ANALOG ELECTRONICS

MODULE 1I

TRANSISTOR BIASING AND STABILIZATION

NEED FOR TRANSISTOR BIASING
If the o/p signal must be a faithful reproduction of the i/p signal, the transistor must be operated
in active region. That means an operating point has to be established in this region . To establish an
operating point (proper values of collector current I c and collector to emitter voltage V CE) appropriate
supply voltages and resistances must be suitably chosen in the ckt. This process of selecting proper
supply voltages and resistance for obtaining desired operating point or Q point is called as biasing and
the ckt used for transistor biasing is called as biasing ckt. There are four conditions to be met by a
transistor so that it acts as a faithful ampr:
1) Emitter base junction must be forward biased (VBE=0.7Vfor Si, 0.2V for Ge) and collector
base junction must be reverse biased for all levels of i/p signal.
2) Vce voltage should not fall below VCE (sat) (0.3V for Si, 0.1V for Ge) for any part of the i/p
signal. For VCE less than VCE (sat) the collector base junction is not probably reverse biased.
3) The value of the signal Ic when no signal is applied should be at least equal to the max. collector
current t due to signal alone.
4) Max. rating of the transistor Ic(max), VCE (max) and PD(max) should not be exceeded at any value of
i/p signal.

Consider the fig shown in fig1. If operating point is selected at A, A represents a condition when no
bias is applied to the transistor i.e, I c=0, VCE =0. It does not satisfy the above said conditions necessary
for faithful amplification. Point C is too close to P D(max) curve of the transistor. Therefore the o/p voltage
swing in the positive direction is limited. Point B is located in the middle of active region .It will allow
both positive and negative half cycles in the o/p signal. It also provides linear gain and larger possible
o/p voltages and currents. Hence operating point for a transistor amplifier is selected to be in the middle
of active region.

CE Output Characteristics
DC LOAD LINE

Referring to the biasing circuit of fig 4.2a, the values of VCC and RC are fixed and Ic and VCE are
dependent on RB.

Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the collector circuit in fig. 4.2a, we get

a) CE Amplifier circuit (b) Load line

The straight line represented by AB in fig4.2b is called the dc load line. The coordinates of the end

point A are obtained by substituting VCE =0 in the above equation. Then . Therefore The

coordinates of A are VCE =0 and .

The coordinates of B are obtained by substituting Ic=0 in the above equation. Then Vce = Vcc.
Therefore the coordinates of B are V CE =Vcc and Ic=0. Thus the dc load line AB can be drawn if the
values of Rc and Vcc are known.

As shown in the fig4.2b, the optimum POINT IS LOCATED AT THE MID POINT OF THE
MIDWAY BETWEEN a AND b. In order to get faithful amplification, the Q point must be well within
the active region of the transistor.

Even though the Q point is fixed properly, it is very important to ensure that the operating point
remains stable where it is originally fixed. If the Q point shifts nearer to either A or B, the output voltage
and current get clipped, thereby o/p signal is distorted.

In practice, the Q-point tends to shift its position due to any or all of the following three main
factors.

5) Reverse saturation current, Ico, which doubles for every 10oC raise in temperature
6) Base emitter Voltage ,VBE, which decreases by 2.5 mV per oC
7) Transistor current gain, hFE or β which increases with temperature.

If base current IB is kept constant since IB is approximately equal to Vcc/RB. If the transistor is
replaced by another one of the same type, one cannot ensure that the new transistor will have
identical parameters as that of the first one. Parameters such as β vary over a range. This results in the
variation of collector current Ic for a given I B. Hence , in the o/p characteristics, the spacing between the
curves might increase or decrease which leads to the shifting of the Q-point to a location which might be
completely unsatisfactory.

AC LOAD LINE

After drawing the dc load line, the operating point Q is properly located at the center of the dc
load line. This operating point is chosen under zero input signal condition of the circuit. Hence the ac
load line should also pas through the operating point Q. The effective ac load resistance R ac, is a

combination of RC parallel to RL i.e. || . So the slope of the ac load line CQD will be .
To draw the ac load line, two end points, I.e. VCE(max) and IC(max) when the signal is applied are required.

, which locates point D on the Vce axis.

, which locates the point C on the IC axis.

By joining points c and D, ac load line CD is constructed. As RC > Rac, The dc load line is less steep
than ac load line.

STABILITY FACTOR (S):

The rise of temperature results in increase in the value of transistor gain β and the leakage current
Ico. So, IC also increases which results in a shift in operating point. Therefore, The biasing network
should be provided with thermal stability. Maintenance of the operating point is specified by S, which
indicates the degree of change in operating point due to change in temperature.

The extent to which IC is stabilized with varying IC is measured by a stability factor S

For CE configuration

Differentiate the above equation w.r.t IC , We get

S should be small to have better thermal stability.

 Stability factor S’ and S’’:

S’ is defined as the rate of change of IC with VBE, keeping IC and VBE constant.

S’’ is defined as the rate of change of IC with β, keeping ICO and VBE constant.

