Course Name: Introduction to Environmental

EL
Engineering and Science – Fundamentals and

PT
Sustainability Concepts

N
Faculty Name: Dr. Brajesh Kumar Dubey
Department : Civil engineering
Topic Water Quantity and Quality
Lecture 31: Water quantity
Concepts to be Covered

 Water quantity

Water quality

EL
PT
N
 Hydrologic cycle

EL
PT
N
 EL
PT
N
The Hydrologic Cycle Units of water transfer are 1012 m3/year.
 Sources of water
Groundwater Surface water
Groundwater is located underground in Surface water is found in lakes, rivers
large aquifers and must be pumped out and streams and is drawn into the public
of the ground after drilling a deep well. water supply by an intake.

EL
PT
N
N
PT
EL
N
PT
EL
Essential Elements
(1) Intake and reservoir
(2) Water treatment plant
(3) Elevated tanks and stand pipes
(4) Valves

EL
(5) Hydrants

PT
(6) Distribution systems

N
(7) Service
Sources of water
Surface water
Surface water is found in lakes, rivers and streams
and is drawn into the public water supply by an
intake.

EL
PT
N
Watersheds
A Watershed is an area of land where all of the water that is under it, or drains
off of it collects into the same place (e.g. The River).
Most of the watersheds in Idaho are part of the Columbia River Basin Watershed,
which drains into the Pacific Ocean!

EL
PT
N
N
PT
EL
N
PT
EL
Estimating surface runoff from land use
Storm water quantity can be estimated by rational method as below:

Storm water quantity, Q = C.I.A / 360

EL
Where, Q = Quantity of storm water, m3 /sec

PT
C = Coefficient of runoff

N
I = Intensity of rainfall (mm/hour) for the duration equal to time
of concentration, and
A = Drainage area in hectares
Estimating surface runoff from land use
Type of Cover Coefficient of runoff
Business areas 0.70 – 0.90
Apartment areas 0.50 – 0.70

EL
Single family area 0.30 – 0.50

PT
N
Parks, Playgrounds, Lawns 0.10 – 0.25
Paved Streets 0.80 –0.90
Water tight roofs 0.70 – 0.95
Estimating surface runoff from land use
The catchment area is of 300 hectares. Calculate the runoff coefficient and
quantity of storm water runoff, if intensity of rainfall is 30 mm/h. The surface
cover in the catchment can be classified as given below:
Type of cover Coefficient of runoff Percentage

EL
Roofs 0.90 15

PT
Pavements and yards 0.80 15

N
Lawns and gardens 0.15 25
Roads 0.40 20
Open ground 0.10 15
Single family dwelling 0.50 10
Estimation of storm water discharge
Overall runoff coefficient
C = [A1.C1 + A2.C2 + ….+ [Link]] / [ A1 + A2 + …+ An]
0.15 x 0.90 + 0.15 x 0.80 + 0.25 x 0.15 + 0.20 x 0.4 + 0.15 x 0.1 + 0.10 x0.5
=
0.15 + 0.15 + 0.25 + 0.20 + 0.15 + 0.10
= 0.44

EL
PT
N
Therefore quantity of storm water, Q = C.I.A/360
= 0.44 x 30 x 300/360
= 11 m3/sec
Course Name: Introduction to Environmental

EL
Engineering and Science – Fundamentals and

PT
Sustainability Concepts

N
Faculty Name: Dr. Brajesh Kumar Dubey
Department : Civil engineering
Topic Water Quantity and Quality
Lecture 32: Water Availability & Usage
Water availability

EL
PT
N
Water availability
Percent of World’s Total Freshwater in Different Locations
Total amount of freshwater on earth is approximately 3.5 × 107 km3

Location Percent of World’s

Freshwater

EL
Glaciers and permanent snow cover 68.7

PT
Groundwater 30.1

N
Lakes 0.26
Soil moisture 0.05
Atmosphere 0.04
Marshes and swamps 0.03
Biological Water 0.003
Rivers 0.006
Water usage

EL
PT
N
Water usage

EL
PT
N
Municipal water demand

EL
PT
N
Municipal water demand: Forecast

EL
PT
N
WATER DEMAND
Types of Water Demands
1. Domestic Water Demand
2. Industrial Water Demand
3. Institutional and Commercial Water Demand

