II.

DISCUSSION

Faraday’s Law

The first productive experiments concerning the effects of time-varying

magnetic fields were performed by Michael Faraday in 1831. One of his
early experiments is represented in Figure 1. An electromagnetic field is
induced when the magnetic field in the coil is changed by pushing a bar
magnet into or out of the coil. Emfs of opposite signs are produced by
motion in opposite directions, and the directions of emfs are also reversed
by reversing poles. The same results are produced if the coil is moved
rather than the magnet—it is the relative motion that is important. The
faster the motion, the greater the emf, and there is no emf when the
magnet is stationary relative to the coil.

Figur1. Movement of a magnet relative

coil produces
to a emfs as shown
–d). The
emfs are produced if the coil is moved
e (a relative to the magnet.
-lived emf
same This
is short
only
present during the motion. The greater the speed, the greater the magnitude of the emf,
the emf is zero when
and s no motion, as shown in
there i (e).
Faraday also discovered that a similar effect can be produced using
two circuits—a changing current in one circuit induces a current in a
second, nearby circuit. For example, when the switch is closed in circuit 1
of Figure 1a, the ammeter needle of circuit 2 momentarily deflects,
indicating that a short lived current surge has been induced in that circuit.
The ammeter needle quickly returns to its original position, where it
remains. However, if the switch of circuit 1 is now suddenly opened,
another short-lived current surge in the direction opposite from before is
observed in circuit 2.
 Figure [Link] the switch of circuit 1 produces
-lived acurrent surge in
2. (b) If the
(a) switch remains closed, no current
short is observed in circuit 2. (c) Opening the
circuit
switch againproduces a -lived current in circuit 2 but in the opposite direction
before. short from

Faraday realized that in both experiments, a current flowed in the circuit

containing the ammeter only when the magnetic field in the region
occupied by that circuit was changing. As the magnet of the figure was
moved, the strength of its magnetic field at the loop changed; and when
the current in circuit 1 was turned on or off, the strength of its magnetic
field at circuit 2 changed. Faraday was eventually able to interpret these
and all other experiments involving magnetic fields that vary with time in
terms of the following law.
So, we see that changing the magnitude or direction of a magnetic field

called the magnetic flux 𝜱, given by

produces an emf. Experiments revealed that there is a crucial quantity

𝜱 = 𝑩𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽

where 𝑩 is the magnetic field strength over an area 𝑨, at an angle 𝜽 with

magnetic flux 𝜱 induces an emf. This process is defined to be

the perpendicular to the area as shown in Figure 3. Any change in

electromagnetic induction. Units of magnetic flux 𝜱 are 𝐓 ∙ 𝐦. As seen in

Figure 3, 𝑩 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 = 𝑩⊥, which is the component of 𝑩 perpendicular to
the area 𝑨. Thus, magnetic flux is 𝜱 = 𝑩⊥𝑨, the product of the area and
the component of the magnetic field perpendicular to it.
Figure 3. Magnetic flux 𝜱 is related to the magnetic field and the area over which it
exists. The flux 𝜱 = 𝑩𝑨 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 s related to induction; any change in 𝜱 induces an emf.

change in magnetic flux 𝜱. For example, Faraday changed 𝑩 and hence

All induction, including the examples given so far, arises from some

𝜱 when opening and closing the switch in his apparatus.

Faraday’s experiments showed that the emf induced by a change in

proportional to the change in flux ∆𝜱. Second, emf is greatest when the
magnetic flux depends on only a few factors. First, emf is directly

change in time ∆𝒕 is smallest—that is, emf is inversely proportional to ∆𝒕.

