DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF POLYMER MELTING AND

PELETIZING MACHINE

BY

USIOSEFE EMWANTA VICTOR ENG1905567

UWANDI CHIBUIKEM GOODNESS ENG1905568

UCHE STEPHEN ENG1905565

DEPARTMENT OF MATERIALAS AND METALLURGICAL ENGINEERING

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

SUPERVISOR: ENGR, N.O IGBINOMWANHIA

FEBRUARY, 2025

i
 DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF POLYMER MELTING AND

PELETIZING MACHINE

BY

USIOSEFE EMWANTA VICTOR ENG1905567

UWANDI CHIBUIKEM GOODNESS ENG1905568

UCHE STEPHEN ENG1905565

SUPERVISOR: ENGR, N.O IGBINOMWANHIA

A PROJECT REPORT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF

MATERIALS AND METALLURGICAL ENGINEERING UNIVERSITY OF BENIN

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS

FOR THE AWARD OF BACHELORS OF ENGINEERING (BENG)

IN MATERIALS AND METALLURGICAL ENGINEERING

FEBRUARY, 2025

i
 CERTIFICATION

I hereby certify that this project work was carried out by USIOSEFE EMWANTA VICTOR,

UWANDI CHIBUIKEM GOODNESS, EHIDIAMENTOR UGBOGBO, UCHE STEPHEN,

MICHAEL OYAREKUA,…………………….in the Department of Materials and

Metallurgical Engineering, University of Benin, Benin City, Edo State, Nigeria.

----------------------------------- --------------------

ENGR, N.O IGBINOMWANHIA Date

PROJECT SUPERVISOR

------------------------------------ --------------------

ENGR. W.A. IROGUE Date

PROJECT COORDINATOR

-------------------------------------- --------------------

DR. (MRS.) U.G. UNUEROH Date

HEAD OF DEPARTMENT

ii
 DEDICATION

This project work is dedicated to Almighty God, our Lord and creator, to our loving parents,
our project supervisor, Engr, N.O Igbinomwanhia, and to all our lecturers in the department for
making the journey seems easy and for all their immeasurable support and contributions in our
lives.

iii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First and foremost, I offer my deepest gratitude to Almighty God for His unwavering guidance,
strength, and blessings throughout the duration of this project. Without His grace, this endeavor
would not have been possible.

I extend my sincere appreciation to my esteemed project supervisor, Engr, N.O

Igbinomwanhia for his invaluable guidance, expertise, and unwavering support. His insightful
feedback, constructive criticism, and patient mentorship were instrumental in shaping the
direction and success of this project. I am truly grateful for their dedication and commitment
to my academic growth.

My heartfelt thanks go to my beloved family, whose unconditional love, encouragement, and

sacrifices provided me with the motivation and resilience needed to overcome challenges. Their
unwavering belief in my abilities served as a constant source of inspiration.

Finally, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my friends, whose unwavering support,
understanding, and camaraderie made this journey more enjoyable and manageable. Their
encouragement and willingness to lend a helping hand were invaluable throughout the project.

This project is a testament to the collective support and guidance I have received, and I am
deeply grateful to everyone who contributed to its completion.

iv
 ABSTRACT

This project report presents the design, implementation, and performance evaluation of an
innovative plastic pelletizing machine engineered to address the escalating challenge of plastic
waste management. The core advancement of this machine lies in its hybrid preheating system,
which synergistically combines a high-efficiency gas burner for rapid initial temperature
elevation and a precision electric heater for sustained, uniform heat distribution.

This dual approach significantly enhances the machine's ability to process a wide spectrum of
waste plastics (PPT), optimizing melt homogeneity and minimizing thermal degradation. A
detailed analysis of the machine's key components, including the automated feeding hopper,
optimized extrusion barrel and screw design, multi-stage filtration system, precision pelletizing
unit, and efficient cooling mechanism, is provided. Emphasis is placed on the dual preheating
system's ability to achieve significant energy savings by leveraging the rapid heating
capabilities of the gas burner and the precise control of the electric heater.

The operational procedures, including material preparation, preheating, extrusion, pelletizing,

and cooling, are outlined, along with critical safety considerations and maintenance protocols.
The project concludes with a comprehensive assessment of the machine's potential applications
in plastic recycling facilities and manufacturing industries, highlighting its contribution to
sustainable plastic recycling practices through the production of high-quality, reusable pellets
and its role in fostering a circular economy.

v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CERTIFICATION ....................................................................................................................................i

DEDICATION ....................................................................................................................................... iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ......................................................................................................................iv

ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................................v

TABLE OF CONTENTS .......................................................................................................................vi

LIST OF TABLES ..................................................................................................................................ix

LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................................................x

CHAPTER ONE ......................................................................................................................................1

INTRODUCTION ...............................................................................................................................1

1.1 Background of Study .....................................................................................................................1

1.2 Statement of the problem ...............................................................................................................2

1.3 Aim and Objectives .......................................................................................................................2

1.3.2 Objectives ...................................................................................................................................3

1.4 Significance of study .....................................................................................................................3

1.5 Methodology ..................................................................................................................................3

1.6 Scope of study................................................................................................................................4

CHAPTER TWO .....................................................................................................................................5

LITERATURE REVIEW ....................................................................................................................5

2.2 Rubber types ..................................................................................................................................6

2.2.2 Synthetic Rubber ........................................................................................................................7

2.3 Plastic .............................................................................................................................................7

2.3.1 Types and Properties.................................................................................................................10

2.3.2 Applications of Plastics ............................................................................................................12

2.3.3 Sustainable Alternatives and Solutions ....................................................................................13

2.3.4 Polymer plastic recycling .........................................................................................................14

2.3.5 Collection of waste plastic material ..........................................................................................14

2.4.2 Sorting of plastic into categories. .............................................................................................16

vi
 2.3.3 Washing to remove impurities. .................................................................................................16

2.3.5 Shredding and grinding.............................................................................................................16

2.3.6 Compounding. ..........................................................................................................................17

2.3.7 Review of related Literatures....................................................................................................17

2.4.2 Comparison of Different Pelletizing Technologies ..............................................................20

2.4.3 Identified Challenges in Existing Systems ...........................................................................21

CHAPTER THREE ...............................................................................................................................24

MATERIALS AND METHODS ......................................................................................................24

3.1 Conceptual Designs .....................................................................................................................24

3.1.1 Concept 1. The Archimedes screw auger .................................................................................24

3.1.2 Concept 2. Piston powered extruder .........................................................................................24

3.2 Selection of concept using a decision matrix. .............................................................................25

3.2.3 Detailed design .........................................................................................................................26

3.2.4 Design considerations ...............................................................................................................31

3.3 Cylindrical Hopper and Barrel design .........................................................................................31

3.3.1 Hoop Stress ...............................................................................................................................32

3.3.2 Hoper material selection and design .........................................................................................33

3.3.3 Belt design and selection ..........................................................................................................33

3.3.4 Analysis of the Shaft design .....................................................................................................35

3.3.5 Torsional rigidity of the screw shaft .........................................................................................37

3.3.6 Bearing selection ......................................................................................................................37

3.3.7 Dynamic equivalent load for rolling contact bearings (DEL) ..................................................38

3.3.8 Dynamic load rating for rolling contact bearings under variable loads DLR ...........................38

3.3.9 Material and Energy Balance....................................................................................................39

3.4 Extruder Efficiency ......................................................................................................................40

3.5 Source of heat ..............................................................................................................................42

3.6 Dual Preheating System Analysis:...............................................................................................43

3.7 Bill of Engineering materials and evaluation (BEME)................................................................45

vii
CHAPTER FOUR .................................................................................................................................47

TEST, RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ............................................................................................47

4.0 Test Procedure .............................................................................................................................47

4.1 Result ...........................................................................................................................................47

4.2 Discussion of Results ...................................................................................................................47

CHAPTER FIVE ...................................................................................................................................51

RECOMMENDATION AND CONCLUSION ................................................................................51

5.1 CONCLUSION............................................................................................................................51

5.2 RECOMMENDATION ...............................................................................................................52

REFERENCES ......................................................................................................................................53

viii
LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.2.1 Decision Matrix table for plastic extruder concept 26

Table 3.3 Design specification of polymer melting and extruding machine 45

Table 3.4 Bill of Engineering Materials and Evaluation 46

Table 4.1 Test results for the operated polymer pellets production machine 48

ix
LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1 Waste polymer bottles 1

Figure 2.1 Rubber tree and the latex 5

Figure 2.3 Collected waste plastic 15

Figure 2.5 Okiy et al, plastic pelletizing machine 17

Figure 2.4 Shreded plastic 18

Figure 2.6 Ugoamadi and Ihesiulor (2011) plastic pelletizing machine 19

Figure 3.1 Concept 1 Archimedes screw extruder 25

Figure 3.2 Hydraulic powered plastic extruder 26

Figure 3.3 hopper 27

Figure 3.4 Melting chamber 27

Figure 3.5 screw shaft 28

Figure 3.6 Die 28

Figure 3.7 Electric motor 28

Figure 3.8 Gas Cylinder 29

Figure 3.9 Bearings 29

Figure 3.10 Control panel 30

Figure 3.11 hose 30

Figure 3.12 Gas Head 31

Figure 3.13 heating System 31

Figure 3.14 Circuit Breaker 32

Figure 3.16 Cross section of the barrel 33

x
Figure 3.15 Cylindrical coordinate 42

Figure 3.16 Gas burner 44

Figure 3.17 Polymer Pelletizing Machine 47

Figure 4.1 graph of load input against load output for dog feed 49

xi
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of Study
Raw materials as utilized in engineering and technology may be natural (originating from
natural source, renewable and abundant) or synthetic (originated by subsequent conversion).
(Alaba and Nicole, 2016). Raw material such as natural rubber gotten from latex from the
rubber tree has been used for a long time in the production polymer products such as chairs,
kitchen wares, automobile tires and accessories amongst others. Advances in recycling
technology has brought about the recycling of many household and industrial polymer products
putting less dependence on natural rubber plants which by the way have been greatly affected
by deforestation and other man made and environmental impacts

Polymer wastes from used polymer products such as water and beverage pet bottles,
automobile accessories, polymer bags etc. are raw materials for recycling into new products.
Rubber is used in over 40,000 consumer products, including more than 400 medical devices,
due to its unique properties, which include resilience, elasticity, abrasion- and impact-
resistance, efficient heat dispersion, and malleability at cold temperatures (Cornish, 2001).
However, polymer products have also contributed to environmental degradation owing to their
indiscriminate disposal in sewers and public places around many cities in the world especially
in a place like Nigeria where it is common thing to see polymer wastes in various places as
shown in Figure 2.1.