EL
4. Demand for Public Uses

PT
5. Fire Demand

N
6. Wastes and Thefts act
Per Capita Demand

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑦 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠

PCD =
365 × 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

EL
PT
N
Factors affecting Per Capita Demand
(1) Size of the city
(2) Climate conditions
(3) Types of gentry and habits of people
(4) Industrial and commercial activities

EL
(5) Quality of water supplies

PT
(6) Pressure in the distribution systems

N
(7) Development of sewerage facilities
(8) System of supply
(9) Cost of water
(10)Policy of metering and method of charging
Factors affecting water demand

EL
PT
N
Variation in water demand

Average demand

EL
PT
N
Source:
[Link]
n_a_Variable_Power_Price_Regime/figures?lo=1
Variation in water demand

Maximum daily demand = 1.8 × Average daily demand

Maximum hourly demand = 1.5 × 1.8 × Average daily demand

= 2.7 × Average daily demand

EL
PT
N
Total draft/demand

i. Maximum daily demand + Fire demand

ii. Maximum hourly demand
Fire demand
It is the amount of water required for fire fighting purposes.
The actual amount of water used in a year for fire is very small, but the rate of
flow is large.

EL
PT
N
Fire demand

1. Kuichling’s Formula 3. Freeman’s Formula

EL
2. Buston’s Formula 4. National Board of Fire Underwriters formula

PT
N
Q obtained is in liters/min
P is the population of a city
Course Name: Introduction to Environmental

EL
Engineering and Science – Fundamentals and

PT
Sustainability Concepts

N
Faculty Name: Dr. Brajesh Kumar Dubey
Department : Civil engineering
Topic Water Quantity and Quality
Lecture 33: Population Forecasting
Population forecasting
Design of water supply and sanitation scheme is based on the projected
population of a particular city, estimated for the design period. Any
underestimated value will make system inadequate for the purpose intended;
similarly overestimated value will make it costly. Changes in the population of the
city over the years occur, and the system should be designed taking into account

EL
of the population at the end of the design period.

PT
N
Population forecasting
Factors affecting changes in population are:
 Increase due to births
 Decrease due to deaths
 Increase/ decrease due to migration
 Increase due to annexation

EL
PT
The present and past population record for the city can be obtained

N
from the census population records. After collecting these population
figures, the population at the end of design period is predicted using
various methods as suitable for that city considering the growth
pattern followed by the city.
 Population forecasting method

Arithmetical Geometrical Incremental Comparative Logistic

Graphical Master Plan
Increase Increase Increase Graphical Curve

EL
Method Method
Method Method Method Method Method

PT
N
Arithmetical Increase Method

• This method is suitable for large and old city with considerable development.
If it is used for small, average or comparatively new cities, it will give lower population
estimate than actual value.
In this method the average increase in population per decade is calculated from the past

EL
census reports.

PT
This increase is added to the present population to find out the population of the next

N
decade. Thus, it is assumed that the population is increasing at constant rate.
Arithmetical Increase Method

Hence, dP/dt = Constant i.e., rate of change of population with respect to time is constant.

Therefore, Population after nth decade will be

Pn= P + n.C

EL
Where, Pn is the population after ‘n’ decades and ‘P’ is present population.

PT
N
Arithmetical Increase Method

Example:1
Predict the population for the year 2021, 2031, and 2041 from the following population data.
Year 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 2011
Population 8,58,545 10,15,672 12,01,553 16,91,538 20,77,820 25,85,862

EL
PT
N
Year Population Increment
1961 8,58,545 Average increment = 345463
1971 10,15,672 157127
1981 12,01,553 185881
1991 16,91,538 489985
2001 20,77,820 386282

EL
2011 25,85,862 508042

PT
N
Population forecast for year 2021 is,
P2021 = 2585862 + 345463 x 1 = 2931325
Similarly, P2031 = 2585862 + 345463 x 2 = 3276788
P2041 = 2585862 + 345463 x 3 = 3622251
Geometrical Increase Method

• In this method the percentage increase in population from decade to decade is assumed
to remain constant.
• Geometric mean increase is used to find out the future increment in population.
• Since this method gives higher values and hence should be applied for a new industrial
town at the beginning of development for only few decades.