Finally, if a coil has 𝑵 turns, an emf will be produced that is 𝑵 times
greater than for a single coil, so that emf is directly proportional to 𝑵. The
equation for the emf induced by a change in magnetic flux is
∆𝜱
𝐞𝐦𝐟 = −𝐍
∆𝒕
This relationship is known as Faraday’s law of induction. The units for
emf are volts, as is usual.
The minus sign in Faraday’s law of induction is very important. The minus

the change in flux ∆𝜱 —this is known as Lenz’s law. The direction (given
means that the emf creates a current I and magnetic field B that oppose

by the minus sign) of the emf is so important that it is called Lenz’s law
after the Russian Heinrich Lenz (1804–1865), who, like Faraday and Henry,
independently investigated aspects of induction. Faraday was aware of the
direction, but Lenz stated it so clearly that he is credited for its discovery.
Induced electric field and electrostatic field are different from each
other. An electrostatic field is produced by static distribution of charge and
determined via Coulomb's law. An induced electric field is a
nonconservative electric field.
Electromagnetic Induction is the process of using magnetic fields
to produce voltage, and in a closed circuit, a current.
So how much voltage (emf) can be induced into the coil using just
magnetism. Well, this is determined by the following 3 different factors.

1. Increasing the number of turns of wire in the coil – By increasing the

amount of individual conductors cutting through the magnetic field,
the amount of induced emf produced will be the sum of all the
individual loops of the coil, so if there are 20 turns in the coil there
will be 20 times more induced emf than in one piece of wire.
2. Increasing the speed of the relative motion between the coil and the
magnet – If the same coil of wire passed through the same magnetic
field but its speed or velocity is increased, the wire will cut the lines
of flux at a faster rate so more induced emf would be produced.
3. Increasing the strength of the magnetic field – If the same coil of
wire is moved at the same speed through a stronger magnetic field,
 there will be more emf produced because there are more lines of
force to cut.

Sample Problem 1: Calculating Emf: How Great Is the Induced Emf?

Calculate the magnitude of the induced emf when the magnet in Figure

coil has a radius of 6.00 cm and the average value of 𝑩 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 (this is
4(a) is thrust into the coil, given the following information: the single loop

given, since the bar magnet’s field is complex) increases from 0.0500 T to
0.250 T in 0.100 s.

Figure 4

Strategy:

∆𝜱 stated by 𝐞𝐦𝐟 = −𝐍
To find the magnitude of emf, we use Faraday’s law of induction as
, but without the minus
sign that indicates direction:
∆𝒕

∆𝜱
𝐞𝐦𝐟 = 𝐍
∆𝒕
Solution:

We are given that 𝐍 = 𝟏 and ∆𝒕 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒔, but we must determine the

change in flux ∆𝜱 before we can find emf. Since the area of the loop is
fixed, we see that,
∆𝜱 = ∆(𝑩𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽) = 𝑨∆ (𝑩 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽)

Now ∆ (𝑩 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽) = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝑻, since it was given that 𝑩 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 changes

from
0.0500 to 0.250 T. The area of the loop is 𝑨 = 𝝅𝒓𝟐 = (𝟑. 𝟏𝟒. . . )(𝟎.
𝟎𝟔𝟎𝒎)𝟐 =
𝟏. 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝒎𝟐. Thus,

∆𝜱 = (𝟏. 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝒎𝟐)(𝟎. 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝑻)

 Entering the determined values into the expression for emf gives

∆𝜱 (𝟏. 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝒎𝟐)(𝟎. 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝑻)

𝐞𝐦𝐟 = 𝐍 == 𝟐𝟐. 𝟔 𝐦𝐕
∆𝒕 𝟎. 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝐬

Discussion:
While this is an easily measured voltage, it is certainly not large enough
for most practical applications. More loops in the coil, a stronger magnet,
and faster movement make induction the practical source of voltages that
it is.

Lenz’s Law
Lenz’s law states that an induced current or emf always
tends to oppose or cancel out the change that caused it. Lenz’s
law can be derived from Faraday’s law and is often easier to use.
Lenz’s law does not specify just what kind of change causes the
induced emf and current. The statement of Lenz’s law is purposely left
vague to cover
 An alternative statement of Lenz’s law in terms of magnetic flux is
frequently of use. This statement is

When a magnetic flux through surface changes, the magnetic

field due to any induced current produces a flux of its own—
through the same surface and opposite in sign to the initial
change in flux.