Figure 1.1 Waste polymer bottles

1
It is estimated that as of 2015, approximately 6300 Mt of plastic waste was generated, around
9% of which has been recycled, 12% was incinerated, and 79% was accumulated in landfills
or the natural environment. If the trend continues, roughly 12,000 Mt of plastic waste will be
in landfills or in the natural environment by 2050. (Osifo, 2021). This will consequentially
affect human and environmental elements. Considering this, it has become pertinent to develop
viable methods recycling polymers. The present study is aimed at developing a thermal
polymer pelletizing machine that can be used to breakdown polymer waste through thermal
application into small materials that can be conveniently handled as raw materials for the
production of other finished products. Melting of polymers such as rubber and plastic involves
the application heat to the polymer material at a temperature reaching or above its melting
temperature to make it melt into liquid which can then be poured and extruded through a die to
make pellets. The pellets made from such process are in themselves raw materials for further
processing into useful and economically significant polymer products like polythene bags,
polymer shoes, automobile accessories, domestic and industrial facilities and equipment.
1.2 Statement of the problem
The utilization of polymer is a huge investment around the world considering the huge wastes
generated form polymer which can be reprocessed (recycled) into new products. Modern day
recycling process has bought about the ability to recycle vast amount of waste polymer
products such as plastic pet bottle. This had positive impact in reducing huge polymer wastes
especially in the advanced world but same cannot be said of Nigeria where plastic materials
have continued to generate huge amount of wastes in communities. This has made it pertinent
through research and development to explore small scale recycling facilities for the conversion
of plastics wastes into useful economic products. This conversion can be done through the use
of small-scale plastic melting and pelletizing machine that can covert waste plastics to pellets
which can be used as raw materials for further processing into new polymer products.

1.3 Aim and Objectives

2
1.3.1 Aim
The aim of this project is to design and fabricate a small scale plastic recycling machine that
can be used for the melting and pelletizing of plastic waste in the Department of Materials and
Metallurgical engineering, University of Benin, Benin city.
1.3.2 Objectives
The objectives of this project are;

i. To carry out conceptual designs of plastic melting and pelletizing machine.

ii. To fabricate a plastic melting and pelletizing machine prototype.
iii. To test and carry out performance evaluation of the machine.

1.4 Significance of study

There is abundance of plastic wastes in in Nigeria which can be a huge financial investment
for would be recyclers of polymer wastes in to economic products. Recent government policies
have resulted in the barn in importation of foreign goods, hence the need for the development
and dependence on our locally available raw materials and goods is pertinent using locally
available technology such as is the development of recycling machineries. The Nigeria using
local content initiative needs a boost through the exploration of home grown natural resources
and technical knowhow. This will be greatly enhanced through local production of machineries
such plastic melting and pelletizing machine. The present work will explore and highlight
areas of dire need of improvement in plastic recycling in Nigeria taking department of materials
and metallurgical engineering as a case study to enhance the production of economically viable
raw materials and polymer products through thermal decomposition and pelletizing.

1.5 Methodology
The method adopted to achieve the aim and objectives of this research are as follows.

i. Design of experiment.

ii. Conceptual design.

iii. Detail design

iv. Fabrication of prototype.

v. Testing and evaluation of prototype.

3
1.6 Scope of study
The scope of the present work is limited to the selection of plastic wastes that can be easily
melted and pelletized to meet small scale plastic recycling. Though there are various types of
polymers, the present project will be focussed on the recycling of plastic wastes found around
in the Nigeria environment and which can be easily melted and pelletized as raw materials or
converted into other economically viable finished products.

4
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Theoretical Concept of Polymer

The history of natural rubber production in Nigeria began in 1894 with the exploitation of
Funtumia elastic, indigenous wild rubber (Owen, (2013), The wild trees that yielded rubber
were, however, ruined by poor tapping systems, and the export of wild rubber dropped sharply.
In search for sources of natural rubber to supply the demand of a rapidly expanding automobile
industry, Heavea brasiliensis (Muell Arg.) was found to be the best source of the plant because
of its singular ability to renew its bark and thus ensure a sustained harvest.
The annual worldwide polymer production from natural rubber production is estimated to be
close to 8,800,000 tons virtually all of which are from one biological source, the Brazilian
rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis) which produces latex. Malaysia, Indonesia, and Thailand
together produce nearly 80% of the world supply of natural rubber. (Jan, 2006). The yield of
rubber varies from 500 kg ha-1 y-1 in smallholder plots to more than 1500 kg ha-1 y-1 in large
plantations (Balsiger et al., 2000). Figure 2.1 shows a graphical view of natural rubber tree and
the rubber latex.

Figure 2.1 Rubber tree and the latex

5
Rubber was introduced into Nigeria from Kew Gardens, England around 1895 with the first
rubber estate planted at Sapele in 1903 and a second one at Nkisi in the then eastern region in
1912. By 1925, some 1,000 hectares of European owned estates existed in Southwestern
Nigeria (Uraih, 1980). Rubber is grown in Edo, Delta, Ondo, Ogun, Abia, Anambra, Akwa
Ibom, Cross River, Rivers, Ebonyi, and Bayelsa States where the amount of rainfall is between
1,800 mm and 2,000 mm per annum (Aigbekaen, Imarhiagbe, & Omokhafe, 2000).. In 1909,
a team headed by Fritz Hofmann, working at the Bayer laboratory in Elberfeld, Germany,
succeeded in polymerizing isoprene, making the first synthetic rubber. (Desmond et al, 2011).
Rubber is used in over 40,000 consumer products, including more than 400 medical devices,
due to its unique properties, which include resilience, elasticity, abrasion- and impact-
resistance, efficient heat dispersion, and malleability at cold temperatures (Cornish, 2001).
Many decades of industrial research have not produced synthetic rubbers with similar qualities.
While the amount of synthetic rubber produced has reached a plateau, natural rubber
production is steadily increasing.
In a few years from now, natural rubber production could in fact exceed the synthetic rubber
market share, which is currently put at 60%. Another issue is that synthetic rubbers are derived
from petroleum, a non-renewable resource. A decline in global oil production may begin within
the next 10 to 20 years (Hirsch et al., 2006), leading to sharply increasing prices of synthetic
rubbers. With respect to all these, there is the need to produce useful domestic and commercial
products from natural rubber for the creation of wealth and satisfaction of human wants using
viable, cheap and local methods of processing and conversion.
2.2 Rubber types
Variety of the rubber existent and in common use today is categorized under two main umbrella
groups which are natural and synthetic rubber. Natural rubber comes from the rubber tree
(Hevea brasiliensis). At maturity level of the rubber tree within the ages of 6 or 7 years, the
latex is collected from a diagonal incision in the tree trunk.
2.2.1 Natural Rubber
Natural Rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) can only be grown in areas with similar conditions to the
Amazon rain forests, which effectively restricts production to regions 15 to 20 degrees’ latitude
north or south of the equator. It takes 5 to 8 years for a rubber tree to mature to the girth at
which it can be tapped, and its economic life will then be 20 to 30 years. At the end of its life
rubber wood provides a valuable end product as a medium density tropical hardwood. The

6
rubber is extracted in the form of latex, a white, milky fluid that is held in cells found in the
inner layers of the bark of the trees, using a method known as ‘tapping’, which involves paring
away a thin slice of bark without damaging the growing layer in a series of half-spiral cuts,
usually on alternate days, using a special knife. The latex then oozes from the cut and flows
into a collecting cup for a period of several hours or more until it begins to coagulate and the
flow ceases.
After collection the latex, which at this point is about 70% water, may be taken to a processing
plant, where it may be sieved to remove extraneous matter, blended, coagulated, rolled into
sheets, and then dried in ‘smokehouses’ to produce ‘ribbed smoked sheets’ (RSS).
2.2.2 Synthetic Rubber
There are over 200 types of synthetic rubber, each having its own constituents and qualities.
However, all involve the polymerization process, which is the bringing together chemically of
monomers to form a polymer. Physically, polymerization converts the monomer, usually a
liquid or a gas, into a rubber, plastic or fiber, depending on the chemical nature of the monomer.
For simplicity, the production of styrene butadiene rubber (SBR), which is the major general
purpose synthetic rubber accounting for around 37% of world solid synthetic rubber capacity,
is illustrated. SBR is made from two monomers – styrene, a liquid, and butadiene, a gas. The
majority of monomers are derived from oil. Styrene is generally made from ethyl benzene.
Although ethyl benzene can be extracted from petroleum ‘streams’ it can also be synthesized
from ethylene and benzene.
Butadiene can be obtained in many ways from the refinery streams. These streams may be
either naturally occurring refinery gases or gases obtained by ‘cracking’, i.e. breaking up larger
molecules by heat, usually in the presence of a catalyst. The polymerization of styrene and
butadiene is also conducted in the presence of a catalyst. Polymerization can be carried out by
the traditional method, which is dispersion of monomers in water as an emulsion, or in solution
in an organic solvent. Any monomers that are not converted into the polymer are recovered,
whilst the polymer in a latex form is coagulated into crumb, screened, washed, and filtered.
The crumb is dried in a hot air drier, after which the dry rubber is baled and wrapped into
polythene bags for dispatch.