METHODS OF TRANSISTOR BIASING

1) Fixed bias (base bias)

Fig 4.3 Fixed Biasing Circuit

This form of biasing is also called base bias. In the fig 4.3 shown, the single power source (for
example, battery) is used for both collector and base of a transistor, although separate batteries can also be
used.

In the given circuit,

Vcc = IBRB + Vbe

Therefore, IB = (Vcc - Vbe)/RB

Since the equation is independent of current ICR, dIB//dICR =0 and the stability factor is given by the
equation….. reduces to S=1+β
 Since β is a large quantity, this is very poor biasing circuit. Therefore in practice the circuit is not used fo
biasing.

For a given transistor, Vbe does not vary significantly during use. As Vcc is of fixed value, on selection of
R the base current IB is fixed. Therefore this type is called fixed bias type of circuit.

Also for given circuit, Vcc = ICRC + Vce

Therefore, Vce = Vcc - ICRC

Merits:It is simple to shift the operating point anywhere in the active region by merely changing
the base resistor (RB).
 A very small number of components are required.

Demerits: The collector current does not remain constant with variation in temperature or power
supply voltage. Therefore the operating point is unstable.
 Changes in Vbe will change IB and thus cause RE to change. This in turn will alter the
gain of the stage.
 When the transistor is replaced with another one, considerable change in the value of β
can be expected. Due to this change the operating point will shift.

2) EMITTER-FEEDBACK BIAS:

The emitter feedback bias circuit is shown in the fig 4.4. The fixed bias circuit is modified by
attaching an external resistor to the emitter. This resistor introduces negative feedback that stabilizes the
Q-point. From Kirchhoff's voltage law, the voltage across the base resistor is

VRb = VCC - IeRe - Vbe.

Self Biasing Circuit

From Ohm's law, the base current is

Ib = VRb / Rb.
 The way feedback controls the bias point is as follows. If Vbe is held constant and temperature
increases, emitter current increases. However, a larger Ie increases the emitter voltage Ve = IeRe, which
in turn reduces the voltage VRb across the base resistor. A lower base-resistor voltage drop reduces the
base current, which results in less collector current because Ic = ß IB. Collector current and emitter
current are related by Ic = α Ie with α ≈ 1, so increase in emitter current with temperature is opposed, and
operating point is kept stable.

Similarly, if the transistor is replaced by another, there may be a change in IC (corresponding to

change in β-value, for example). By similar process as above, the change is negated and operating point
kept stable.

For the given circuit,

IB = (VCC - Vbe)/(RB + (β+1)RE).

Merits: The circuit has the tendency to stabilize operating point against changes in temperature
and β-value.

Demerits: In this circuit, to keep IC independent of β the following condition must be met:

which is approximately the case if ( β + 1 )RE >> RB.

As β-value is fixed for a given transistor, this relation can be satisfied either by keeping RE very large, or
making RB very low.
If RE is of large value, high VCC is necessary. This increases cost as well as precautions necessary while
handling.

If RB is low, a separate low voltage supply should be used in the base circuit. Using two supplies of
different voltages is impractical. In addition to the above, RE causes ac feedback which reduces the voltage
gain of the amplifier.

3)COLLECTOR TO BASE BIAS OR COLLECTOR FEED-BACK BIAS:

Collector to Base Biasing Circuit

This configuration shown in fig 4.5 employs negative feedback to prevent thermal runaway and stabilize
the operating point. In this form of biasing, the base resistor RB is connected to the collector instead of
connecting it to the DC source Vcc. So any thermal runaway will induce a voltage drop across the RC
resistor that will throttle the transistor's base current.

From Kirchhoff's voltage law, the voltage across the base resistor Rb is

By the Ebers–Moll model, Ic = βIb, and so

From Ohm's law, the base current , and so

Hence, the base current Ib is

If Vbe is held constant and temperature increases, then the collector current Ic increases.
However, a larger Ic causes the voltage drop across resistor Rc to increase, which in turn reduces the
voltage across the base resistor Rb. A lower base-resistor voltage drop reduces the base current Ib,
which results in less collector current Ic. Because an increase in collector current with temperature is
opposed, the operating point is kept stable.

Merits: Circuit stabilizes the operating point against variations in temperature and β (i.e. replacement of
transistor)

Demerits:In this circuit, to keep Ic independent of β, the following condition must be met:

which is the case when

  As β-value is fixed (and generally unknown) for a given transistor, this relation can be
satisfied either by keeping Rc fairly large or making Rb very low.

 If Rc is large, a high Vcc is necessary, which increases cost as well as precautions

necessary while handling.
 If Rb is low, the reverse bias of the collector–base region is small, which limits the range
of collector voltage swing that leaves the transistor in active mode.

 The resistor Rb causes an AC feedback, reducing the voltage gain of the amplifier. This
undesirable effect is a trade-off for greater Q-point stability.