Sample Problem 3: Lenz’s Law and Induced Current

 Using the alternative statement of Lenz’s law, find the direction of the
induced current in the loop shown in Figure 5.

Picture :
Use the alternative statement of Lenz’s law to determine the direction of
the magnetic field due to the current induced in the loop. When a
magnetic flux through surface changes, the magnetic field due to any
induced current produces a flux of its own —through the same surface and
opposite in sign to the initial change in flux. Then use a right -hand rule to
determine the direction of the induced current .

Solve:

STEP 1. Draw a sketch of the loop bounding the flat surface 𝑺 (See Figure
7). On surface 𝑺 draw the vector ∆ሬ𝑩ሬ Ԧ𝟏, which is the change in
the magnetic field ሬ𝑩ሬ Ԧ𝟏 of the approaching bar magnet on 𝑺.

Source:(PAUL A. TIPLER2008)
Figure 7

STEP 2. On the sketch, draw the vector ሬ𝑩ሬ Ԧ𝟐, which is the magnetic field
of the current induced in the loop (See Figure 4). Because ሬ𝑩ሬ Ԧ𝟐
was initially zero, ሬ𝑩ሬ Ԧ𝟐 is in the same direction as ∆ሬ𝑩ሬ Ԧ𝟐. Use
the alternative statement of Lenz’s law to determine the direction
of ሬ𝑩ሬ Ԧ𝟐. ሬ𝑩ሬ Ԧ𝟐 and ∆ሬ𝑩ሬ Ԧ𝟏, must penetrate 𝑺 in opposite
 directions for the change in the flux of ሬ𝑩ሬ Ԧ𝟐 to be opposite in sign
to the change in flux of ሬ𝑩ሬ Ԧ𝟏.

Source:(PAUL A. TIPLER2008)
Figure8

STEP 3. Using the right-hand rule and the direction of ሬ𝑩ሬ Ԧ𝟐, determine
the direction of the current induced in the loop (Figure 9):

Source:(PAUL A. TIPLER2008)
Figure9

Check: The step-3 result gives the same direction as was obtained on
Figure 5 using the initial statement of Lenz’s law.

Lenz’s law can also be considered in terms of conservation of energy. If

pushing a magnet into a coil causes current, the energy in that current
must have come from somewhere. If the induced current causes a
magnetic field opposing the increase in field of the magnet we pushed in,
then the situation is clear. We pushed a magnet against a field and did
work on the system, and that showed up as current. If it were not the case
that the induced field opposes the change in the flux, the magnet would
be pulled in produce a current without anything having done work. Electric
potential energy would have been created, violating the conservation of
energy.

To use Lenz’s law to determine the directions of induced magnetic fields,

currents, and emfs:
1. Make a sketch of the situation for use in visualizing and recording
directions.
2. Determine the direction of the applied magnetic field.
3. Determine whether its magnetic flux is increasing or decreasing.
4. Now determine the direction of the induced magnetic field. The
induced magnetic field tries to reinforce a magnetic flux that is
decreasing or opposes a magnetic flux that is increasing.
Therefore, the induced magnetic field adds or subtracts to the
applied magnetic field, depending on the change in magnetic
flux.

5. Use right-hand rule 2 to determine the direction of the

field ሬ𝑩ሬ Ԧ.
induced current I that is responsible for the induced magnetic

6. The direction (or polarity) of the induced emf can now drive a
conventional current in this direction.

magnetic field opposite to the original field if original ሬ𝑩ሬ Ԧ increases, but
If the flux in a stationary circuit changes, the induced current sets up a

in the same direction as original ሬ𝑩ሬ Ԧ if ሬ𝑩ሬ Ԧ decreases.

The induced current opposes the change in the flux through a circuit
(not the flux itself).

If the change in flux is due to the motion of a conductor, the direction of

the induced current in the moving conductor is such that the direction of
the magnetic force on the conductor is opposite in direction to its motion
(e.g. slide-wire generator). The induced current tries to preserve the
“status quo” by opposing motion or a change of flux.
Lenz’s Law and the Response to Flux Changes

magnitude depends on the circuit’s resistance. Large 𝑹 → small induced 𝑰

Lenz’s Law gives only the direction of an induced current. The

→ easier to change flux through circuit.