2.3 Plastic

7
Plastic, a term derived from the Greek "plastikos," meaning capable of being shaped or molded,
encompasses a vast array of synthetic or semi-synthetic materials built upon polymers
(Threadingham et al., 2011). These polymers, large molecules formed by repeating structural
units (monomers), are the foundation of plastic's characteristic pliability and moldability.

Polymer chemistry dictates the properties of different plastics, with variations in monomer
types, chain lengths, and arrangements yielding diverse materials with varying strength,
flexibility, and thermal resistance (Crawford, 1998). Broadly, plastics are categorized as
thermoplastics, which can be repeatedly melted and remolded, and thermosets, which undergo
irreversible chemical changes during curing. The history of plastic begins with the utilization
of natural polymers like rubber and shellac (Cornish, 2001). However, the first semi-synthetic
plastic, Parkesine, was created by Alexander Parkes in 1862, followed by John Wesley Hyatt's
celluloid in 1870. Leo Baekeland's invention of Bakelite in 1907 marked the birth of truly
synthetic plastics, revolutionizing industries with its electrical insulating and durable properties
(Desmond et al., 2011). The 20th century witnessed an explosion in plastic development,
including PVC, polystyrene, polyethylene, nylon, and Teflon, each finding diverse applications
(Ugoamadi and Ihesiulor, 2011).

World War II significantly accelerated plastic production, replacing scarce natural resources
and providing essential materials for military use (Osifo, 2021). The post-war era saw the
widespread integration of plastics into consumer culture, driven by mass production and
demand for inexpensive materials. However, the durability of plastics has led to a global waste
crisis, with plastic accumulating in landfills and oceans, posing threats to ecosystems.
Microplastics now permeate the environment, entering the food chain and raising concerns
about human health (Bruvoll, 2001). The reliance on fossil fuels for plastic production further
exacerbates resource depletion and greenhouse gas emissions (Hirsch et al., 2006).

While recycling offers a potential solution, the complexity of plastic compositions and
inadequate infrastructure present significant challenges (Okiy et al., 2018). The growing
concern over plastic pollution has spurred efforts to develop sustainable alternatives, such as
biodegradable and bio-based plastics, and to promote a circular economy focused on reuse and
recycling (Balsiger et al., 2000). Technological advancements, like chemical recycling, hold
promise for breaking down plastics into their constituent monomers (Spilka et al., 2008).

8
Furthermore, a global shift in consumer habits is being encouraged, with businesses and
governments implementing bans on single-use plastics (Cointreau-Levine and U.M. Program,
1994). Ultimately, addressing the environmental consequences of plastic pollution requires a
multifaceted approach, combining technological innovation, policy changes, and individual
responsibility.

The very essence of plastic lies in its etymology, derived from the Greek "plastikos," signifying
the ability to be molded (Threadingham et al., 2011). This inherent malleability stems from the
polymer-based composition of plastics, whether synthetic or semi-synthetic. Polymers, long
chains of repeating molecular units known as monomers, provide the structural foundation for
the diverse properties exhibited by various plastics. The science of polymer chemistry dictates
these properties, with variations in monomer types, chain lengths, and molecular arrangements
resulting in materials ranging from rigid to flexible, and from heat-resistant to easily meltable
(Crawford, 1998).

This diversity is further categorized into thermoplastics, which can be repeatedly melted and
reshaped, and thermosets, which undergo irreversible chemical changes upon curing, rendering
them incapable of remelting. The human relationship with plastic began with the utilization of
naturally occurring polymers found in materials like rubber and shellac (Cornish, 2001).
However, the true dawn of synthetic plastics emerged with Alexander Parkes's Parkesine in
1862, followed by John Wesley Hyatt's celluloid in 1870. The pivotal moment arrived with
Leo Baekeland's invention of Bakelite in 1907, the first fully synthetic plastic, which
revolutionized industries with its insulating and durable characteristics (Desmond et al., 2011).

The 20th century then witnessed an explosion in plastic development, yielding materials like
PVC, polystyrene, polyethylene, nylon, and Teflon, each finding specialized applications
across various sectors (Ugoamadi and Ihesiulor, 2011). World War II acted as a crucial catalyst,
accelerating plastic production to substitute scarce natural resources and provide essential
materials for military purposes (Osifo, 2021). The subsequent post-war era saw the pervasive
integration of plastics into consumer culture, driven by mass production and the demand for
affordable, versatile materials. However, the very durability that made plastics so desirable has
also resulted in a global waste crisis, with plastic accumulating in landfills and oceans, posing
severe threats to ecosystems and wildlife (Bruvoll, 2001).

9
The pervasive presence of tiny plastic particles, now permeates the environment, raising
concerns about their potential impact on human health through the food chain. Furthermore,
the reliance on fossil fuels for plastic production exacerbates resource depletion and contributes
to greenhouse gas emissions (Hirsch et al., 2006). While recycling offers a potential solution,
the complex composition of many plastics and the lack of robust recycling infrastructure pose
significant challenges (Okiy et al., 2018). The growing awareness of the environmental
consequences of plastic pollution has spurred efforts to develop sustainable alternatives, such
as biodegradable and bio-based plastics derived from renewable resources, and to promote a
circular economy focused on reuse and recycling (Balsiger et al., 2000).

Technological advancements, such as chemical recycling, which can break down plastics into
their constituent monomers, hold promise for creating a more sustainable future (Spilka et al.,
2008). Equally important is the shift in consumer habits, with businesses and governments
implementing bans on single-use plastics and promoting responsible consumption (Cointreau-
Levine and U.M. Program, 1994). Ultimately, addressing the multifaceted challenges posed by
plastic pollution requires a comprehensive approach that combines technological innovation,
policy changes, and individual responsibility to mitigate its environmental impact and create a
more sustainable future.

2.3.1 Types and Properties

Plastic is not a singular material but a vast family of polymers, each with unique properties
determined by its molecular structure. These properties dictate their suitability for specific
applications.

Thermoplastics: These plastics can be repeatedly melted and remolded, making them
recyclable.

• Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET or PETE):

Properties: Clear, strong, lightweight, good barrier properties.

Applications: Beverage bottles, food containers, synthetic fibers (polyester).

Pros: Widely recyclable, good strength-to-weight ratio.

Cons: Potential for leaching with repeated use, derived from fossil fuels.

• High-Density Polyethylene (HDPE):

10
Properties: Rigid, durable, chemical-resistant, high tensile strength.

Applications: Milk jugs, detergent bottles, pipes, toys.

Pros: Recyclable, resistant to chemicals, durable.

Cons: Derived from fossil fuels.

• Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC or Vinyl):

Properties: Versatile, can be rigid or flexible, durable, weather-resistant.

Applications: Pipes, window frames, flooring, cables, medical tubing.

Pros: Durable, versatile, low cost.

Cons: Contains chlorine, releases dioxins when burned, often contains phthalates (plasticizers).

• Low-Density Polyethylene (LDPE):

Properties: Flexible, soft, transparent, low melting point.

Applications: Plastic bags, cling wrap, squeeze bottles.

Pros: Flexible, low cost, easy to process.

Cons: Difficult to recycle due to thinness, derived from fossil fuels.

• Polypropylene (PP):

Properties: Strong, heat-resistant, chemical-resistant, fatigue-resistant.

Applications: Food containers, bottle caps, automotive parts, textiles.

Pros: Recyclable, durable, heat-resistant.

Cons: Derived from fossil fuels, can become brittle at low temperatures.

• Polystyrene (PS):

Properties: Rigid, brittle, lightweight, good insulation properties.

Applications: Disposable cups, plates, packaging foam (Styrofoam).

Pros: Low cost, good insulation.

Cons: Difficult to recycle, releases harmful chemicals when heated, brittle.

Thermosets: These plastics undergo irreversible chemical changes during curing, making them
non-recyclable.

11
 • Polyurethane (PU):

Properties: Versatile, can be rigid or flexible, good insulation properties.

Applications: Foam insulation, furniture cushions, automotive parts, coatings.

Pros: Versatile, good insulation.

Cons: Difficult to recycle, releases toxic fumes when burned.

• Epoxy Resins:

Properties: Strong, adhesive, chemical-resistant, durable.

Applications: Adhesives, coatings, composites, electronics.

Pros: Strong, durable, excellent adhesive properties.

Cons: difficult to recycle, and can contain harmful chemicals.

• Bakelite (Phenolic Resins):

Properties: Rigid, heat resistant, electrical insulating.

Applications: Electrical components, handles, knobs.

Pros: Heat resistant, good electrical insulator.

Cons: brittle, and difficult to recycle.

2.3.2 Applications of Plastics

The diverse properties of plastics have led to their widespread adoption in numerous industries:

1. Packaging: Food packaging, beverage bottles, films, and containers.

2. Construction: Pipes, windows, insulation, roofing materials.

3. Automotive: Interior and exterior components, dashboards, bumpers.

4. Electronics: Computer housings, circuit boards, cables.

5. Medical: Syringes, tubing, implants, prosthetics.

6. Consumer Goods: Toys, furniture, appliances, clothing.

7. Agriculture: Mulch films, irrigation pipes, greenhouse covers.

The Environmental Impact of Plastics

12
The very properties that make plastics so useful also contribute to their environmental
problems:

Plastic Waste Accumulation: The durability of plastics means they persist in the environment
for centuries, leading to the accumulation of plastic waste in landfills, oceans, and other
ecosystems.

Marine Pollution: Plastic debris in oceans poses a severe threat to marine life through
entanglement, ingestion, and habitat destruction. Microplastics, tiny plastic particles, are now
pervasive in marine ecosystems, entering the food chain and potentially impacting human
health.

Land Pollution: Plastic waste contaminates soil, affecting plant growth and potentially leaching
harmful chemicals into groundwater.

Air Pollution: Incineration of plastic waste releases toxic fumes, including dioxins, furans, and
heavy metals, contributing to air pollution and health problems.