EL
PT
The population at the end of nth decade ‘Pn’ can be estimated as:

N
Pn = P (1+ IG/100)n
Where, IG = geometric mean (%)
P = Present population
N = no. of decades
Geometrical Increase Method

Example:2
Considering data given in example 1 predict the population for the year 2021, 2031, and 2041
using geometrical progression method.
Year Population Increment Geometrical increase Rate of growth

EL
1961 8,58,545

PT
1971 10,15,672 157127 (157127/858545) = 0.18

N
1981 12,01,553 185881 (185881/1015672) = 0.18
1991 16,91,538 489985 (489985/1201553) = 0.40
2001 20,77,820 386282 (386282/1691538) = 0.23
2011 25,85,862 508042 (508042/2077820) = 0.24
Geometrical Increase Method

Geometric mean IG = (0.18 x 0.18 x 0.40 x 0.23 x 0.24)1/5 = 0.235 i.e., 23.5%
Population in year 2021 is, P2021 = 2585862 x (1+ 0.235)1 = 3193540
Similarly for year 2031 and 2041 can be calculated by,
P2031 = 2585862 x (1+ 0.235)2 = 3944021

EL
P2041 = 2585862 x (1+ 0.235)3 = 4870866

PT
N
Incremental Increase Method

This method is modification of arithmetical increase method and it is suitable for an average
size town under normal condition where the growth rate is found to be in increasing order.
While adopting this method the increase in increment is considered for calculating future
population. The incremental increase is determined for each decade from the past population
and the average value is added to the present population along with the average rate of

EL
increase.

PT
N
Hence, population after nth decade is Pn = P+ n.X + {n (n+1)/2}.Y

Where, Pn = Population after nth decade

X = Average increase
Y = Incremental increase
 Incremental Increase Method

Example: 3 Considering data given in example 1 predict the population for the year 2021, 2031,
and 2041 using incremental increase method.

Year Population Increment Incremental increase (Y)

EL
1961 8,58,545 -

PT
1971 10,15,672 157127 -

N
1981 12,01,553 185881 +28754
1991 16,91,538 489985 +304104
2001 20,77,820 386282 -103703
2011 25,85,862 508042 +121760
Total 1727317 350915
Average 345463 87729
Incremental Increase Method

Population in year 2021 is,

P2021 = 2585862 + (345463 x 1) + {(1 (1+1))/2} x 87729 = 3019054
For year 2031
P2031 = 2585862 + (345463 x 2) + {(2 (2+1)/2)} x 87729 = 3539975

EL
P2041 = 2585862 + (345463 x 3) + {(3 (3+1)/2)} x 87729 = 4148625

PT
N
 Graphical Method

In this method, the populations of last few decades

are correctly plotted to a suitable scale on graph.
The population curve is smoothly extended for
getting future population.

EL
This extension should be done carefully and it

PT
requires proper experience and judgment.

N
The best way of applying this method is to extend the curve by comparing with
population curve of some other similar cities having the similar growth condition.
Comparative Graphical Method

• In this method the census populations of cities already

developed under similar conditions are plotted.
• The curve of past population of the city under
consideration is plotted on the same graph.

EL
• The curve is extended carefully by comparing with the

PT
population curve of some similar cities having the

N
similar condition of growth.
• The advantage of this method is that the future
population can be predicted from the present
population even in the absence of some of the past
census report.
Master Plan Method

• The big and metropolitan cities are generally not developed in haphazard manner, but
are planned and regulated by local bodies according to master plan.
• The master plan is prepared for next 25 to 30 years for the city.
• According to the master plan the city is divided into various zones such as residence,

EL
commerce and industry.
• The population densities are fixed for various zones in the master plan.

PT
• From this population density total water demand and wastewater generation for that

N
zone can be worked out. By this method it is very easy to access precisely the design
population.
Logistic Curve Method

𝑃𝑠
Equation of logistic curve is, P =
1+𝑚 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒−1 (𝑛𝑡)
where, P = population at any time t from the origin A
𝑃𝑠 = saturated population
𝑃𝑠 𝑃𝑜
m= (a constant)
𝑃𝑜

EL
n = 𝑘𝑝𝑠 (another constant)

PT
𝑃𝑜 = population at the start point of the curve.

