1. What is Metallography?
Metallography is a branch of materials science that deals with studying the structure and
composition of metals and alloys. This is done by examining specially prepared samples
both with the naked eye (macroscopic) and under a microscope (microscopic). Through
microstructural analysis, features like grain boundaries, different phases, and internal
defects can be observed, helping engineers understand how a material behaves under
mechanical stress or in corrosive conditions.
2. Describe 5 steps involved in specimen preparation
Steps in Specimen Preparation :
1) Sectioning:
A small piece is cut from the material using a cutting wheel or saw. Cooling is used
to prevent overheating and damage.
2) Mounting:
The sample is placed in a resin (like Bakelite) to make it easier to handle and give it
a proper shape for testing.
3) Grinding:
The surface is smoothed using abrasive papers of increasing fineness to remove
roughness and scratches.
4) Polishing:
The sample is polished using fine paste to get a shiny, mirror-like surface.
5) Etching:
A chemical solution (like Nital) is applied to make the internal structure, such as
grain boundaries, clearly visible under a microscope.
3. Explain TEM - Theory, Steps, Figure
Theory: The Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) operates by passing a beam of
high-energy electrons through an ultra-thin sample (<100 nm). The internal structure scatters
or diffracts the electrons, forming an image with atomic-scale resolution. It reveals internal
defects like dislocations.
Steps:
Prepare a thin foil specimen.
Establish a high vacuum.
Focus electron beam using electromagnetic condenser lenses.
Capture the transmitted signal on a fluorescent screen.
[Link] SEM - Theory, Steps, Figure
Theory: The Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) scans a primary electron beam over a
surface. It detects secondary electrons emitted from the surface to create high-resolution,
3D-like images of the surface topography.
Steps:
Coat samples with gold or carbon (if non-conductive).
Raster scans the beam via deflection coils.
Signal detection and image construction on a digital monitor.
5. Compare SEM and TEM
Comparison between SEM and TEM :
Working Principle:
SEM (Scanning Electron Microscope) scans the surface of a sample, while TEM
(Transmission Electron Microscope) passes electrons through the sample.
Information Obtained:
SEM gives surface details (shape and texture), whereas TEM shows internal
structure (crystal arrangement).
Resolution:
TEM has much higher resolution (can see atoms), while SEM has lower resolution
(nanoscale level).
Sample Preparation:
TEM needs very thin samples (complex preparation), but SEM can use bulk samples
(simpler preparation).
Image Appearance:
SEM images look 3D-like with good depth, while TEM images are flat (2D) but more
detailed.
6. Describe Brinell Hardness test
Brinell Hardness Test (Simple Explanation):
The Brinell hardness test is used to measure how hard a material is by pressing a hard ball
(steel or tungsten carbide, usually 10 mm diameter) into its surface using a known load.
After removing the load, the diameter of the indentation made on the surface is measured. A
larger indentation means the material is softer, while a smaller one means it is harder.
Formula:
BHN = 2P / [πD (D − √(D² − d²))]
where:
● P = applied load
● D = diameter of the ball
● d = diameter of indentation
This test is especially useful for materials that are not uniform, like cast iron.
7. Describe Rockwell Hardness test
The Rockwell test uses the depth of penetration method. It applies a minor load first to set a
reference, then a
major load. After releasing the major load, the change in depth is recorded. It is favored for
its speed and
direct-reading dial/screen, categorized into scales like HRC for hard steels and HRB for soft
alloys.
8. Describe Vickers Hardness test
The Vickers hardness test is a microhardness testing method that uses a diamond-shaped
pyramid indenter with an angle of 136° between opposite faces. It is suitable for testing all
types of materials, including very hard ones.
9. What are Composites?
Composites are materials made by combining two different parts:
Matrix – the main material (like plastic)
Reinforcement – added material (like fibers)
Types:
Particle-reinforced
Fiber-reinforced
Structural composites
Uses: Aircraft parts, sports equipment, concrete structures
10. What are Maraging Steels?
Maraging steels are very strong iron-nickel alloys with very low carbon.
Strength is obtained by heat treatment (aging process)
They have high strength and toughness
11. What are Super Alloys?
Super alloys are made from Nickel, Cobalt, or Iron.
They can withstand very high temperatures
Have high strength and corrosion resistance
Use: Jet engine turbines
12. Give the use of Titanium
Titanium is strong, light, and corrosion-resistant.
Uses:
Aircraft parts
Medical implants
Chemical industry pipes
13. Give a note on Ceramics
Ceramics are non-metallic and inorganic materials.
Very hard and heat resistant
But brittle (can break easily)
Uses:
Electrical insulators
Heat-resistant materials (refractories)
14. Discuss the effect of alloying elements in steels
Different elements are added to steel to improve properties:
Chromium → increases corrosion resistance
Nickel → increases toughness
Manganese → increases hardness
Tungsten → helps retain hardness at high temperature.