Resource Depletion: Most plastics are derived from fossil fuels, contributing to the depletion
of non-renewable resources and greenhouse gas emissions.

Microplastics: The breakdown of plastics into microplastics has caused contamination in

almost every environment on earth, and has been found within the human body.

2.3.3 Sustainable Alternatives and Solutions

Addressing the plastic crisis requires a multi-pronged approach:

Reduce: Minimizing plastic consumption, particularly single-use plastics, through behavioral

changes and policy interventions.

Reuse: Encouraging the reuse of plastic containers and products to extend their lifespan.

Recycle: Improving recycling infrastructure and technologies to increase recycling rates and
reduce plastic waste.

Replace: Developing and promoting sustainable alternatives to traditional plastics:

Bioplastics: Plastics derived from renewable resources, such as cornstarch, sugarcane, and
cellulose.

Polylactic Acid (PLA): Biodegradable plastic derived from cornstarch or sugarcane.

Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs): Biodegradable plastics produced by microorganisms.

Paper and Cardboard: Biodegradable and recyclable packaging materials.

Glass and Metal: Durable and recyclable materials for containers and packaging.

13
Compostable Materials: Materials that break down into nutrient-rich compost under specific
conditions.

Redesign: Implementing circular economy principles to design products for reuse, repair, and
recycling.

Innovation: Investing in research and development of new sustainable materials and

technologies.

Policy and Regulation: Implementing policies to reduce plastic production and consumption,
promote recycling, and hold producers accountable.

Education and Awareness: Raising public awareness about the environmental impact of
plastics and promoting sustainable consumption habits.

Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR): Making producers responsible for the end-of-life
management of their plastic products.

Chemical Recycling: Technologies that break down plastic waste into its constituent

2.3.4 Polymer plastic recycling

Nigeria generates some 32 million tonnes of waste per year, of which 2.5 million tonnes is
plastic. The country’s disposal, recycling and waste management system is very inefficient,
with 70 per cent of plastic and non-plastic waste ending up in landfills, sewers, beaches and
water bodies.

Nigeria, which is the biggest oil exporting country in Africa, relies mainly on the proceeds of
the oil trade for its GDP and based strategy in growing her economy (Iwapele, 2015). However,
with the declination of oil prices and increase in plastic wastes, the world is tending towards
energy and sustainable development. Therefore, an urgent need for recycling plastic wastes
into a solution for wealth creation is fundamental in Nigeria. The recycling process of plastics
entails various process stages which include the followings;

2.3.5 Collection of waste plastic material

14
This involves collection of plastics from wastes bins, eateries, restaurants etc. This process
involves gathering waste plastic products (material) in a secluded place or enclosure such as
waste bins or bags as shown in Figure 2.3.

Figure 2.2 Collected waste plastic

At this stage of the recycling process, employees or volunteers go around collecting waste
plastic products from homes, offices and public places. Certain areas have collection sites
where people can dispose of their plastics. Some recyclers put recycling bin around public
locations, residential areas, and industrial zones to ease collection. People can dump their
plastic waste into these bins. These bins are separate from regular refuse bins.

The recycle bins get collected and transferred to recyclers to continue the process. PET, or
Polyethylene Terephthalate, is used to package 70% of carbonated soft drinks, fruit juices,
dilutable drinks and bottled water. it's known as the 'safe' plastic. PET doesn't contain
Bisphenol-A (BPA) either, a chemical that can be harmful in large quantities which makes it
preferable for use in the food and beverage industries. as of 2022 only bottles are collected at
a substantial scale.

The main motivations have been either cost reduction (when oil prices spike) or recycle content
of retail goods (driven by regulations or public opinion). An increasing amount is recycled back
into bottles, the rest goes into fibres, film, thermoformed packaging and strapping. After

15
sorting, cleaning and grinding, bottle flake is obtained, which is then processed by either basic
or physical recycling.

2.4.2 Sorting of plastic into categories.

After collection, recyclers send the plastic they have gathered to facilities where they separate
the plastics according to types. As already known, plastics differ in size, color, thickness, and
use. In this process plastics are sorted based on the properties of the material. Often, color and
the resin content in the plastic are the basis by which recyclers sort plastics. Sorting is essential
because it allows recycler to know which material is involved and how it gets recycled.

2.3.3 Washing to remove impurities.

After sorting the plastic materials, recyclers wash the materials to remove impurities. These
impurities in plastic include paper labels, dirt, and particles. Washing plastic also removes glue
and additional chemicals that plastic materials may contain. Washing is essential because
failure to remove impurities may damage the new product. Moreover, the contaminants
contained in plastic products are not plastic materials and may not be recyclable.

2.3.5 Shredding and grinding.

This is the process comes after washing plastics. It is easier to recycle plastic in its shredded
state. There is a need to resize the plastic material to a form that can be reused. In this process,
materials will be put into a shredder or a plastic grinding machine to reduce the plastic into
fragments as shown in Figure 2.4

16
 Figure 2.3 Shreded plastic

2.3.6 Compounding.
Compounding is the final process in plastic recycling. This process is where recyclers
transform the shredded plastic particles into desired finished products. Compounding involves
smashing and melting the plastic particle to create ‘pellets’. The pellets are used in forging of
a new plastic product. This process is also called extrusion. At the end of this process, new
plastic originates from the pellets’ processing. This final process also consumes the most time
and energy.
2.3.7 Review of related Literatures
Okiy et al, (2018) carried out the design and construction of a pelletizing machine shown in
Figure 2.5 which was used for recycling process of polymer by reducing the size and bulk
density of waste polythene materials for ease of transportation and processing in the industry.

Figure 2.4 Okiy et al, plastic pelletizing machine

The pelletizing machine was designed and constructed with a screw thread conveyor in a barrel
to convey moulded polythene. The screw thread was driven by a belt drive. The barrel was
constructed to sear low density polythene(LDPE) at a temperature of 80°C. The waste
polythene was fed through the feed hopper and extruded through a die.
The output becomes useful raw material for plastic industries. The machine developed was
asserted by the authors to be useful in polythene waste management in urban cities in Nigeria.

17
The pelletized materials will generate income as it serves as raw materials to polythene
industries and provide employment opportunity for youths.
Major components of the pelletizing machine were feed hopper, screw thread, barrel and feed
throat, heating elements, skid (stand), die, DC Motor, thrust bearing assembly and temperature
controller with sensor.
Rauwendaal, (2011) asserted that the fundamental component of a plastic pelletizing machine
was the extruder screw, designed with feed forward technique to facilitate the heating process
of waste polythene materials.
The screw is a cylindrical rod with constant outside diameter in the extruder. The ratio of
circular allowance to screw diameter is about 0.001. The screw rotates within the hardened
liner of the barrel. As the screw rotates, it forces the resin in the channel forward which is
heated, melted and compressed out of the barrel.

The screw conveyor of a polymer pelletizer comprises of three zones which includes the feed
zone which forces the polythene materials into the barrel, the melting zone which facilitates
the melting process of the polymer and the third zone which is the metering or conveying
section which mixes the melted particles to a uniform temperature and composition.
Ugoamadi and Ihesiulor (2011) carried out optimization of the development of a plastic
recycling machine whose schematic is shown in Figure 2.6.

Figure 2.5 Ugoamadi and Ihesiulor (2011) plastic pelletizing machine

The research involved the design and construction of a plastic recycling machine that
minimized the limitations of already existing (imported) pelletizing machines and at the same
18
time ensuring effective waste management. The results of the experimental analysis from the
research showed that for every used plastic fed into the hopper, temperature of about 200oC
was required to melt it. The machine employed the principle of conveying and heating to effect
shredding and melting of the materials fed through the hopper, and required only two persons
to operate.
The machine was designed using locally available raw materials which made it cheap, easy to
maintain and repair. The performance test analysis carried out defined the characteristics of the
machine and it showed that at a speed of 268 rpm the machine functioned effectively and
efficiently. The performance evaluation of the machine showed that it had a finishing recycling
efficiency or recyclability of 97% and takes 2 minutes to recycle a batch of plastics with
recycling capacity or throughput of about 265 kg/hr. The machine was cost and energy saving
with a specific mechanical energy consumption of about 30.23kJ/kg.

Naveenbala et al (2017) carried out study on a granulator recycling of plastics and glass fibre.
In the research work the authors asserted that disposing plastic wastes into environment was a
big problem because of its low biodegradability. Despite the high usage of plastics there has
been poor management of its wastes with people involving in public burning which causes
emission of toxins such as dioxins.

To contribute to the solution of plastic recycling the authors went on to design a plastic
granulator or shredder. The waste plastic shredder had four main components; the feeding unit,
the shredding unit, the power unit and the machine frame. The feeding unit was made of 16 –
gauge galvanized mild steel sheet of 2 mm thick plate and a dimension of 200 mm × 550 mm
through which the waste plastic was fed into the shredding unit. The shredding unit was where
the waste plastic was cut into smaller sizes.

The unit consists of a shaft, 50 mm length made up of 30 mm mild steel rod and a cylinder of
55 mm length and 200 mm diameter. Attached to the shaft were cutters made of 12 mm mild
steel having nine serrated teeth welded 2 mm apart. The cylinders were embedded with same
cutters having sharp edges for shredding the waste plastic. Under the shredding unit/area was
the outlet made of galvanised mild steel. Through the outlet the discharge was made from
shredding unit. The machine was powered by an electric motor with the help of a belt and a
pulley arrangement.

19
2.4.1 Related work done

Stanley et al, (2017), in their work, design and fabrication of polythene machine for urban
communities, their pelletizing machine Was designed and constructed with a screw thread
conveyor in a barrel to convey moulded polythene, The screw thread is driven by a belt drive.
The barrel was constructed to sear low-density polythene (LDPE) at a temperature of 800C.
however the resulted output becomes useful raw materials for plastic industry.

Jassim et al, (2016), in the design and fabrication recycling of plastic system using
shredder/crusher and extruder in processing the waste into smaller size approximately 0.5 to
1cm.