Usage: The feedback also decreases the input impedance of the amplifier as seen from the base,
which can be advantageous. Due to the gain reduction from feedback, this biasing form is used only
when the trade-off for stability is warranted.

4)COLLECTOR –EMITTER FEEDBACK BIAS:

Collector-Emitter Biasing Circuit

The above shows the collector –emitter feedback bias circuit that can be obtained by applying
both the collector feedback and emitter feedback. Here the collector feedback is provided by connecting
a resistance RB from the collector to the base and emitter feedback is provided by connecting an emitter
Re from emitter to ground. Both feed backs are used to control collector current and base current IB in
the opposite direction to increase the stability as compared to the previous biasing circuits.
5)VOLTAGE DIVIDER BIAS OR SELF BIAS OR EMITTER BIAS

The voltage divider as shown in the fig 4.7 is formed using external resistors R 1 and R2. The
voltage across R2 forward biases the emitter junction. By proper selection of resistors R 1 and R2, the
operating point of the transistor can be made independent of β. In this circuit, the voltage divider holds
the base voltage fixed independent of base current provided the divider current is large compared to the
base current. However, even with a fixed base voltage, collector current varies with temperature (for
example) so an emitter resistor is added to stabilize the Q-point, similar to the above circuits with
emitter resistor.
 Voltage Divider Biasing Circuit

In this circuit the base voltage is given by:

voltage across

provided .

Also

For the given circuit,

Let the current in resistor R1 is I1 and this is divided into two parts – current through base and
resistor R2. Since the base current is very small so for all practical purpose it is assumed that I1 also
flows through R2, so we have

Applying KVL in the circuit, we have

 It is apparent from above expression that the collector current is independent of ? thus the
stability is excellent. In all practical cases the value of VBE is quite small in comparison to the V2, so it
can be ignored in the above expression so the collector current is almost independent of the transistor
parameters thus this arrangement provides excellent stability.
Again applying KVL in collector circuit, we have

The resistor RE provides stability to the circuit. If the current through the collector rises, the
voltage across the resistor RE also rises. This will cause VCE to increase as the voltage V2 is
independent of collector current. This decreases the base current, thus collector current increases to its
former value.
Stability factor for such circuit arrangement is given by

If Req/RE is very small compared to 1, it can be ignored in the above expression thus we have

Which is excellent since it is the smallest possible value for the stability. In actual practice the
value of stability factor is around 8-10, since Req/RE cannot be ignored as compared to 1.

Merits:

 Unlike above circuits, only one dc supply is necessary.

 Operating point is almost independent of β variation.
 Operating point stabilized against shift in temperature.
 Demerits:

 In this circuit, to keep IC independent of β the following condition must be met:

which is approximately the case if

where R1 || R2 denotes the equivalent resistance of R1 and R2 connected in parallel.

 As β-value is fixed for a given transistor, this relation can be satisfied either by keeping
RE fairly large, or making R1||R2 very low.

 If RE is of large value, high VCC is necessary. This increases cost as well as precautions
necessary while handling.
 If R1 || R2 is low, either R1 is low, or R2 is low, or both are low. A low R1 raises VB
closer to VC, reducing the available swing in collector voltage, and limiting how large R C can be made
without driving the transistor out of active mode. A low R 2 lowers Vbe, reducing the allowed collector
current. Lowering both resistor values draws more current from the power supply and lowers the input
resistance of the amplifier as seen from the base.

 AC as well as DC feedback is caused by R E, which reduces the AC voltage gain of the

amplifier. A method to avoid AC feedback while retaining DC feedback is discussed below.

Usage: The circuit's stability and merits as above make it widely used for linear circuits.

BIAS COMPENSATION USING DIODE AND TRANSISTOR

The various biasing circuits considered use some type of negative feedback to stabilize the
operation point. Also, diodes, thermistors and sensistors can be used to compensate for variations in
current.

DIODE COMPENSATION:

The following shows a transistor amplifier with a diode D connected across the base- emitter
junction for compensation of change in collector saturation current I CO. The diode is of the same material
as the transistor and it is reverse biased by e the emitter-base junction voltage V BE, allowing the diode
reverse saturation current IO to flow through diode D. The base current IB=I-IO.
 As long as temperature is constant, diode D operates as a resistor. As the temperature increases, ICO of
the transistor increases. Hence, to compensate for this, the base current IB should be decreased.
The increase in temperature will also cause the leakage current I O through D to increase and thereby
decrease the base current IB. This is the required action to keep Ic constant.
This type of bias compensation does not need a change in Ic to effect the change in IC, as both IO and
ICO can track almost equally according to the change in temperature.

THERMISTOR COMPENSATION:
The following is a thermistor RT, having a negative temperature coefficient is connected in parallel with
R2. The resistance of thermistor decreases exponentially with increase of temperature. An increase of
temperature will decrease the base voltage VBE, reducing IB and IC.