N
k = constant
Logistic Curve Method

: if only three pairs of characteristic values P0, P1, P2 at time t = t0 =0, t1 and t2 = 2t1 extending over the useful
range of the census population are chosen, then
2𝑃0 𝑃1 𝑃2 − 𝑃12 (𝑃0 +𝑃2 )
Ps = ,
𝑃0 𝑃2 − 𝑃12
𝑃𝑠 − 𝑃𝑜
m= ,
𝑃𝑜
1 𝑃 (𝑃 −𝑃 ) 2.3 𝑃0 (𝑃𝑠 −𝑃1 )
n= 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 [ 𝑜 𝑠 1 ] = 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 [ ]

EL
𝑡1 𝑃1 (𝑃𝑠 −𝑃0 ) 𝑡1 𝑃1 (𝑃𝑠 −𝑃0 )

PT
N
Conveyance of Water
Water is generally conveyed by using pressure conduits (pipe). To design pressure conduits
Darcy’s Weisbach equation (or) Hazen Williams equation.
𝒇𝑳 𝑽𝟐 𝒇𝑳 𝑸𝟐
Weisbach equation, 𝒉𝒇 = =
𝟐𝒈𝒅 𝟏𝟐.𝟏𝒅𝟓
Hazen Williams equations,
V = 0.85𝑪𝒉 (𝑹)𝟎.𝟔𝟑 𝑺 𝟎.𝟓𝟒

EL
PT
To generate pressure to drive water from source to city or town it also require a pump.
Capacity of pump require is found by following equation

N
𝜸𝒘 𝑸𝑯
BHP =
𝟎.𝟕𝟒𝟔ŋ𝒑 ŋ𝒎

ŋ𝑝 ŋ𝑚 = efficiency of pump & motor

A town with a population 1 lakh supplied water at a rate of 200 lpcd gets its supply from
a source which is 8 km away from the town. Find the diameter of the conveying main
(pipe) required if friction factor is 0.003. Elevation difference between the source and
supply is 10 m.
Solution: Q = Population Х per capita water supply
= 100000 Х 200 l/day
= 0.231 m3/sec

EL
PT
hf = It is assumed as elevation difference between source and supply = 10 m

N
L = Distance between source and supply
𝑓𝑙𝑄2 0.003 ×8000 ×(0.231)2
hf = = = 10
12.1𝑑 5 12.1𝑑 5
Diameter of the conveying main d = 0.4 m
Course Name: Introduction to Environmental

EL
Engineering and Science – Fundamentals and

PT
Sustainability Concepts

N
Faculty Name: Dr. Brajesh Kumar Dubey
Department : Civil engineering
Topic Water Quantity and Quality
Lecture 34: Water quality
Water quality

EL
PT
Pure water Potable water Palatable water

N
Water quality

EL
wholesome water Polluted water Contaminated water

PT
N
Mineral water
 Aesthetically
acceptable

Free from Chemically

bacteria safe

EL
Safe Water/

PT
Wholesome

N
Water

Organic
Radioactive
substances
elements
absent
absent
Polluted Presence of undesirable substances in the
Water quantities which are harmful to man vegetation
or property is referred to Polluted Water

EL
PT
N
 Sampling

Selection of
Proper
Parameters
Labeling

Water

EL
Analysis -

PT
Key Factors

N
Precision and
accuracy of
Reporting the
method
values
selected

Preservation
N
PT
EL
 Characteristics of water

Physical Chemical Biological

EL
PT
Turbidity
Colour

N
Taste and Odour
Temperature of Water
Specific Conductivity
 Characteristics of water

Physical Chemical Biological

EL
PT
Total Solids and Suspended Solids

N
pH value of Water
Hardness of Water
Chloride Content
Nitrogen Content
Metal and other chemical substances in water
Dissolved gases
 Characteristics of water