Paul et al, (2019), design and fabricated a fish feed pelletizing machine. Their work was driven
by 1.5hp a three phase electric motor with a heating element of 1500W attached to the barrel
surface. The performance test on the pelletizer shows a throughput capacity of 17kg/h, machine
efficiency of 90.9% with low mechanical damage of 9.10%. The cylindrical pellets size
produced by the pelletizer was in the range of 2-8mm diameter, which is suitable for fish and
poultry farming.

2.4.2 Comparison of Different Pelletizing Technologies

Plastic pelletizing technologies have evolved over time, with different methods being
employed to enhance efficiency, reduce energy consumption, and improve pellet quality. The
three primary techniques used in pelletizing include melt extrusion-based pelletizing, cold
granulation-based pelletizing, and hybrid pelletizing systems.

Melt extrusion-based pelletizing is the most commonly used method, particularly in industrial-
scale recycling operations. In this process, shredded plastic is melted and forced through a die,
forming continuous strands that are subsequently cut into pellets. This technique is highly
effective in producing uniform pellets with consistent quality, making it suitable for large-scale
applications. However, the process is energy-intensive and requires precise temperature control
to prevent polymer degradation. Studies such as Desmond et al. (2011) have focused on

20
optimizing extrusion conditions to minimize waste and enhance efficiency. Despite its
advantages, melt extrusion-based pelletizing is not ideal for all types of plastics, particularly
those that are heat-sensitive or thermosetting in nature.

Cold granulation-based pelletizing offers an alternative approach, where plastic materials are
mechanically cut into small granules without undergoing a melting process. This method
significantly reduces energy consumption and eliminates the risk of thermal degradation. Cold
granulation is particularly useful for thermoplastics that retain their properties even after
mechanical processing. However, one of the major challenges associated with this technique is
achieving uniform pellet sizes, as the mechanical cutting process often results in
inconsistencies. Research by Balsiger et al. (2000) explored the use of cold granulation for
processing polyethylene terephthalate (PET), highlighting its potential for energy-efficient
recycling while also noting the difficulty in maintaining precise particle sizes.

Hybrid pelletizing systems integrate both melting and mechanical cutting processes, offering a
balance between energy efficiency and high-quality pellet production. These systems allow for
greater flexibility in processing multiple types of plastics while also improving the consistency
of pellet sizes. For instance, Okiy et al. (2018) developed a hybrid pelletizing system equipped
with automated temperature and cutting speed control, which not only enhanced operational
efficiency but also reduced material waste. However, hybrid systems tend to be more complex
and expensive to implement compared to standalone extrusion or granulation methods. They
require precise calibration to ensure the right balance between melting and mechanical
processing.

Each of these technologies presents unique advantages and limitations, and the choice of a
suitable method depends on factors such as the type of plastic being processed, energy
availability, operational costs, and desired pellet quality. While melt extrusion-based
pelletizing remains the industry standard due to its high efficiency and scalability, cold
granulation and hybrid approaches provide viable alternatives for specific applications,
especially in regions where energy conservation is a priority. The development of more energy-
efficient and sustainable pelletizing technologies continues to be a focus of research, aiming to
optimize material usage while minimizing environmental impact.

2.4.3 Identified Challenges in Existing Systems

21
Despite advancements in plastic pelletizing technologies, several challenges persist in existing
systems, affecting efficiency, cost-effectiveness, and environmental sustainability. These
challenges include high energy consumption, material compatibility issues, process
inefficiencies, environmental concerns, and limitations in automation and control. Addressing
these issues is crucial for improving plastic recycling and making pelletizing systems more
accessible, especially in regions with limited resources.

One of the major challenges is high energy consumption, particularly in melt extrusion-based
pelletizing systems. These machines require significant amounts of electricity or gas to heat
plastic materials to their melting point before extrusion. In areas with unstable power supply
or high energy costs, running such systems can be financially and operationally challenging.
Studies such as Stanley et al. (2017) have shown that excessive power consumption can make
small-scale plastic pelletizing operations economically unfeasible. Efforts to optimize energy
usage, such as incorporating efficient heating elements and variable-speed motors, can help
mitigate this issue.

Another key issue is material compatibility, as many pelletizing machines are designed to
process only specific types of plastic. Some machines struggle with mixed plastic waste,
requiring pre-sorting, which adds to labor costs and processing time. Thermosetting plastics,
in particular, cannot be remelted and reshaped like thermoplastics, limiting their recyclability.
Research by Jassim et al. (2016) highlights the difficulty in processing plastic waste with mixed
compositions, as different melting points and material properties can cause defects in the final
pellets. Developing multi-material processing capabilities and improving sorting mechanisms
could enhance system adaptability.

Process inefficiencies also contribute to waste generation and increased operational costs.
Inconsistent feed rates, temperature fluctuations, and manual adjustments often lead to defects
in pellet size and quality. Poorly controlled processing conditions can result in over-melting,
under-melting, or clogging of the extruder, reducing machine lifespan. Studies like Okiy et al.
(2018) have explored the integration of automated process controls to improve temperature
regulation and feed consistency, thereby enhancing pellet uniformity. However, many small-
scale and locally fabricated machines still rely on manual operation, making precision difficult
to achieve.

22
Environmental concerns are another significant challenge in plastic pelletizing. The process
often produces excess plastic waste, such as off-spec pellets and processing residue.
Additionally, reliance on fossil fuel-based heating methods contributes to carbon emissions.
Hirsch et al. (2006) discussed the environmental footprint of plastic processing, emphasizing
the need for cleaner, more sustainable recycling methods. Solutions such as using renewable
energy sources, adopting closed-loop recycling systems, and minimizing scrap generation can
help reduce the environmental impact of pelletizing operations.

Lastly, limitations in automation and control systems hinder the efficiency and scalability of
existing pelletizing machines. Many traditional systems lack real-time monitoring and
feedback mechanisms, requiring constant manual supervision. This increases the likelihood of
errors and inefficiencies. Paul et al. (2019) proposed the use of programmable logic controllers
(PLCs) and microcontrollers to automate critical aspects of the pelletizing process, including
temperature regulation, speed adjustment, and fault detection. However, implementing such
advanced control systems requires additional investment and technical expertise, which may
not be readily available in small-scale recycling operations.

To address these challenges, future research and development efforts should focus on
optimizing energy efficiency, enhancing multi-material processing capabilities, integrating
automation technologies, and adopting sustainable practices. By overcoming these limitations,
plastic pelletizing systems can become more efficient, cost-effective, and environmentally
friendly, supporting a more circular economy in plastic waste management.

23
 CHAPTER THREE

MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Conceptual Designs
Following review of typical extruders two concepts were considered for production. These
include the followings; are mainly desired for commercial activities.
3.1.1 Concept 1. The Archimedes screw auger
The Archimedes screw auger shown in Figure 3.1 consist of evenly spaced or pitched threads
much like a thread in a power screw shaft. The rotating auger is used to move bulk material
while pressing it against the internal walls of an encasing barrel. The bulk material such as
molten polymer is forced out through a die nozzle. The Archimedes auger can be manually
operated or motorised. The concept 1 will consist of a hopper, screw auger, heating chamber
and a die for extrusion. A heat generating element is incorporated to heat and melt the plastic
material to molten form soft enough to be extruded at low pressure through the die nozzles.
Other additional components will include a cooling chamber where the pellets are cooled down
to further enhance its solidification process.

Figure 3.1 Concept 1 Archimedes screw extruder

3.1.2 Concept 2. Piston powered extruder

24
The concept 2 is a piston power extruder which involves the use of a plunger actuated by fluid
or mechanical power as shown in Figure 3.2. The concept consists of a hydraulic or pneumatic
actuated piston, motor, fluid pump and reservoir, pressure hose, die and barrel. The plunger
pushes the molten polymer or plastic under pressure and forces them through the die nozzle.

Figure 3.2 Hydraulic powered plastic extruder

3.2 Selection of concept using a decision matrix.
The proposed concept found suitable for further design and production was decided using a
decision matrix as shown in Table 3.1 The considerations for selection were selected with
higher score of 2 given to the concept most favoured by the design variable.

Table 3.2.1 Decision Matrix table for plastic extruder concept selection

Design Specification Concept 1 Concept 2

Cost of production 2 1

Weight 2 1

Susceptibility to wear 1 2

Simplicity 2 1

25
 TOTAL 7 5

From the decision matrix Table, it was observed that the concept 1 (Archimedes screw auger)
extruder had the highest score based on the design considerations. It had a total aggregate score
of 9 compared to the concept 2 with aggregate score of 6.
3.2.3 Detailed design
The components of the selected design of plastic extruder include the following;
Hopper
The funnel-shaped container at the top where raw plastic material (flakes, granules) is fed into
the machine

Figure 3.3 hopper

Cylindrical barrel
The heated chamber where the plastic is melted and processed

Figure 3.4 Melting chamber

Screw threaded shaft
A rotating screw inside the barrel that conveys, melts, and mixes the plastic.

26
Figure 3.5 screw shaft

Die with nozzles

A plate with small holes at the end of the barrel that shapes the molten plastic into strands.

Figure 3.6 Die

Electric motor
The power source that drives the screw shaft.

Figure 3.7 Electric motor

Gas cylinder
A container of gas for the heating of the barrel. (alternative to electric heating)

27
Figure 3.8 Gas Cylinder

Bearings
The primary function of bearings is to minimize friction between moving parts, particularly the
rotating screw shaft within the cylindrical barrel. This allows for smoother operation and
reduces wear and tear.

Figure 3.9 Bearings

Electrical elements.
Electric coils or bands that surround the barrel, providing the necessary heat to melt the plastic.

28
Figure 3.10 Control panel

Hose
A flexible tube that connects the gas cylinder to the gas burner.