Thermistor Compensation
for increased Ic caused by the increase in VBE, ICO and β due to temperature.
THERMAL RUNAWAY AND THERMAL STABILITY

THERMAL RUNAWAY:

The collector current for the CE circuit is given by The three variables
in the equation, β, , and increases with rise in temperature. In particular, the reverse saturation
current or leakage current changes greatly with temperature. Specifically it doubles for every 10 oC
rise in temperature. The collector current causes the collector base junction temperature to rise which
in turn, increase , as a result will increase still further, which will further rise the
temperature at the collector base junction. This process will become cumulative leading at the collector
base junction. This process will become cumulative leading to “thermal runaway”. Consequently, the
ratings of the transistor are exceeded which may destroy the transistor itself.

The collector is made larger in size than the emitter in order to help the heat developed at the
collector junction. However if the circuit is designed such that the base current is made to decrease
automatically with rise in temperature, then the decrease in will compensate for increase in the
, keeping almost constant.
THERMAL RESISTANCE

Consider transistor used in a circuit where the ambient temperature of the air around the
transistor is TAoC and the temperature of the collector-base junction of the transistor is T oC.
J

Due to heating within the transistor TJ is higher than TA. As the temperature difference TJ- TA is greater,
the power dissipated in the transistor, PD will be greater, i.e, TJ- TA PD

The equation can be written as T J- TA PD. , where is the constant of proportionality and is
called the Thermal resistance. Rearranging the above equation = TJ- TA /PD. Hence is measured in
o
C/W which may be as small as 0.2 oC/W for a high power transistor that has an efficient heat sink or up
to 1000oC/W for small signal, low power transistor which have no cooling provision.

As Θ represents total thermal resistance from a transistor junction to the ambient temperature, it
is referred to as ΘJ-A. However, for power transistors, thermal resistance is given form junction to case,
ΘJ-C.

The amount resistance from junction to ambience is considered to consist of 2 parts.

ΘJ-A = ΘJ-C - ΘC-A.

Which indicates the heat dissipated in the junction must make its way to the surrounding air through two
series paths from junction to case and from case to air. Hence the power dissipated.

PD = (TJ- TA Θ J-A

=(TJ- TA Θ J-C + Θ C-A)

ΘJ-C is determined by the type of manufacture of the transistor and how it is located I the case, but Θ C-A is
determined by the surface area of the case or flange and its contact with air. If the effective surface area
of the transistor case could be increased, the resistance to heat flows, or could be increased Θ C-A, could
be decreased. This can be achieved by the use of a heat sink.

The heat sink is a relatively large, finned, usually black metallic heat conducting device in close
contact with transistor case or flange. Many versions of heat sink exist depending upon the shape and
size of the transistor. Larger the heat sink smaller is the thermal resistance ΘHS-A.

This thermal resistance is not added to ΘC-A in series, but is instead in parallel with it and if

ΘHS-A is much less than ΘC-A, then ΘC-A will be reduced significantly, thereby improving the dissipation
capability of the transistor. Thus

Θ J-A =Θ J-C + Θ C-A|| ΘHS-A.

CONDITION FOR THERMAL STABILITY

For preventing thermal runaway, the required condition I the rate at which the heat is released at
the collector junction should not exceed the rate at which the heat can be dissipated under steady state
condition. Hence the condition to be satisfied to avoid thermal runaway is given by

If the circuit is properly designed, then the transistor cannot runaway below a specified ambient
temperature or even under any conditions.

In the self biased circuit the transistor is biased in the active region. The power generated at the
junction without any signal is

Let us assume that the quiescent collector and the emitter currents are equal. Then
………………….(1)

The condition to prevent thermal runaway can be written as

As Θ and are positive, should be negative in order to satisfy the above condition.
Differentiating equation (1) w.r.t we get

Hence to avoid thermal runaway it is necessary that

Since VCE=VCC-IC(RE+RC) then eq(4) implies that VCE<VCC/2. IF the inequality of eq(4) is not

satisfied and VCE<VCC/2, then from eq(3), is positive., and the corresponding eq(2) should be
satisfied. Otherwise thermal runaway will occur.

3.1 INTRODUCTION
A bipolar junction transistor (BJT) is a three terminal device in which operation depends on the
interaction of both majority and minority carriers and hence the name bipolar. The BJT is analogues to
vacuum triode and is comparatively smaller in size. It is used as amplifier and oscillator circuits, and as
a switch in digital circuits. It has wide applications in computers, satellites and other modern
communication systems.

3.2 CONSTRUCTION OF BJT AND ITS SYMBOLS

The Bipolar Transistor basic construction consists of two PN-junctions producing three connecting
terminals with each terminal being given a name to identify it from the other two. These three
terminals are known and labelled as the Emitter ( E ), the Base ( B ) and the Collector ( C ) respectively.
There are two basic types of bipolar transistor construction, PNP and NPN, which basically describes
the physical arrangement of the P-type and N-type semiconductor materials from which they are
 made.