If loop is a good conductor → 𝑰 induced present as long as magnet moves

with respect to loop. When relative motion stops → 𝑰 = 𝟎 quickly (due to
circuit’s resistance).

If 𝑹 = 𝟎 (superconductor) → 𝑰 induced (persistent current) flows even

after induced emf has disappeared (after magnet stopped moving relative
to move → flux through loop of 𝑹 = 𝟎 does not change.
to loop). The flux through loop is the same as before the magnet started

Magnetic Levitation

The principle of levitation is Lenz' rule:

1. The magnetic field created by the induced current in a metallic

sample due to time-fluctuation of the external magnetic field of the
coil wants to avoid its cause (i.e., the coil's fluctuating magnetic
field).

2. Thus, the induced magnetic field in the sample and the external
fluctuating magnetic field of the coil repel each other.

3. The induced magnetic field (and the sample) move away from its
cause, i.e. away from the coil's magnetic field. Then, for a conical
coil (smaller radius at the bottom than at the top) the metallic
sample will move upward due to this levitation force, until the force
of gravity balances the force of levitation. (The levitation force is
larger at the bottom of the conical coil than at the top of the coil).

Direct Current vs. Alternating Current

Direct current (DC) is the flow of electric charge in only one direction. It
is the steady state of a constant-voltage circuit. Most well-known
applications, however, use a time-varying voltage source.

Alternating current (AC) is the flow of electric charge that periodically

reverses direction. If the source varies periodically, particularly
sinusoidally, the circuit is known as an alternating current circuit.
Commercial and residential power that serves so many of our needs are
some of the examples.
 (a)

(b)

Retrieved from[Link]

Figure 10. (a) DC voltage and current are constant in time once the current is
established. (b) A graph of voltage and current versus time for 60-Hz AC power.

The voltage and current are sinusoidal and are in phase for a simple resistance circuit.
The frequencies and peak voltages of AC sources differ greatly.

Properties of LC Circuits

An LC circuit is simply a closed loop with only two elements, a capacitor,

and an inductor. An inductor is a coil of conductor attached to a circuit for
the purpose of inducing EMF. We will show that the LC circuits have
resonant properties - they respond to certain frequencies. Therefore, they
can serve as the basis for any device that needs to tune to a specific
frequency such as a radio. In a LC loop the charge oscillates back and
forth through the capacitor with a given frequency just as a mass on a
spring oscillates.

Retrieved from
[Link]
Figur1 . An 𝑳 circuit. When the switch is closed, the initially charged
capacitor
e 𝑪
1 discharges through the inductor, producing a back emf.
 An LC circuit, oscillating at its natural resonant frequency, can store
electrical energy. A capacitor stores energy in the electric field (E)
between its plates, depending on the voltage across it, and an inductor
stores energy in its magnetic field (B), depending on the current through
it.

Let’s consider that the capacitor is fully charged. This means that all the
electric energy in the circuit is stored in the capacitor. Consequently, there
is no current in the circuit, and no energy is stored in the inductor. When
we close the circuit, current is discharged in the capacitor proportional to
the flow of current that is now in the circuit. As the current flows into the
circuit, some units of energy start to be stored in the inductor. Full
discharge of the capacitor means no energy is left in it. Once the capacitor
is fully discharged, the current in the circuit reaches its maximum value,
and all the electrical energy is stored in the inductor. When the switch is
open, the current continues to flow in the same direction. Its magnitude
decreases as the capacitor eventually becomes fully charged again with
the polarity of its plates reversed as compared to when the switch is close.

The behavior of an LC circuit is thus analogous to that of a mass on a

spring. The inductance can be thought of as the inertia of an AC circuit.
The greater the inductance, the more opposition there is to changes in
the current.