Physical Chemical Biological

EL
PT
Bacteria

N
Protozoa
Viruses
Worms
Fungi
 Water Quality Consideration
Irrigation
pH Domestic Consumption
Conductivity As per BIS Standards
Sodium & Potassium Water Bodies
Nutrients As per CPCB guidelines

EL
Specific compounds

PT
N
Industries
As per specific requirement
Turbidity

• Turbidity is the measure of relative clarity of a

liquid. It is a measure of resistance offered by
suspended and colloidal particles present in water
to the passage od light.
• It is an optical characteristic of water and is a

EL
measurement of the amount of light that is

PT
scattered by material in the water when a light is

N
shined through the water sample.
Turbidity

EL
PT
N
Turbidity

EL
PT
N
Colour
The presence of colour in water is not objectionable from health point of view, but may spoil
the colour of the clothes being washed. The standard unit of colour is that which is produced
by one milligram of platinum cobalt dissolved in one litre of distilled water.

Colour determined by an instrument is known as tintometer.

EL
Unit: True Colour Unit (TCU)

PT
N
Taste and odour
Due to dissolved organic matter or inorganic salts, dissolved gases etc.
The threshold odour number is the dilution factor at which the odour is just detectable.

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑤 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒+𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Dilution factor =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑤 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒

EL
Instrument: Osmoscope

PT
Permissible limit: 1 to 3

N
Course Name: Introduction to Environmental

EL
Engineering and Science – Fundamentals and

PT
Sustainability Concepts

N
Faculty Name: Dr. Brajesh Kumar Dubey
Department : Civil engineering
Topic Water Quantity and Quality
Lecture 35: Water quality Contd…
N
PT
EL
If 10 ml water sample diluted with 190 ml distilled water at which odour is just
detectable, then TON of sample is
𝐴+𝐵 10+190
Sol : TON = = = 20
𝐴 10

EL
PT
N
Temperature

EL
PT
N
Impurities in water
Suspended Impurities Colloidal Impurities Dissolved Impurities

Suspended impurities are Colloidal refers to items It includes organic

Suspended solids that are of a small size that are compounds, inorganic salts
not completely soluble in floating in a medium of and gases. Salts, metals,
water and are present as one of three substances: lead and arsenic, gases
particles. These particles a solid, a liquid, or a gas.

EL
usually impart a visible

PT
turbidity to the water.

N
 Total solid

EL
PT
N
 Total dissolved solid

EL
PT
N
A 100 ml water sample is drawn on to a empty dry container whose initial weight is 95.452 gm.
After oven drying the sample at 1030 C for 24 hours its final weight measured to be 95.486 gm.
Then total solid’s concentration in mg/l.
𝑊2 − 𝑊1
Sol : Total solids = × 106
𝑉
𝑊2 = final weight in gm,
𝑊1 = initial weight in gm,

EL
V = volume of water sample in ml

PT
95.486 −95.452
= Χ 106 = 340 mg/l

N
100
 Volatile solid

EL
PT
N
pH pH = -log [H+]
If H+ concentration increases, pH decreases and then it will be acidic.
If H+ concentration decreases, pH increases and then it will be alkaline.

pH + pOH = 14
if the pH of water is more than 7, it will be alkaline

EL
and if it is less than 7, it will be acidic.

PT
N
The alkalinity is caused by the presence of bicarbonate of calcium and
magnesium or by the carbonates of hydroxides of sodium, potassium, calcium
and magnesium. Some, but not all of the compounds that cause alkalinity also
cause hardness.
pH Measurement:

EL
PT
N
pH Measurement: Titration
pH range of Original Final color
Indicator
indicator dye color produced

Methyl orange 2.8 – 4.4 Red Yellow

EL
Methyl red 4.4 – 6.2 Red Yellow

PT
6.8 – 8.4 Yellow Red

N
Phenol red

Phenolphthalein 8.6 – 10.3 Yellow Red

A water having pH value equal to 9 will have a hydrogen ion concentration equal to
pH = -log [H+]

[H+] = 10-9 mol/lit

If 𝑯+ ion concentration is 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 mol/lit. What is pOH

EL
1 1
Sol : pH = 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 + = 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 −6 = 6

PT
𝐻 10

N
pH + pOH = 14
: pOH =14 – 6 = 8
Hardness
Hard waters are undesirable because they may lead to greater soap consumption, scaling of
boilers, causing corrosion and incrustation of pipes, making food tasteless etc.