Transistors are three terminal active devices made from different semiconductor materials that can act
as either an insulator or a conductor by the application of a small signal voltage. The transistor's ability
to change between these two states enables it to have two basic functions: "switching" (digital
electronics) or "amplification" (analogue electronics). Then bipolar transistors have the ability to
operate within three different regions:

 1. Active Region - the transistor operates as an amplifier and Ic = β.Ib

 2. Saturation - the transistor is "fully-ON" operating as a switch and Ic = I(saturation)
 3. Cut-off - the transistor is "fully-OFF" operating as a switch and Ic = 0

Bipolar Transistors are current regulating devices that control the amount of current flowing through
them in proportion to the amount of biasing voltage applied to their base terminal acting like a
current-controlled switch. The principle of operation of the two transistor types PNP and NPN, is
exactly the same the only difference being in their biasing and the polarity of the power supply for
each type(fig 1).
Bipolar Transistor Construction

Fig 3.1 Bipolar Junction Transistor Symbol

The construction and circuit symbols for both the PNP and NPN bipolar transistor are given
above with the arrow in the circuit symbol always showing the direction of "conventional
current flow" between the base terminal and its emitter terminal. The direction of the arrow
always points from the positive P-type region to the negative N-type region for both transistor
types, exactly the same as for the standard diode symbol.
3.3 TRANSISTOR CURRENT COMPONENTS:

Fig 3.2 Bipolar Junction Transistor Current Components

The above fig 3.2 shows the various current components, which flow across the forward biased emitter
junction and reverse- biased collector junction. The emitter current I E consists of hole current I PE (holes
crossing from emitter into base) and electron current InE (electrons crossing from base into
emitter).The ratio of hole to electron currents, I pE / InE , crossing the emitter junction is proportional to
the ratio of the conductivity of the p material to that of the n material. In a transistor, the doping of
that of the emitter is made much larger than the doping of the base. This feature ensures (in p-n-p
transistor) that the emitter current consists an almost entirely of holes. Such a situation is desired since
the current which results from electrons crossing the emitter junction from base to emitter do not
contribute carriers, which can reach the collector.

Not all the holes crossing the emitter junction JE reach the the collector junction JC
Because some of them combine with the electrons in n-type base. If I pC is hole current at junction JC
there must be a bulk recombination current ( IPE- IpC ) leaving the base.
Actually, electrons enter the base region through the base lead to supply those charges, which have
been lost by recombination with the holes injected in to the base across J E. If the emitter were open
circuited so that IE=0 then IpC would be zero. Under these circumstances, the base and collector
current IC would equal the reverse saturation current ICO. If IE≠0 then
IC= ICO- IpC

For a p-n-p transistor, ICO consists of holes moving across J C from left to right (base to collector) and
electrons crossing JC in opposite direction. Assumed referenced direction for I CO i.e. from right to left,
then for a p-n-p transistor, ICO is negative. For an n-p-n transistor, ICO is [Link] basic operation will
be described using the pnp transistor. The operation of the pnp transistor is exactly the same if the
roles played by the electron and hole are interchanged.

One p-n junction of a transistor is reverse-biased, whereas the other is forward-biased.

3.3a Forward-biased junction of a pnp transistor

3.3b Reverse-biased junction of a pnp transistor

 3.3 c Both biasing potentials have been applied to a pnp transistor and resulting majority and
minority carrier flows indicated.

Majority carriers (+) will diffuse across the forward-biased p-n junction into the n-type material.

A very small number of carriers (+) will through n-type material to the base terminal. Resulting IB is
typically in order of microamperes.

The large number of majority carriers will diffuse across the reverse-biased junction into the p-type
material connected to the collector terminal

Applying KCL to the transistor :

IE = IC + IB

The comprises of two components – the majority and minority carriers

IC = ICmajority + ICOminority

ICO – IC current with emitter terminal open and is called leakage current

Various parameters which relate the current components is given below

Emitter efficiency:

currentofinjectedcar riersatJ E
 
totalemitt ercurrent

I PE
  I pE
I pE  InE 
I nE
 Transport Factor:

injectedca rriercurrentreachingJC
*
injectedca rrierncurrentatJ E
I pC
* 
I nE

Large signal current gain:

The ratio of the negative of collector current increment to the emitter current change from zero (cut-
off)to IE the large signal current gain of a common base transistor.

 (I C  ICO )

IE

Since IC and IE have opposite signs, then α, as defined, is always positive. Typically numerical values of
α lies in the range of 0.90 to 0.995

I pC I pC I pE
  *
IE InE IE
   *

The transistor alpha is the product of the transport factor and the emitter efficiency. This
* *
statement assumes that the collector multiplication ratio  is unity.  is the ratio of total current
crossing JC to hole arriving at the junction.

3.4 Bipolar Transistor Configurations

As the Bipolar Transistor is a three terminal device, there are basically three possible ways to connect
it within an electronic circuit with one terminal being common to both the input and output. Each
method of connection responding differently to its input signal within a circuit as the static
characteristics of the transistor vary with each circuit arrangement.

