Geologic Time Scale - is a record of life forms and geologic events in Earth's history.

4 Eras
Eons
Eras
Periods
Epochs

Strata - stacked-up horizontal layers or bands of sedimentary rocks.

Fossils - -remnant, impression, or trace of an animal or plant of a past geologic age

that has been preserved in Earth’s crust
-​ The complex of data recorded in fossils worldwide
-​ is the primary source of information about the history of life on Earth.

Ammonites - were cephalopods

Trilobites - were arthropods.

Relative Dating - methods estimate whether an object is younger or older than other
things found at the site. Relative dating does not offer specific dates, it simply allows to
determine if one artifact, fossil, or stratigraphic layer is older than another.

Absolute Dating- methods provide more specific origin dates and time ranges, such as
an age range in years.

Eon - The largest unit of time.

Era - A unit of time shorter than an eon but longer than a period.
Period -A unit of time shorter than an era but longer than epoch.
Epoch - A unit of time shorter than a period but longer than an age-
Archean - "Ancient" eon from 4,500 Mya --2,500 Ma.
Proterozoic - "Early life" eon from 2,500 Ma -540 Ma.
Paleozoic - "Ancient life" era from 540 Mya - 248 Ma.
Mesozoic - "Middle life" era from 248 Mya --65 Ma.
Cenozoic - "Recent life" era from 65 Mya to Present.
Holocene - "All recent epoch from 10 Ka to Present o
Ma = Mega annum, i.e. million years ago before present.
Mya - Million years ago
Ka = Thousand years ago before present,
Eon - -the largest division of geologic time scale; half billion - nearly 2 billions of years
-​ Earth's history is characterized by four eons; in order from oldest to youngest,
these are the Hadean, Archean, Proterozoic, and Phanerozoic (visible life),

Precambrian - -4.5 million years; about 88% of the Earth's history

-​ This period is MOST of Earth's history. For nearly 4 billion years, during most of
Precambrian time, no plants or animals existed. Multicellular organisms develop
late in the Precambrian.
-​ Very few fossils remain from this time.
-​ Many Precambrian rocks were deeply buried, causing the fossils in them to be
changed by heat and pressure.
-​ Most Precambrian organisms lacked hard parts.
-​ Cyanobacteria are blue-green algae, one of the earliest life forms to appear.

Hadean -Solar system forms out of gas and dust, the sun begins to emit light and heat,
Earth takes shape, and often characterized by extreme volcanism as Earth continued to
cool.

Archean- ancient life or primitive eon. The Earth's crust cooled enough that rocks and
continental plates began to form.

Proterozoic - earlier life eon. The major events are ozone layer thickened, an oxygen
crisis, snowball Earth, formation of the supercontinent, and the evolution of eukaryotic
cells and of multicellular organisms.

Era - -divisions that span time periods of tens to hundreds of millions of years

Paleozoic Era (540 - 245 MYA)

-​ Invertebrates with shells evolved in the warm, shallow seas.
-​ Amphibians evolved to survive in water and on land.
-​ Reptiles evolved from amphibians to survive farther from water.
-​ Plate Tectonics caused mountains to form as Pangaea comes together.
-​ Most marine species became extinct at the end of the Paleozoic Era.
-​ Mass Extinction = Marine Species like Trilobites and Ammonites

Paleozoic Era
-​ ."ancient or old life": started more than 540 million years ago
-​ Many organisms that have emerged during this time were invertebrates.
 -​ The era began with a spectacular burst of new life. This is called the Cambrian
explosion.
-​ LIFE EXPLODES! At the beginning of the Paleozoic era, all life lived in the
oceans. Early invertebrates developed and later amphibians became dominant
on land. Early plant included simple mosses, ferns, and cone-bearing plants.

●​ Ordovician Period (505-440 million years ago)

-​ The oceans were flled with invertebrates of many types. The first fish
evolved
-​ Plants colonized the land for the first time, but animals still remained in the
water

●​ Silurian Period (440-410 million years ago)

-​ In the oceans, corals appeared and fish continued to evolve.
-​ On the land, vascular plants appeared. With special tissues to circulate
water and other materials, they could grow larger than earlier, nonvascular
plants

●​ Devonian Period (410-360 million years ago)

-​ The first seed plants evolved. Seeds had a protective coat and stored
food to help them survive. Seed plants eventually became the most
common type of land plants.
-​ Fish with lobe fins evolved. They could breathe air when they raised their
heads above water. Breathing would be necessary for animals to
eventually colonize the land.