Temporary Hardness: If bicarbonates and carbonates of calcium and magnesium are present
in water, the water is render hard temporarily as this hardness can be removed to some extent
by simple boiling or to full extent by adding lime to water. Such a hardness is known as

EL
temporary hardness or carbonate hardness.

PT
N
Hardness
Permanent Hardness: If sulphates, chlorides and nitrates of calcium or magnesium are present
in water, they can not be removed at al by simple boiling and therefore, such water require
special treatment for softening. Such a hardness is known as permanent hardness or non-
carbonate hardness.

EL
PT
N
Hardness
Carbonate hardness = Total hardness or Alkalinity (which ever is less)

Non-carbonate hardness = Total hardness – Alkalinity

Carbonate hardness is equal to the total hardness or alkalinity which ever is less

EL
Non-carbonate hardness is the total hardness in excess of the alkalinity. If the alkalinity is equal

PT
to or greater than the total hardness, there is no non-carbonate hardness.

N
Total hardness = Carbonate hardness + Non-carbonate hardness
Hardness

Total hardness (TH) = Carbonate hardness (CH) + Non-carbonate hardness (NCH)

If TH > alkalinity, then CH = Alkalinity

If TH ≤ alkalinity, then CH = TH, NCH = 0

EL
PT
N
Hardness measurement procedure

EL
PT
N
 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3
Total hardness in mg/L as CaCO3 = [Ca++ in mg/L × +
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑎

𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3

Mg++ in mg/L ×
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑀𝑔

EL
PT
N
For a water sample the total alkalinity is 200 mg/l as CaCO3. The Ca++ is 120 mg/l, mg++ is 60
mg/l. What is total hardness, Carbonate hardness, non-carbonate hardness.
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3
Total hardness in mg/L as CaCO3 = [Ca++ in mg/L × +
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑎

Sol: TA = 200 mg/L as CaCO3 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3

Mg++ in mg/L ×
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑀𝑔
50 50
TH = Ca2+ Χ + Mg2+ ×

EL
20 12
50 50
+ 60 ×

PT
= 120 Χ = 550 mg/L as CaCO3
20 12

N
: TH > TA
CH =TA = 200 mg/L as CaCO3
NCH = TH – CH = 550 – 200 = 350 mg/L as CaCO3
The chemical analysis of water sample indicates the presence of cations as follows Na+ = 20
mg/l Ca++ = 45 mg/l mg++ = 60 mg/l, HCO3 = 248, SO4 = 220, CL = 79.2. Compute total hardness,
carbonate hardness and non-carbonate hardness equivalent to CaCO3.
50
Sol: Alkalinity = 𝐻𝐶𝑂3− ×
61
50
= 248 × = 203.3 mg/l as CaCO3
61
50 50

EL
TH = Ca++ × + Mg++ ×
20 12

PT
50 50
= 45 × + 60× = 362.5 mg/l as CaCO3

N
20 12
TH> Alkalinity
CH = Alkalinity = 203.3 mg/l as CaCO3
NCH = 362.5 – 203.3 = 159.2 mg/l as CaCO3
 Chloride content
Present in the form of sodium
chloride.
Imparts salty taste.

EL
PT
N
 Nitrogen content
The presence of nitrogen in water may occur in one or more of the following reasons:
1. Free ammonia: It indicates very first stage of decomposition of organic matter. It should not
exceed 0.15mg/l
2. Organic nitrogen: It indicates the quantity of nitrogen present in water before the
decomposition of organic molten has started. It should not exceed 0.3mg/l
3. Nitrites: Not fully oxidized organic matter in water.

EL
4. Nitrates: It indicates fully oxidized organic matter in water (representing old pollution).

PT
N
 Nitrogen content
•Nitrites is highly dangerous and therefore the permissible amount of nitrites in water should be
nil.
•Ammonia nitrogen + organic nitrogen = kjeldahl nitrogen
•Nitrates in water is not harmful. However the presence of too much of nitrates in water may
adversely affect the health of infants causing a disease called methemoglobinemia commonly
called blue baby disease.