 1. Common Base Configuration - has Voltage Gain but no Current Gain.

 2 Common Emitter Configuration - has both Current and Voltage Gain.
 3. Common Collector Configuration - has Current Gain but no Voltage Gain.
3.5 COMMON-BASE CONFIGURATION

Common-base terminology is derived from the fact that the : base is common to both input and output
of t configuration. base is usually the terminal closest to or at ground potential. Majority carriers can
cross the reverse-biased junction because the injected majority carriers will appear as minority carriers
in the n-type material. All current directions will refer to conventional (hole) flow and the arrows in all
electronic symbols have a direction defined by this convention.

Note that the applied biasing (voltage sources) are such as to establish current in the direction
indicated for each branch.

Fig 3.4 CB Configuration

To describe the behavior of common-base amplifiers requires two set of characteristics:

1. Input or driving point characteristics.

2. Output or collector characteristics

The output characteristics has 3 basic regions:

 Active region –defined by the biasing arrangements

 Cutoff region – region where the collector current is 0A
  Saturation region- region of the characteristics to the left of VCB = 0V

Fig 3.5 CB Input-Output Characteristics

The curves (output characteristics) clearly indicate that a first approximation to the relationship
between IE and IC in the active region is given by

IC ≈IE

Once a transistor is in the ‘on’ state, the base-emitter voltage will be assumed to beVBE = 0.7V
In the dc mode the level of IC and IE due to the majority carriers are related by a quantity called alpha
= αdc

IC = IE + ICBO

It can then be summarize to IC = IE (ignore ICBO due to small value)

For ac situations where the point of operation moves on the characteristics curve, an ac alpha defined
by αac

Alpha a common base current gain factor that shows the efficiency by calculating the current percent
from current flow from emitter to collector. The value of  is typical from 0.9 ~ 0.998.

Biasing:Proper biasing CB configuration in active region by approximation IC  IE (IB  0 uA)

Fig 3.6 CE Configuration

3.6 TRANSISTOR AS AN AMPLIFIER

Fig 3.7 Basic Transistor Amplifier Circuit

Common-Emitter Configuration

It is called common-emitter configuration since : emitter is common or reference to both input and
output [Link] is usually the terminal closest to or at ground potential.

Almost amplifier design is using connection of CE due to the high gain for current and voltage.

Two set of characteristics are necessary to describe the behavior for CE ;input (base terminal) and
output (collector terminal) parameters.

Proper Biasing common-emitter configuration in active region

Fig 3.8 CE Configuration

IB is microamperes compared to miliamperes of IC.

IB will flow when VBE > 0.7V for silicon and 0.3V for germanium

Before this value IB is very small and no IB.

Base-emitter junction is forward bias Increasing VCE will reduce IB for different values.

Fig 3.9a Input characteristics for common-emitter npn transistor

Fig 3.9b Output characteristics for common-emitter npn transistor

For small VCE (VCE < VCESAT, IC increase linearly with increasing of VCE

VCE > VCESAT IC not totally depends on VCE  constant IC

IB(uA) is very small compare to IC (mA). Small increase in IB cause big increase in IC

IB=0 A  ICEO occur.

Noticing the value when IC=0A. There is still some value of current flows.

Beta () or amplification factor

The ratio of dc collector current (IC) to the dc base current (IB) is dc beta (dc ) which is dc current
gain where IC and IB are determined at a particular operating point, Q-point (quiescent point). It’s
define by the following equation:

30 < dc < 300  2N3904

On data sheet, dc=hfe with h is derived from ac hybrid equivalent cct. FE are derived from forward-
current amplification and common-emitter configuration respectively.
For ac conditions, an ac beta has been defined as the changes of collector current (I C) compared to
the changes of base current (IB) where IC and IB are determined at operating point. On data sheet,
ac=hfe It can defined by the following equation:

From output characteristics of commonemitter configuration, find ac and dc with an

Operating point at IB=25 A and VCE =7.5V

Relationship analysis between α and β

3.7 COMMON – COLLECTOR CONFIGURATION

Also called emitter-follower (EF). It is called common-emitter configuration since both the signal
source and the load share the collector terminal as a common connection [Link] output voltage
is obtained at emitter terminal. The input characteristic of common-collector configuration is
similar with common-emitter. [Link]-collector circuit configuration is provided
with the load resistor connected from emitter to ground. It is used primarily for impedance-
matching purpose since it has high input impedance and low output impedance.

Fig 3.10 CC Configuration

For the common-collector configuration, the output characteristics are a plot of IE vs VCE for a range

of values of IB.

Fig 3.11 Output Characteristics of CC Configuration for npn Transistor

Limits of opearation

Many BJT transistor used as an amplifier. Thus it is important to notice the limits of [Link]
least 3 maximum values is mentioned in data sheet.

There are:

a) Maximum power dissipation at collector: PCmax or PD

b) Maximum collector-emitter voltage: VCEmax sometimes named as VBR(CEO) or VCEO.

c) Maximum collector current: ICmax

There are few rules that need to be followed for BJT transistor used as an amplifier. The rules are:
transistor need to be operate in active region!