The total energy is constant, and that the total energy oscillates between
potential energy and kinetic energy. We also have two kinds of energy in
the LC circuit—electric energy and magnetic energy.
 Source: (David 2017)

Figure 12. How LC circuits work. (a) When the switch is closed, all the energy stored
in the capacitor gets discharged into the current, and then stored in the inductor. (b)
When the switch is open, the capacitor begins storing electrical energy again.

Why Use AC for Power Distribution?

Most large power-distribution systems are AC. Moreover, the power is

transmitted at much higher voltages than the 120-V AC (240 V in most
parts of the world) we use in homes and on the job. Economies of scale
make it cheaper to build a few very large electric power-generation plants
than to build numerous small ones. This necessitates sending power long
distances, and it is obviously important that energy losses in route be
minimized. High voltages can be transmitted with much smaller power
losses than low voltages, as we shall see. For safety reasons, the voltage
at the user is reduced to familiar values. The crucial factor is that it is
much easier to increase and decrease AC voltages than DC, so AC is used
in most large power distribution systems.

It is widely recognized that high voltages pose greater hazards than low
voltages. But, in fact, some high voltages, such as those associated with
common static electricity, can be harmless. So, it is not voltage alone that
determines a hazard. It is not so widely recognized that AC shocks are
often more harmful than similar DC shocks. Thomas Edison thought that
AC shocks were more harmful and set up a DC power-distribution system
in New York City in the late 1800s. There were bitter fights, in particular
between Edison and George Westinghouse and Nikola Tesla, who were
advocating the use of AC in early power-distribution systems. AC has
prevailed largely due to transformers and lower power losses with high-
voltage transmission.

II. Directions: Identify the correct answer. Choose the correct

answer inside the box.

LC Circuit AC Circuit
DC Circuit constant
mass on a spring inductance
direction electric energy
Lenz’s Law magnetic energy

_____ 1. It is simply a closed loop with only two elements, a capacitor, and
an inductor.
_____ 2. It is the flow of electric charge in only one direction. It is the
steady state of a constant-voltage circuit.
_____ 3. The behavior of an LC circuit is thus analogous to that of a _____.
_____ 4. Lenz’s Law gives only the ____ of an induced current.
_____ 5. It states that an induced current or emf always tends to oppose or
cancel out the change that caused it.
_____ 6. It is the flow of electric charge that periodically reverses direction.
_____ 7. The total energy in a LC circuit is ___.
_____ 8. The greater the ____, the more opposition there is to changes in
the current.
_____ 9-10. What are the two types of energy found in LC Circuit?

III. Directions: Solve the problem below. Show your solution.

Calculate the magnitude of the induced emf when the magnet in
Figure 4(a) is thrust into the coil, given the following information:
the single loop coil has a radius of 8.00 cm and the average value
 of 𝑩 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 (this is given, since the bar magnet’s field is
complex) increases from 0.0700 T to 0.280 T in 0.200 s.

a. Given:
b. Formula:
c. Solution:
d. Final Answer:

 The faster the motion, the greater the emf, and there is no emf when the magnet is
stationary relative to the coil.
 Bar magnet is a rectangular piece of an object that shows permanent magnetic properties
and are made from the ferromagnetic substance.
 Circuit is a path for transmitting electric current.
 Direct current is an electric current which flows only in one direction.
 Emf is directly proportional to the change in flux ∆𝛷.
 An Induced electric field is a nonconservative electric field.
 Faraday also discovered that a similar effect can be produced using two circuits—a changing
current in one circuit induces a current in a second, nearby circuit.
 An Electromagnetic Induction is the process of using magnetic fields to produce voltage,
and in a closed circuit, a current.
 Emf-electricmotive force
 Changing the magnitude of direction of a magnetic field produces an emf.
 Magnet is any material capable of attracting iron and producing a magnetic field outside
itself.
 Electricity is the flow of charge.
 Lenz’s Wal statement that an induced electric current flow in a direction such that the
current opposes the change that induced it.
 Alternating current is an electric current which periodically reverses direction and changes
its magnitude continuously with time.