EL
•The nitrate concentration in domestic water supplies is limited to 45 mg/l.

PT
N
Metal and other chemical substances in water
Iron – 0.3ppm, excess of these cause discoloration of clothes.
Manganese – 0.05ppm
Copper – 1.3ppm
Sulphate – 250 ppm
Sulphate (SO4) can be found in almost all natural water. The origin of most sulphate

EL
compounds is the oxidation of sulfite ores, the presence of shales, or the industrial wastes.

PT
N
Sulphate is one of the major dissolved components of rain. High concentrations of sulphate
in the water we drink can have a laxative effect when combined with calcium and
magnesium, the two most common constituents of hardness.
Metal and other chemical substances in water
Fluoride – 1.5 ppm, excess of this effects human lungs and other respiratory organs.
Fluoride concentration of less than 0.8 – 1.0 ppm cause dental cavity (tooth decay). If
fluoride concentration is greater than 1.5ppm, causing spotting and discolouration of teeth
(a disease called fluorosis).

EL
PT
N
N
PT
EL
N
PT
EL
Dissolved oxygen
Oxygen gas is generally absorbed by water from the atmosphere but it being consumed by
unstable organic matter for their oxidation. Hence, if the oxygen present in water is found to
be less than its saturation level, it indicates presence of organic matter and consequently
making the waters suspicious.

EL
PT
N
 Dissolved oxygen

EL
PT
N
 Dissolved oxygen

EL
PT
N
 Characteristics of water

Physical Chemical Biological

Bacteria

EL
Protozoa

PT
Viruses

N
Bacterial and Microscopic Characteristics of Water
Worms
Five types of parasitic organisms (i.e. bacteria,
Fungi
protozoa, viruses, worms and fungi) are generally
known to be infective to main and are found in water.
1. Bacteria

These are the minute single cell organisms possessing no defined nucleus and having no green
material to help them manufacture their own food. They are reproduced by binary fusion and
may of various shapes and sizes are 1 to 4 microns, examined by microscope.

a) Non-disease causing bacteria – Non pathogenic bacteria.

EL
PT
b) Disease causing bacteria – Pathogenic bacteria.

N
2. Protozoa
These are single cell animals and are the lowest and the simplest form of animal life. They are
bacteria eaters and thus destroy Pathogens. They are counted by microscope.

3. Viruses
4. Worms

EL
These are the larva of flies.

PT
5. Fungi

N
These are those plants which grow without sunlight and live on other plants or animals,
dead or alive.
Classification of bacteria based on oxygen requirement:
Aerobic bacteria: Those which require oxygen for their survival.
Anaerobic bacteria: Those which flourish in the absence of free oxygen.
Facultative bacteria: Those which can survive with or without free oxygen.

EL
PT
N
Pathogenic bacteria

These can be tested and counted in the laboratories but with great difficulty. These tests are
therefore, generally not performed in routine to check up of the water quality. The usual
routine tests are generally conducted to detect and count the presence of coliforms which in
themselves harmless organisms, but their presence or absence indicates the presence or
absence of pathogenic bacteria.

EL
PT
N
Methods to measure the presence of coliform bacteria:

Membrane filter technique (modern technique)

Mixing different dilution of a sample of water with lactose froth and incubating them in test-
tubes for 48 hours at 37 0 𝐶. the presence of acid or carbon dioxide gas in tubes will indicate
the presence of coliform bacteria.
Most probable number (MPN) represent the bacterial density.

EL
PT
N
Coliform index
It may be defined as the reciprocal of the smallest quantity of a sample which would give a
positive portion. Coliform sometimes called bacteria coli (B-coli) or Escherichia (E-coli) are
harmless aerobic micro-organisms.

If not more than 1 coliform is present per 100ml of water, then water is said to be safe for

EL
drinking.

PT
𝑀𝑃𝑁 100 × 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

N
𝑚𝑙 =
100 𝑚𝑙 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 × (𝑚𝑙. 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
Water borne diseases

EL
PT
N
 Avoid diseases that spread
through water

EL
PT
N
N
PT
EL