IC < ICmax

PC < PCmax

Note: VCE is at maximum and IC is at minimum (ICMAX=ICEO) in the cutoff region. IC is at

maximum and VCE is at minimum (VCE max = Vcesat = VCEO) in the saturation region. The transistor
operates in the active region between saturation and cutoff.
Refer to the fig. Example; A derating factor of 2mW/°C indicates the power dissipation is reduced
2mW each degree centigrade increase of temperature.

Step1:

The maximum collector power dissipation,

PD=ICMAX x VCEmax= 18m x 20 = 360 mW

Step 2:

At any point on the characteristics the product of and must be equal to 360 mW.

Ex. 1. If choose ICmax= 5 mA, substitute into the (1), we get

VCEmaxICmax= 360 mW

VCEmax(5 m)=360/5=7.2 V
 Ex.2. If choose VCEmax=18 V, substitute into (1), we get

VCEmaxICmax= 360 mW

(10) ICMAX=360m/18=20 mA

Derating PDmax

PDMAX is usually specified at 25°C.

The higher temperature goes, the less is PDMAX

Example;A derating factor of 2mW/°C indicates the power dissipation is reduced 2mW each degree
centigrade increase of temperature.

BJT HYBRID MODEL

Small signal low frequency transistor Models:

All the transistor amplifiers are two port networks having two voltages and two currents. The positive
directions of voltages and currents are shown in fig. 1.

Fig. 1

A two-port network is represented by four external variables: voltage V1 and current I1 at the input port,
and voltage V2 and current I2 at the output port, so that the two-port network can be treated as a black
box modeled by the relationships between the four variables,V 1,V2, I1,I2 . Out of four variables two can
be selected as are independent variables and two are dependent [Link] dependent variables can
be expressed interns of independent variables. This leads to various two port parameters out of which
the following three are important:

1. Impedance parameters (z-parameters)

2. Admittance parameters (y-parameters)
3. Hybrid parameters (h-parameters)
z-parameters

A two-port network can be described by z-parameters as

In matrix form, the above equation can be rewritten as

Where

Input impedance with output port open circuited

Reverse transfer impedance with input port open circuited

Forward transfer impedance with output port open circuited

Output impedance with input port open circuited

Y-parameters

A two-port network can be described by Y-parameters as

In matrix form, the above equation can be rewritten as

 Input admittance with output port short circuited

Reverse transfer admittance with input port short circuited

Forward transfer admittance with output port short circuited

Output admittance with input port short circuited

Hybrid parameters (h-parameters)

If the input current I1 and output voltage V2 are taken as independent variables, the dependent
variables V1 and I2 can be written as

Where h11, h12, h21, h22 are called as hybrid parameters.

Input impedence with o/p port short circuited

 Reverse voltage transfer ratio with i/p port open circuited

Forward voltage transfer ratio with o/p port short circuited

output impedence with i/p port open circuited

THE HYBRID MODEL FOR TWO PORT NETWORK:

Based on the definition of hybrid parameters the mathematical model for two pert networks known as
h-parameter model can be developed. The hybrid equations can be written as:

(The following convenient alternative subscript notation is recommended

by the IEEE Standards:
i=11= input o = 22 = output

f =21 = forward transfer r = 12 = reverse transfer)

We may now use the four h parameters to construct a mathematical model of the device of Fig.(1). The
hybrid circuit for any device indicated in Fig.(2). We can verify that the model of Fig.(2) satisfies above
equations by writing Kirchhoff'svoltage and current laws for input and output ports.
If these parameters are specified for a particular configuration, then suffixes e,b or c are also included,
e.g. hfe ,h ib are h parameters of common emitter and common collector amplifiers

Using two equations the generalized model of the amplifier can be drawn as shown in fig. 2.

Fig. 2
TRANSISTOR HYBRID MODEL:
The hybrid model for a transistor amplifier can be derived as follow:

Let us consider CE configuration as show in fig. 3. The variables, iB, iC ,vC, and vB represent total
instantaneous currents and voltages iB and vC can be taken as independent variables and vB, IC as
dependent variables.
Fig. 3

VB = f1 (iB ,vC )

IC = f2 (iB ,vC).

Using Taylor 's series expression, and neglecting higher order terms we obtain.

The partial derivatives are taken keeping the collector voltage or base current constant. The Δ v B, Δ vC, Δ
iB, Δ iC represent the small signal (incremental) base and collector current and voltage and can be
represented as vB, iC, iB ,vC

The model for CE configuration is shown in fig. 4.

Fig. 4

To determine the four h-parameters of transistor amplifier, input and output characteristic are used.
Input characteristic depicts the relationship between input voltage and input current with output
voltage as parameter. The output characteristic depicts the relationship between output voltage and
output current with input current as parameter. Fig. 5, shows the output characteristics of CE
amplifier.