●​ Carboniferous Period (360-290 million years ago)

-​ The Carboniferous Period is formally divided into two major subdivisions:
Mississippian - most of the rocks found from Mississippian time are marine limestone

Pennsylvanian - Many non-marine areas near the Equator became coal swamps
during the Pennsylvanian

●​ Permian Period (290-245 million years ago).

-​ All the major land masses collided to form a supercontinent called
pangaea.
-​ Temperatures were extreme, and the climate was dry. Plants and animals
evolved adaptations to dryness, such as waxy leaves or leathery skin to
prevent water loss.
-​ The permian ended with a mass extinction.
 -​ The era ended with the biggest mass extinction the world had ever seen.
This is known as the Permian extinction.

Mesozoic Era - "Middle Life"; started more than 280 million years ago

Age of Reptiles - Dinosaurs lived along with the first mammals, insects, birds, and
flowering plants. Reptiles were dominant.

-​ Era of Dinosaurs
-​ Pangaea separated into continents and the climate became drier.
-​ Birds appear during the Jurassic Period.
-​ Small, mouse-like mammals appear in the Triassic Period.
-​ Flowering plants appeared during the Cretaceous period.
-​ Due to extreme climate change from volcanic activity and meteors, the dinosaurs
die off.
-​ Dinosaurs dominate.
-​ Mass Extinction = Dinosaurs

●​ Triassic Period
-​ The first dinosaurs branched off from the reptiles and colonized the land, air, and
water.
-​ Huge seed ferns and conifers dominated the forests, and modern corals, fish,
and insects evolved.
-​ The supercontinent Pangaea started to separate into Laurasia and
Gondwanaland.
-​ The Triassic Period ended with a mass extinction.

●​ Jurassic Period
-​ "The Golden Age of Dinosaurs"; earliest birds evolved from reptile ancestors
-​ All the major groups of mammals evolved, though individual mammals were still
small in size.
-​ Flowering plants appeared for the first time, and new insects also evolved to
pollinate the flowers.
-​ The continents continued to move apart, and volcanic activity was especially
intense.

●​ Cretaceous Period
-​ Dinosaurs reached their peak in size and distribution.
-​ By the end of the Cretaceous, the continents were close to their present
locations. This period ended with the dramatic extinction of the dinosaurs.
 -​ Earth's overall climate was warm; even the poles lacked ice.

●​ Cenozoic Era (65 MYA - Present)

-​ "Recent Life"; started 65 m illion years ago and continues up to the
present.
-​ Age of Mammals
-​ The first humans appeared in the later part of the Cenozoic era, which
continues today. The diversity of life forms increased. New mammals and
birds appeared while other became extinct. Flowering plants became
most common.
-​ Present day Earth is in the Cenozoic era and the Quaternary period in the
Holocene epoch.
-​ We live in the cenozoic era
-​ Many mountain ranges formed.
-​ Colder climates; 3 Major Ice Ages occur during this Era.
-​ Mammals continued to evolve.
-​ Many species became isolated as the continents continued to separate.
-​ Fossils of homo sapiens (humans) show their appearance about 400,000
years ago.
-​ No Mass Extinction yet... when one occurs a NEW Era will begin.

●​ Tertiary Period
-​ Earth's climate was generally warm and humid.
-​ Mammals evolved to fill virtually all niches vacated by dinosaurs. Many
mammals increased in size.
-​ Mammals called primates evolved, including human ancestors.
-​ Modern rain forests and grasslands appeared.
-​ Flowering plants and insects were numerous and widespread.

●​ Quaternary Period (1.8 MYA - Present)

-​ Earth's climate cooled, leading to a series of ice ages. Sea levels fell
because so much water frozen in glaciers. This created land bridges
between continents. allowing land animals to move to new areas,
-​ Some mammals, like the wooly mammoths shown here, adapted to the
cold by * evolving very large size and thick fur. Other animals moved
closer to the equator or went extinct, along with many plants.
Epoch - -smallest division of the geologic time scale

Fossil Record - indicates that species have changed and adapted over time.