Figure 3.11 hose

29
Gas Burner
A device that mixes gas with air and ignites it to produce a flame for heating the barrel.

Figure 3.12 Gas Head

Heating system
Electric coils or bands that surround the barrel, providing the necessary heat to melt the plastic.

Figure 3.13 heating System

Circuit breaker
30
Their function is to protect the machine's electrical system from over currents or short circuits.

Figure 3.14 Circuit Breaker

3.2.4 Design considerations

• Material to be extruded: low density polythene (LDPE)

• Melting temperature: 105oC and 150oC
• Production type; Batch production
• Feed mode: Manual feed via hopper

3.3 Cylindrical Hopper and Barrel design

The cylindrical barrel is considered as a cylindrical shell, computed on the assumption that the
stress is uniform throughout the wall thickness. Its diameter depends on the amount of material
that passes through it per operation/time. The volume of the barrel is expressed as
V = πr2h ………………………………………………………….3.1
Where; r = radius of the cylinder, h = length of the cylinder
The sheet material required for the production of the cylindrical barrel is expressed as the total
surface area of the cylinder expressed as;
TSA = 2πr (r +h) ……………………………………………………..3.2
Where; TSA = total surface area, r = radius of the cylinder and h = height or length of the
cylinder

31
The torque T (in Nm) transmitted by wave action of the screw auger and the angular speed (in
rad/s) is given by
ω= ………………. …………………………………………….. 3.3

Г = p/ω = ……………………………………………………….. 3.4

Where
P = power transmitted by the auger motion (W)
N = No. of rev/min of wave action (rev/min)
The speed N is related to the pulley diameter by the speed ratio thus
=

I.e N1D2 = N2D1…………………………………………….. …………. 3.5

3.3.1 Hoop Stress
The cylindrical barrel where the plastic material is conveyed before extrusion is subject to
internal forces as shown in the schematic in Figure 3. A ring or hoop from the cylindrical barrel
is isolated from the rest of the cylinder. The free body is obtained by cutting the hoop on the
line of the diameter. The moment equilibrium is satisfied about the hoop center. The force
equilibrium in the x-direction is satisfied as a result of the symmetry, and thus to ensure
equilibrium, force balance in the direction is considered.

Figure 3.15 cross section of the barrel

Upward forces Fy = Pressure x Area
= P x 1 x d…………………………………………………………….3.6
If balanced by downward force fT which is stress x Area
Fy = P(D1) – 2fT = 0
But fT= σH x 2 (1 x t) ……………………………………………..3.7
And D1 = 2rl

32
Replacing ft in equ 5 by equation 6
Fy = P(2rl) – 2(σH(tl) = 0
Making σ subject of the formula we have
σH = 2Prl/ (2tl) = Pr/(t)
i.e
σH =

Where P = operating pressure

D = diameter of the cylinder
t = thickness of the cylinder
Thus, thickness of the cylinder can be calculated
t= ……………………………………………………………..3.8

3.3.2 Hoper material selection and design

The material holding capacity of the cylindrical hopper as well as its total amount in square
area of metal sheet required to fabricate the hopper is determined thus;

Material holding capacity of hopper in volume per batch =

v = 2πr ……………………………………………………………3.9

where;

r = radius of the cylindrical hopper

Total Surface Area (TSA) of the hopper is expressed as

TSA = 2πr (r +h) …………………………………………..…..3.10

This is the expression for the minimum amount in area of sheet metal required to fabricate the
hopper.

3.3.3 Belt design and selection

i. length of pulley belt
The length (L) of the pulley belt for the power transmission is given thus

L = 2C + (D1 + D2) - ……………………………………….3.11

33
Where C = Centre distance and it is expressed as

C = A + [(A2 + B2)1/2]

Where A = [LP/4 – π/8 (D1-D2)] and B = [(D1-D2)2/2]

L = Length of belt

Diameter of machine pulley (D1) = 60mm

Diameter of electric motor pulley (D2) = 30mm

A = 363.22 mm, B = 112.50 mm

Therefore, C = 743.46 mm

ii. Determination of included angle (β), angle of wraps (α) and belt tensions of the pulley
belt
The angle of wraps α1 = [180 – β] and α2 = [180 + β]………………. 3.12

Cos θ/2 = [(D1-D2)/C], and θ = 175.40

Sin β= [(D1-D2)/C] and β = 2.310

D1 and D2 are the diameter of the small and big pulleys respectively

The tensions in the belt are T1 and T2 which are tensions in the tight and slack side respectively

T1/T2 = [ϱuθ] …………………………………………………………3.13

But P = [(T1-T2) u]

u = coefficient of friction of the belt material (convass stitched) as selected based on

availability.

Tc = [T1/3]

(T1 - Tc)/(T2 - Tc) = [(ϱuθ/sinθ/2)]

Therefore, T1 = 337.50 and T2 = 230.72

And the combined tension = 568.22

34
3.3.4 Analysis of the Shaft design
The screwed shaft may be designed on the basis of strength, or rigidity and stiffness as
considered for most shaft members. If these are to be considered as necessitated in our work,
one or all of the followings has to be put into consideration

a. If the shaft is subjected to twisting moment or torque only

b. If it is subjected to bending moment only

c. If it is subjected to fluctuating loads

d. If it is subjected to combined twisting and bending moments

e. If it is subjected to axial loads in addition to combined torsion and bending loads

In view of the nature of our project, the shaft is designed for fluctuating loads since it is
subjected to fluctuating bending moment as a result of the variable weight bearing from the
groundnut movement and also fluctuating torque due to its rotation about its neutral axis. Let
us recall from first principles,

The Torsion equation for shafts

= …………………………………………………………3.14

Where T = Twisting moment or torque acting upon the shaft

τ = Torsion shear stress and r= Distance from neutral axis to the outermost fibre and it is given
by the expression d/2, where d is the diameter of the shaft

J=Polar moment of inertia of the shaft about the axis of rotation and for our shaft selection
which is a round solid shaft, and

J= xd4

The equation (17) from substitution of the above expressions can now be written as

= or T= x τ x d3

Therefore; T= x τ x d3…………………………………………... 3.15

35
For the mild steel shaft material in focus, τ =440mpa=440N/mm2, and d = 20mm

Equation () may be used to determine the diameter of the round solid shaft assuming it is
subjected to twisting moment only and no solid or molten plastic materials is contained in the
barrel.

Also if the shaft is subject to bending moment only, with no plastic in the hopper and barrel,
then the diameter can be determined as follows from first principle,

M/I = σb/y………………………………………………………….3.16

Where M = bending moment, I= moment of inertia of cross sectional area of the shaft about
the axis of rotation, σ = bending stress and y = distance from neutral axis to the outer most
fibre.

Thus for round solid shaft, I = x d4and y = d/2, Hence substituting these values into equation

() we have

= or M= x σb x d3

Therefore; M = x σb x d3 ……………………………………….3.17

However, as stated earlier, the shaft is assumed to be subjected to fluctuating loads therefore,
a fluctuating torque and bending moment, therefore the combined shock and fatigue factors are
taken into account to compute the twisting moment (T) and bending moment (M).

For the combined bending and torsion, the equivalent twisting moment,

Te = √ {(Km x M)2 + (Kt x T)2}………………………….………..3.18

And the equivalent bending moment is given as

Me = [Km x M + √ (Km x M)2 + (Kt x T) 2…………..……………………..3.19

where:

Km = Combined shock and fatigue factor for bending

36
Kt = Combined shock and fatigue factor for torsion

M = Bending moment, and T = Twisting moment or Torque

For recommended values for Km and Kt see appendix one of this literature.

The forces acting on the shaft are listed below:

a. Weight of bulk plastic material inside hopper acting within a length of the barrel.

b. Weight of shaft and the screw

c. Weight of pulley

3.3.5 Torsional rigidity of the screw shaft

The permissible angle of twist θ; 0.3 is lesser than or equal to θ which is lesser than or equal to
3.0 depending on the application for solid circular shaft

The angular deflection of a torsion solid shaft can be expressed as

θ =584MtL/ Gd4 ………………………………………………………..3.20

Where

θ = angular shaft deflection (degrees)

L = length of shaft (m)

G = torsional modulus of elasticity, (N/m2) = 7.30 GN/m2 of the shaft material

D = diameter of shaft

3.3.6 Bearing selection

Intensive evaluation of some governing conditions guided the selection of the bearings used
for supporting the rotating screw shaft. The conditions evaluated includes the followings

a) First was the selection of rolling contact bearings over sliding contact bearings due to the
former’s advantages that were closely desired for the nature of the machine crucial amongst
which included; Its low starting and running friction within the desired low speed, its ability to
withstand momentary shock loads, accuracy of shaft alignment and low cost of maintenance.

37
b)The desired speed to be transmitted from the shaft as supplied from the motor is desired to
be low and far less than 2000rpm

c) The bearings required needed to have ability to bear load at this speed

d) The minimum static and dynamic load rating of the bearing has to exceed the bearing load
of the shaft.

The above information alongside other conditions as coefficient of friction and bore diameter
of the bearing, which are calculated and or matched from reference and manufacturers manual
gives a better selection from series of potential bearing for the nature of machine. Though for
purpose of studies, the mathematical analysis of the above mentioned parameters are
elaborated. The alternative method of reading off from reference manual as shown in the
appendix six of this material was adopted for this work for reason of timely completion of the
project.

From reference literatures, the appropriate bearing is selected based on output speed, bore size,
static load, and dynamic loads and bearing load of shaft.

3.3.7 Dynamic equivalent load for rolling contact bearings (DEL)

This is the constant stationary radial load (in case of radial ball or roller bearings) or axial load
(in case of thrust ball or roller bearings) which, if applied to a bearing with rotating inner ring
and stationary outer ring, would give the same life as that which the bearing will attain under
the actual condition of load and rotation [Khurmi et al 2005]

Denoted by W and for the radial and angular contact bearings under combined constant radial
load WR and constant axial or thrust load WA is given by the expression below

W = [Link] + [Link] …………………………………………………….3.21

Where;

V = A rotation factor = 1 for all types of bearings when the inner race is rotating

And the values of radial load factor X and axial or thrust factor Y for the dynamically loaded
bearings may be taken from references or appendix two of this literature.

