of low-emission equipment and fuels

b) Noise and Vibration

 Limiting construction activities to daytime hours
 Installing temporary noise barriers or acoustic enclosures
 Using low-noise machinery and proper equipment maintenance
 Scheduling noisy activities away from sensitive receptors (schools, hospitals)

c) Water Quality
 Proper site drainage to prevent sediment runoff into rivers
 Installation of silt traps and sedimentation ponds
 Treating wastewater before discharge
 Prohibiting disposal of oil, chemicals, or waste into water bodies

d) Soil and Land

 Minimising land clearing and earthworks
 Stabilising exposed soil surfaces (e.g. turfing, mulching)
 Proper storage of chemicals and fuel to prevent soil contamination
 Rehabilitation and re-vegetation after construction

e) Ecology and Biodiversity

 Avoiding construction in environmentally sensitive areas
 Preserving existing trees where possible
 Creating buffer zones around rivers and wetlands
 Replanting native vegetation after project completion

f) Solid and Scheduled Waste

 Segregation of recyclable and non-recyclable waste
 Proper collection and disposal at approved facilities
 Safe storage and handling of hazardous/scheduled waste
 Promoting reuse and recycling of construction materials

g) Traffic and Public Safety

 Preparing a traffic management plan
 Installing warning signs and barriers
 Scheduling material delivery during off-peak hours
 Providing safe access for pedestrians and nearby residents

h) Socio-Economic Environment
 Informing the public about project activities and schedules
 Providing employment opportunities to local communities
 Compensation for affected landowners if required
 Establishing a grievance redress mechanism
 CHAPTER 5: EIA
10. PROBLEMS IN IMPLEMENTING EIA
a) Delay in Development Process
 EIA is often carried out late in the project planning stage
 This cuases delay in project approval
 As a result, EIA is seen as:
- A barrier to development
- A time-consuming requirement rather than a planning tool

b) lack of Follow-Up & Monitoring

 After project approval:
- No post-audit
- No environmental monitoring during construction or operation
 Environmental concerns identified in the EIA:
- Ignored by the developer
- Forgotten once approval is granted

c) Beneficial Impacts Are Ignored

 EIAs tend to focus mainly on negative impacts
 Positive or beneficial impacts are often overlooked
 EIA should also:
- Identify opportunities
- Highlight the environmental & social benefits of the project

d) Bias in EIA Reports

 The tone & language of EIA reports may be biased
 Bias may come from:
- Developers (to gain approval)
- Authorities
- NGOs or environmental groups
 This can affect the objective & credibility of the EIA

e) Limited public participation

 Not all the interested & affected parties are involved
 Local communities may not be properly consulted
 EIA reports are sometimes:
- Not easily accessible
- Not made fully to the public
 This reduces transparency & trust