Charles Darwin - is responsible for proposing Natural Selection to explain change in

species (Theory of Evolution).

Plate Tectonic Theory - explains how continents moving throughout time have
influenced the environments of past organisms.

Mass Extinction - periods in Earth's history when abnormally large numbers of species
die out simultaneously or within Q limited time frame.
-​ The end of an Era is marked by a Mass Extinction.
-​ The most severe occurred at the end of the Paleozoic Era when 96% of all
species perished.

1. Recombinant DNA​ ​ ​ ​ 6. Deoxyribonucleic Acid

2. Vector Genome​ ​ ​ ​ 7. Industrial application
3. Gene Cloning​ ​ ​ ​ 8. Donor Organism
4. Genes​ ​ ​ ​ ​ 9. Medical application
5. Agricultural Application ​ ​ ​ 10. Genetic Engineering
Darwin’s Theory of Evolution
Big cats like lions and tigers have many things in common with their structures, morphology,
diet, and more.​
These animals are products of evolution, and their similarities likely originate from their
common ancestors. ​
One of the individuals who have contributed most to our understanding of evolution was Charles
Darwin.​
Charles Darwin​
​
●​ He was born Charles Robert Darwin on February 12, 1809 in England.​
​
●​ He showed an interest in the natural world from a young age.​
The HMS Beagle​
​
●​ The Beagle had three major voyages around the world.​
​
●​ Charles Darwin joined the second voyage.​

An artist’s sketch of the Beagle

The path of the second voyage of HMS Beagle, from 1831 to1836
 What are the ways by which mainland species can become geographically isolated on a distant
set of islands?​

Galápagos Finches​
●​ The most famous observations Darwin has made in the Galapagos are related to the
Galapagos finches. He noticed great variation.​
●​ Darwin concluded that the shape and size of the beaks of the Galapagos finches were
closely related to the type of food that the finches consume.​
Darwin, as a result of his observations, developed his theory of evolution.
On the Origin of Species​
​
Darwin’s ideas were published in the book On the Origin of Species, which remains
famous and relevant until today.
Title Page of Darwin’s work

Four Distinct parts of Darwin’s Theory

Common Descent​
●​ ​All species have common ancestry.​
Speciation​
●​ Speciation refers to the process by which organisms change and evolve to form a distinct
new species. ​
​Gradualism​
 ●​ The change that happens to species does so over very long periods of time.​
​Natural Selection​
●​ ​Organisms with favorable traits are more likely to survive and reproduce
Darwin’s Theory was different from the theories that came before
How?
●​ Offered physical and scientific explanations​
●​ Described the steps of evolution​
●​ Described that evolution occurred in groups​
●​ Recognized the role of environmental influences

​ ot all of the ideas that Darwin put forth in his book are still correct in modern evolutionary
N
standards.​
​
However, the major points of the book paved the way for the development of modern
evolutionary theory.​

Identify the terms being described by the statements below.​

1.​ This was the vessel whose crew Darwin was part of. ​
2.​ The Galapagos Islands are part of this country.​
3.​ This side of South America was the one that item no. 1 mapped out first.​
Identify the term or phrase that makes the statement false and change it to
make the sentence accurate.​
1.​ Charles Darwin joined the third journey of HMS Beagle. ​
2.​ Evolution occurs in individual organisms. ​
3.​ Charles Lyell’s findings show that Earth is young. ​
​

●​ Charles Darwin was an English naturalist who extensively studied evolution.​

●​ ​Darwin and his publication, On the Origin of Species, influenced much of our
understanding of evolution today.​
●​ Darwin joined the second voyage of HMS Beagle and traveled the world as part of its
crew. His observations about the natural world while traveling fueled many of his ideas
about biological evolution.​

Darwin’s main observations involved the following:​

●​ resemblances between organisms;​
●​ possible relationships between fossilized and extant organisms, and​
●​ distribution of organisms.
Darwin’s theory can be summarized into its main points, which are the following:​
●​ gradualism;​
●​ speciation;​
●​ natural selection, and​
●​ common descent.

What contributions did Darwin’s observations on fossils make regarding his

theory of evolution?​
Artificial & Natural Selection

Domesticating animals is essential for food security since humans rely on livestock as a
food source.