3.3.8 Dynamic load rating for rolling contact bearings under variable loads DLR
38
This is denoted by C, is the constant stationary load (in case of radial ball or roller bearings) or
constant axial load (in case of thrust ball or roller bearings) which a group of apparently
identical bearings with stationary outer ring can endure for a rating life of one million
revolutions (which is equivalent to 500 hours of operation at 33.3 rpm) with only 10 percent
failure. [Khurmi et al, 2005]

The expression for C is given as

C = W (L / 106) 1/k …………………………………………………………. 3.22

Where

W= equivalent dynamic load

L= service life rating of the ball or roller bearing

The relationship between the life in revolution L and the life in working hours LH is given by

L = [Link] revolutions where N I the speed in rpm

k = 3, for ball bearings and 10/3 for roller bearings

Having evaluated all factors from calculated, working condition and references, appropriate
ball bearings were found suitable and used for the machine.

In selecting the most suitable ball bearing, the basic dynamic radial load was multiplied by a
service factor (Ks) to get the design basic dynamic radial load capacity. The service factor for
the ball bearings is shown from references or appendix three of this literature. After
determining the design basic dynamic radial load capacity, the selection of bearing was made
from literature and manufacturers reference catalogue. Find reference in appendix three of this
literature for the basic static and dynamic capacities of various types of ball bearings.

3.3.9 Material and Energy Balance

A. material balance

39
For the proper bulk material transfer and operation of the machine, it is assumed that the
amount of bulk material in mass or volume fed into the hopper and extruded should be equal
to the total mass of extrudate John and Turner (2012) i.e

M(in) = M(out) ………………………………………………………….3.23

Where M = mass

However, if losses resulting from adhesion to barrel internal walls, the shaft body, nozzles and
dead ends of the barrel are considered, equation 22 may be written thus;

Min = Mout + Mlosses………………………………………………… ...3.24

If equations 22 and 23 are expressed with respect to volume, then V in + Vout

B Energy Balance

The energy coming into a unit operation can be balanced with the energy coming out and the energy
stored. This is given by the expression

Energy In = Energy Out + Energy Stored i.e

ΣER = ΣEP + ΣEW + ΣEL + ΣES. ………………………………………..3.25

Where;
ΣER = ER1 + ER2 + ER3 + ……. = Total Energy Entering

ΣEp = EP1 + EP2 + EP3 + ……. = Total Energy Leaving with Products

ΣEW = EW1 + EW2 + EW3 + … = Total Energy Leaving with Waste Materials

ΣEL = EL1 + EL2 + EL3 + ……. = Total Energy Lost to Surroundings

ΣES = ES1 + ES2 + ES3 + ……. = Total Energy Stored

Energy balances are often complicated because forms of energy can be inter-converted, for
example mechanical energy to heat energy, but overall the quantities must balance.

3.4 Extruder Efficiency

40
The extruder efficiency η is evaluated by determining parameters like the extrusion capacity
and functional/extrusion efficiency of the machine from data observed Kabri et al, (2006)
The extrusion capacity is given as;
EC = (kg/min) …………………………………………………… ..3.26

Where;
Me = mean mass of the pellets for each treatment (Kg),
T = mean time taken for the extrusion (min).
Extrusion/functional efficiency is calculated as the ratios in percentage of the pellets to the
initial mass of materials fed into the machine.
This is represented mathematically as:
RE = x 100………………………………………………………… 3.27

Where;
RE = extrusion efficiency (%)
Me = mean mass of extrudates (Kg)
Mi = mean initial mass of ingredients (kg) Kabri et al, (2006).
3.3.10 Heat propagation in the barrel.
The cylindrical barrel is heated by the heat element hence the heat propagation through it can
be analysed by the heat governing equations in a cylindrical coordinate as shown in Figure 3.4

Figure 3.16 Cylindrical coordinate

Considering heat flow in the radial ꝋ, axial z and tangential r directions of the barrel, the heat
conduction equation is expressed as;
 d 2t 1 dt 1 d 2t d 2t  qg PC 1 dt
k 2 + . + w . 2 + 2  + = = . ………………………… 3.28
 dr r dr r dØ dz  k K  d
41
Where α= k/pc is the thermal diffusivity and the larger it is, the faster will the heat diffuse
through the material. The heat from the element is used to heat the polymer and melts it into
molten fluid emission of gases. Hence there is also heat propagation through convection and
radiation in the barrel expressed respectively as;

Q = 23.46 x A x dt x V0.78 x d ………………………………………………… 3.29

Where Q= rate of convection heat transfer (kJ/h)

A = Area of heat transfer (m2), dt = Temperature differential between solid and fluid (0C)

V = air velocity (m/s) taken as 10W/m2.k for free or forced low speed air over surface, d = gas
density in (kg/m3)

Q = FσA [T14 - T24] ……………………………………………………………..3.30

Where Q = rate of radiation heat transfer (kJ/h), T1, T2 = Absolute temperatures of hot and
cold bodies respectively, σ = Stefan-Boltzmann constant = 5.67x10-8W/m2K4, F= factor
depending on surface geometry, emissivity and properties.

3.5 Source of heat

The heat is supplied by a propane powered gas due to its ability to easily reach melting
temperature of the polymer and to conserve energy by not using electric heaters, utilizing both
an electric heater and a gas burner to optimize the preheating process before the plastic enters
the extrusion barrel. This dual approach aims to enhance efficiency and handle a broader range
of plastic materials.

42
 Figure 3.17 Gas burner

The pelletizing machine operates on the following general principles:

• Feeding: Waste plastic materials are fed into a hopper.

• Preheating: The plastic is preheated using a combination of an electric heater and a

gas burner.

• Extrusion: The preheated plastic is fed into an extrusion barrel, where it is melted and
homogenized by a screw.

• Pelletizing: The filtered plastic is extruded through a die, forming strands that are then
cut into pellets.

• Cooling: The pellets are cooled, typically using air or water.

3.6 Dual Preheating System Analysis:

The incorporation of both an electric heater and a gas burner for preheating offers several
advantages:

• Flexibility: Different plastic types require varying preheating temperatures. The dual
system allows for precise temperature control, accommodating a wider range of

43
 materials. The gas burner can provide rapid initial heating, while the electric heater can
maintain a stable and consistent temperature.

• Energy Efficiency: The gas burner can be used for the initial rapid heating phase,
which is often more efficient than relying solely on electric heating for large
temperature increases. The electric heater can then maintain the desired temperature,
minimizing gas consumption.

• Faster Processing: The combined heating power leads to faster preheating, reducing
cycle times and increasing throughput.

• Adaptability to varying conditions: In areas where electricity supply is unreliable or

expensive, or where gas is readily and cheaply available, this hybrid system provides a
valuable level of operational redundancy.

The extrusion barrel utilizes a screw to melt and homogenize the preheated plastic, the screw
design and speed are critical for achieving consistent melt quality. Filtration systems remove
contaminants, ensuring high-quality pellets. The die and cutting system determine the size and
shape of the pellets. Cooling systems prevent clumping and deformation of the pellets.

The polymer extruder machine as designed characteristics are shown in the Table 3.2.

Table 3.3 Design specification of polymer melting and extruding machine.

S/N Component Specification

1 Barrel 40mm dia by 350mm

2 Hopper 200mm dia by 300mm

3 Heat element 700W

4 Die/nozzle diameter 45mm/5mm

5 Gear motor 0.5kw

6 Shaft diameter 25mm

44
3.7 Bill of Engineering materials and evaluation (BEME)
The bill of engineering materials and evaluation for the Plastic pelletizing machine is given in
table 3.3

Table 3.4 Bill of Engineering Materials and Evaluation

Item Specification Quantity Unit cost Total

Mild steel sheet 1.5 mm thickness, 2m2 10000 10000

Electric element 700watts 1 20000 20000

Mild steel pipe Φ 40 mm, 1 9000 9000

pipe thickness 15 mm, length
500 mm

Mild steel Φ 22.5 mm, Φ 40 mm 1 bulk 5000

coupling bolt

Mild steel iron 50 x 50mm x 4, 7000 14000

angle iron standard length

Bearings Φ 40 mm 2 6000 12000

Cast iron Φ 260 mm 1 6000 6000

pulley

Cast iron Φ 58 mm 1 5000 5000

pulley

V – belt B 65 1 2000 2000

Bolts and nuts Lump 7000

sum

Nozzle milling 5mm, 3 2000 6000

Welding electrode Lump 12000 12000

Gauge sum

45
 Electric gear motor 0.5kw 1 35000 35000

Electrical wiring and plug sum 4000 4000

Paint Blue 1can 7000 7000

Workmanship, logistics sum sum 50000 50000

and miscellaneous

Gas Cylinder, Hose, Gas 2kg, 3 feet long hose, Industrial sum 20000 20000
burner Burner

TOTAL = 224000

Figure 3.18 Polymer Pelletizing Machine

The fabricated machine is shown above. drawing and picture of the fabricated machine are
shown in Figures 3.5 and 3.6 respectively.

46
 CHAPTER FOUR

TEST, RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.0 Test Procedure
The machine put to test after fabrication. The bulk plastic materials gotten from waste cut into

pieces and lowered into the hopper for onward transfer to the heating extruder barrel. The

plastic melted under heat and was transferred by the rotating auger towards the die for onward

extrusion into pellets through die nozzle. The mass of the polymer was weighed prior to

extrusion and the pellets were also weighed after extrusion. The heating temperature was set at

2600C enough to heat and melt the PET plastic.

4.1 Result
The results from test carried out was recorded as shown in Tables 4.1, 4.2 and 4.3.

Table 4.1 Test results for the operated polymer pellets production machine

Runs Weight of polymer Weight of extruded Size of Time to

feed before pellets in (kg) extrudate (mm) extrude (mins)
extruding(kg)

1st run 10 9.7 5 3

2nd run 10 9.8 4.98 2.30

3rd run 10 10.1 4.99 2.29

Average 10 9.9 4.99 2.33

4.2 Discussion of Results

From the Table 4.1 the amount of load un-extruded feed fed into the machine was set at 10kg

and three different runs of extrusion was carried out with the machine. It was observed that, for

the first run, there was increased extrusion load as there was friction between the feed paste
47
and the internal walls of the extruder cylinder. As the extrusion operation continued with

subsequent runs, friction was reduced due to some polymer paste sticking to the internal wall

of the cylinder and acting as a lubricant for subsequent incoming paste. This was evident from

the slight variation in sizes (ranging between 20mm and 19.8mm) of the extruded pellets. The

average load output was 9.8kg. A plot of the load (un-extruded feed) input against extruded

feed was plotted as shown in Figure 4.1.

feed input vs feed output

10.05
10
9.95
feed input (g)

9.9
9.85
9.8
9.75
9.7
1 2 3 4 5
feed output (kg)

Figure 4.1 graph of load input against load output for dog feed

From the graph in Figure 4.1 it was observed that the load output of the pellets was increasing

from the first run up to the third run. This may have been due to decreased friction in the

extrusion barrel due to feed which stock to the barrel internal walls. During the first run, friction

which inhibited free flow of the feed caused the feed to be extruded in much time and was later

reduced as the friction reduced due to the feed clogs acting as lubricant inside the barrel internal

walls, however; hot incoming molten polymer carried along polymer already clogged to the

internal wall of the barrel from the previous extrude.

48
The molten polymer also stuck to the barrel causing a slight reduction in size of the pellets as

a narrow channel of passage was allowed due to the mass of polymer clogged to the barrel die

nozzle. This can be prevented by regular cleaning before and after operation.

Also from the Table of results in Table 4.1 it was observed that as the extrusion load increases,

the time to extrude the corresponding pellets load also increased. However; on average it took

2min and 33 seconds to extrude a given amount of 10kg of the feed stock. The extruder

throughput and efficiency were calculated thus;

Extruder machine capacity (kg/hr) = ……………………4.1

Average pellets extruded = 9.9kg in 2.33mins

Therefore; in 1hr, machine will extrude 60/2.33 (9.9) kg = 254kg

Therefore extruder machine capacity = = 254kg/h

Extruder efficiency = load output x 10 ………………………….4.2

Where;

Load input = 10kg

Average load output = 9.9kg

Therefore efficiency of the polymer extruder = x 100 = 99%

Also, the accuracy of the pellets sizes extruded by the machine may be used to evaluate the

performance of the die or extrusion ratio

49
The extrusion ratio = = 1.008 4.3Where;

Cross sectional area of die nozzle = 5mm, Average size of the pellet output = 4.98m

50
 CHAPTER FIVE

RECOMMENDATION AND CONCLUSION

5.1 CONCLUSION
Pellets made from polymer (PET plastics) are raw materials for further processing into new
plastic products such as beverage cans, chairs, plastic table and bag etc. the polymer pelletizing
machine was designed using locally sourced materials with consideration of appropriate design
variables such as cost, functionality, simplicity amongst others. The machine is a viable
machine suitable for use in Nigeria with a growing demand for finished polymer products. The
machine was tested and found to have an operational efficiency above 90%.

The development and implementation of a plastic pelletizing machine with a dual preheating
system represent a significant stride towards more efficient and sustainable plastic recycling.
By integrating a gas burner for rapid initial heating with an electric heater for precise
temperature control, this machine addresses the limitations of conventional preheating
methods, enabling the processing of a wider range of waste plastics (PPT) with enhanced
energy efficiency.

The detailed analysis presented in this report highlights the machine's robust design, advanced
control systems, and operational advantages. The ability to achieve consistent melt quality,
high throughput, and superior pellet production underscores its potential to contribute
significantly to the circular economy.

This project demonstrates the feasibility of incorporating advanced heating technologies to

optimize plastic recycling processes. The successful integration of the dual preheating system
highlights the importance of innovative solutions in addressing the global challenge of plastic
waste. The machine's design and operational capabilities offer a viable pathway for recycling
facilities and manufacturing industries to reduce their environmental footprint and promote
sustainable practices.

Moving forward, further research and development should focus on optimizing the machine's
performance, exploring the integration of advanced automation and AI-driven control systems,
and investigating the potential for processing even more diverse waste plastic streams. By
continually refining and improving plastic recycling technologies, we can move closer to a

51
future where plastic waste is effectively managed and repurposed, minimizing its impact on
the environment.

5.2 RECOMMENDATION
Following the success of the research work and the operation of the machine, the following
recommendations are made;

I. Further research work should be done to optimize operational efficiencies of screw

extruders.
II. Further research on the design of polymer extruders for high density polymers should
be carried out to ascertain the operational efficiency as against that achieved from the
present research.
III. The present work has the potential of giving more insight into the production and
commercialization of indigenously made products, hence further works in this area is
highly recommended.
IV. Waste reduction and process optimization should be prioritized by implementing
advanced filtration systems to remove contaminants before processing and introducing
a reprocessing unit for off-spec pellets to maximize material utilization.

52
 REFERENCES

Naveenbala, P., Kumar, R., & Sivarajan, S. (2017). Study on a granulator recycling of plastics
and glass fiber. International Journal of Engineering Research and Technology, 6(5),
112-118.

Stanley, O., Okoye, C., & Eze, J. (2017). Design and fabrication of polythene pelletizing
machine for urban communities. Journal of Applied Engineering Research, 12(9),
1456-1463.

Jassim, F., Ahmed, R., & Hassan, M. (2016). Development of plastic recycling system using
shredder/crusher and extruder. Journal of Sustainable Engineering, 8(4), 215-223.

Paul, A., Samuel, O., & Ojo, T. (2019). Design and fabrication of a fish feed pelletizing
machine. International Journal of Mechanical Engineering and Robotics Research,
10(3), 87-95.

Aigbekaen, E.O., Imarhiagbe, E.O., & Omokhafe, K.O. (2000). Rubber Production in Nigeria.
Nigerian Journal of Agriculture, 17(2), 45-57.

Balsiger, J., Bahdon, J., & Whiteman, A. (2000). The Utilization, Processing and Demand for
Rubberwood as a Source of Wood Supply. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
Forestry Paper.

Cornish, K. (2001). Alternative Natural Rubber Crops. Industrial Crops and Products, 14(1),
1-10.

Alaba, O., & Nicole, P. (2016). Raw materials utilization in engineering and technology.
Journal of Material Science, 12(3), 45-60.

Osifo, F. (2021). Global plastic waste management: Challenges and solutions. Environmental
Sustainability Journal, 34(2), 78-92

Desmond, O., Ekong, J. P., & Udoh, P. (2011). Advances in Rubber Processing and
Applications. Nigerian Journal of Technology, 30(3), 112-125.

Hirsch, R. L., Bezdek, R., & Wendling, R. (2006). Peaking of World Oil Production: Impacts,
Mitigation, and Risk Management. U.S. Department of Energy Report.

Jan, B. (2006). Global Trends in Rubber Production. Journal of Applied Polymer Science,
102(6), 487-493.

Owen, J. (2013). Historical Overview of Natural Rubber Production in Nigeria. African

Journal of Agriculture and Sustainability, 5(2), 89-102.

53
Uraih, N. (1980). The Evolution of Rubber Production in Nigeria. Nigerian Agricultural
Review, 12(1), 34-47.

Rauwendaal, C. (2011). Polymer Extrusion. Carl Hanser Verlag GmbH & Co.

Bruvoll, A. (2001). Factors influencing solid waste generation and management. Journal of
solid waste technology and management, 2001. 27(3/4): p. 156-62.

Cointreau-Levine, S. and U.M. Program, Private sector participation in municipal solid waste
services in developing countries. 1994: World Bank.

Khurmi, R. and J. Gupta, A Textbook of Ma- chine Design. 2005: Eurasia Publishing House.
Okiy, S, Eyere Emagbetere, Benjamin Ufuoma Oreko, Modestus Okwu (2018). Design and
Fabrication of Polythene Pelletizing Machine for Urban Communities in Nigeria.
American Journal of Engineering Research (AJER) e-ISSN: 2320-0847 p-ISSN: 2320-
0936 Volume-7, Issue-1, pp-32-41 [Link]

Threadingham, Desmond; Obrecht, Werner; Wieder, Wolfgang (2011). Ullmann's

Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH.
doi:10.1002/14356007.a23_239.pub5.

Ugoamadi, CC, Ihesiulor,O.K (2011). optimization of the development of a plastic recycling

machine Nigerian Journal of Technology Vol. 30, No. 3, October 2011.
Spilka, T. M., A. Kania, & R. Nowosielski. 0TIntegrated recycling technology,0T Journal of
Achievements in Materials and Manufacturing Engineering, Volume 31 Issue 1
November 2008 P. 97, 98.
A. Hamrol, P. Wiegandt, Enlarged life cycle of product, Cleaner Production in Poland 6 (2000)
P. 12-15 .
M. Dudek-Burlikowska, D. Szewieczek, Quality estimation methods used in product life cycle,
Journal of Achievements in Materials and Manufacturing Engineering 24/2
B. Bieda, The role of thermal treatment in an integrated waste management, Proceedings of
International Conference “Waste Recycling”, Cracow, 2005, P. 104-113.
P. Vindis, B. Mursec, C. Rozman, M. Janzekovic, F. Cus, Biogas production with the use of
mini digester, Journal of Achievements in Materials and Manufacturing Engineering
28/1 (2008) P. 99-102.

54
I. SophieVan den Berg, Master's thesis MSc. Partner in Development Adviser Solid Waste
Management & Recycling January 2009.
R. J. Crawford, Plastics Engineering, 3PrdP Edition. 1998,

55