Population
-​ A population refers to a group of individuals that belong to a species.
-​ This lives in an area and interbreed with one another to form offspring.

Concept of Evolution
Evolution - Evolution is a process where the
transformation of species happens through time.

The ancestor, known as the founder species, diverged

into two lineages.

Amakihi and Nihos finch are the descendants and the

products of speciation.

How can evolution cause changes in

population?
●​ It is the genetic changes in populations
that are passed on to successive
generations over time.
Natural Selection - refers to the process where individual organisms that have
favorable traits experience greater fitness and reproductive success than those that do
not have the trait.
-​ Selected traits through natural selection are the ones that deal with changes in
the environment wherein they allow organisms to capture food efficiently, or
escape predators swiftly.
-​ These changes through natural selection leads to higher chance of survival of the
species in the community.
-​ Example: A classic example is the finches that have different beak shapes and
sizes depending on the type of food that is available in their habitat.

Overproduction - every species tends to produce more individuals than can

survive to maturity.
Variation - the individuals of a population have many characteristics that differ.
Selection - some individuals survive longer and reproduce more than others do.
Adaptation - the traits of those individuals that survive and reproduce will
become more common in a population.

Artificial Selection - is the process of selecting plants or animal individuals for

breeding. This principle was developed from our understanding of heritable traits.
-​ Artificial selection served as the primary principle behind selective breeding
used for producing new varieties of plants and animals.
-​ Through selective breeding, there is an increase in chances of achieving
desirable traits that could lead to higher production in any plant or animal
derived products.

Human Reproduction & Development

Reproduction is an important biological feature among living organisms that enable

them to persist for many generations.

Human Life Stages

●​ Infancy - Ages 0 to 2 years old with a continuous physical development
●​ Childhood - Ages 1 to 12 years old; locomotor and cognitive skills
●​ Adolescent - Ages 13 to 19 years old; undergoing various
●​ Adulthood - Ages 20 years and onwards; sexually mature

Various changes during puberty in humans serve as physical, physiological, and

behavioral preparations for adulthood.
Human Reproduction
●​ Mode is exclusively sexual
●​ No viable asexual means
●​ Genetic material from two sources
●​ Prevents mutations from increasing

Male Reproductive Anatomy

Testis (Testes) - Male gonad that produces and nourishes sperm cells
Scrotum - External sac that regulates temperature for testis
Epididymis - Stores sperm cells produced and transports them to vas deferens
Urethra - Common exit duct for both the urine and semen
Vas Deferens - Pathway of sperms from testis to the urethra
Seminal Vesicle - Contributes alkaline fluid that nourishes and protects sperm cells
Prostate Gland - Contributes a fluid that neutralizes semen and vaginal fluid
Penis - Copulatory organ that conveys sperm to female reproductive tract

Female Reproductive Anatomy

Ovary - Female gonad that produces and nourishes egg cells

Fallopian Tubes - Ducts that serve as fertilization site and leads to the uterus
Fimbriae - Appendages of the fallopian tubes that catch eggs during ovulation
Uterus - Highly vascularized sac that nourishes the developing embryo
Cervix - Narrow channel that prevents further entry of foreign materials
Vagina - Receives the sperm cells and serves as the birth canal
External Genitalia - Accessory structures of the female reproductive system
Human Fertilization
-​ Fusion of the gametes or sex cells from male and female parents
-​ Sperm cell must pass through the granulosa and jelly coat layers
-​ With slow-block and fast-block mechanisms against polyspermy
-​ Produces the zygote with normal or restored chromosome number

Embryonic Membranes - The placenta is a structure during gestation that supplies the
developing fetus with oxygen and nutrients from the mother. Also, it removes the wastes
accumulated by the fetus.

●​ Germinal - 0-2 weeks

●​ Embryonic - 3-8 weeks
●​ Fetal - 9 weeks - birth
The human life cycle begins with fertilization and is accompanied by a series of growth
and developmental events that allow the full formation of the offspring.

During the second week of human development in the uterus, the implanted embryonic
cells start to organize into layers and form the extraembryonic membranes, namely
the amnion, the yolk sac, the allantois, and the chorion.

Human development can be divided into embryonic and fetal periods.

Pre-embryonic, embryonic, and fetal periods of development in humans