Fig. 5

The current increments are taken around the quiescent point Q which corresponds to i B = IB and to the
collector voltage VCE = VC

The value of hoe at the quiescent operating point is given by the slope of the output characteristic at
the operating point (i.e. slope of tangent AB).
hie is the slope of the appropriate input on fig. 6, at the operating point (slope of tangent EF at Q).

Fig. 6

A vertical line on the input characteristic represents constant base current. The parameter hre can be
obtained from the ratio (VB2– V B1 ) and (VC2– V C1 ) for at Q.

Typical CE h-parametersof transistor 2N1573 are given below:

hie = 1000 ohm.

hre = 2.5 * 10 –4
hfe = 50
hoe = 25  A / V

ANALYSIS OF A TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER USING H-PARAMETERS:

To form a transistor amplifier it is only necessary to connect an external load and signal source as
indicated in fig. 1 and to bias the transistor properly.
 Fig. 1

Consider the two-port network of CE amplifier. RS is the source resistance and ZL is the load impedence
h-parameters are assumed to be constant over the operating range. The ac equivalent circuit is shown
in fig. 2. (Phasor notations are used assuming sinusoidal voltage input). The quantities of interest are
the current gain, input impedence, voltage gain, and output impedence.

Current gain:

For the transistor amplifier stage, Ai is defined as the ratio of output to input currents.

Input impedence:

The impedence looking into the amplifier input terminals ( 1,1' ) is the input impedance Zi
Voltage gain:

The ratio of output voltage to input voltage gives the gain of the transistors.

Output Admittance:

It is defined as

Av is the voltage gain for an ideal voltage source (Rv = 0).

Consider input source to be a current source IS in parallel with a resistance RS as shown in fig. 3.

Fig. 3

In this case, overall current gain AIS is defined as

h-parameters
To analyze multistage amplifier the h-parameters of the transistor used are obtained from manufacture
data sheet. The manufacture data sheet usually provides h-parameter in CE configuration. These
parameters may be converted into CC and CB values. For example fig. 4 hrc in terms of CE parameter
can be obtained as follows.

Fig. 4

For CE transistor configuaration

Vbe = hie Ib + hre Vce

Ic = h fe Ib + hoe Vce

The circuit can be redrawn like CC transistor configuration as shown in fig. 5.

Vbc = hie Ib + hrc Vec

Ic = hfe Ib + hoe Vec

hybrid model for transistor in three different configurations

Typical h-parameter values for a transistor
Parameter CE CC CB
hi 1100 Ω 1100 Ω 22 Ω
hr 2.5 × 10-4 1 3 × 10-4
hf 50 -51 -0.98
ho 25 µA/V 25 µA/V 0.49 µA/V

Analysis of a Transistor amplifier circuit using h-parameters

A transistor amplifier can be constructed by connecting an external load and signal source and
biasing the transistor properly.
 Fig.1.4 Basic Amplifier Circuit

The two port network of Fig. 1.4 represents a transistor in any one of its configuration. It is
assumed that h-parameters remain constant over the operating [Link] input is sinusoidal and I 1,V-
,I and V2 are phase quantities
1 2

Fig. 1.5 Transistor replaced by its Hybrid Model

Current Gain or Current Amplification (Ai)

For transistor amplifier the current gain Ai is defined as the ratio of output current to input
current,i.e,
Ai =IL /I1 = -I2 / I1
From the circuit of Fig
I2= hf I1 + hoV2

Substituting V2 = ILZL = -I2ZL

I2= hf I1- I2ZL ho

 I2 + I2ZL ho = hf I1

I2( 1+ ZL ho) = hf I1

Ai = -I2 / I1 = - hf / ( 1+ ZL ho)

Therefore,

Ai = - hf / ( 1+ ZL ho)

Input Impedence (Zi)

In the circuit of Fig , RS is the signal source resistance .The impedence seen when looking into the
amplifier terminals (1,1’) is the amplifier input impedence Zi,

Zi = V1 / I1

From the input circuit of Fig V1 = hi I1 + hrV2

Zi = ( hi I1 + hrV2) / I1

= hi + hr V2 / I1

Substituting

V2 = -I2 ZL = A1I1ZL

Zi = hi + hr A1I1ZL / I1

= hi + hr A1ZL

Substituting for Ai

Zi = hi - hf hr ZL / (1+ hoZL)

= hi - hf hr ZL / ZL(1/ZL+ ho)

Taking the Load admittance as YL =1/ ZL

Zi = hi - hf hr / (YL + ho)
Voltage Gain or Voltage Gain Amplification Factor(Av)

The ratio of output voltage V2 to input voltage V1 give the voltage gain of the transistor i.e,

Av = V2 / V1

Substituting

V2 = -I2 ZL = A1I1ZL

Av = A1I1ZL / V1 = AiZL / Zi

Output Admittance (Yo)

Yo is obtained by setting VS to zero, ZL to infinity and by driving the output terminals from a generator
V2. If the current V2 is I2 then Yo= I2/V2 with VS=0 and RL= ∞.

From the circuit of fig

I2= hf I1 + hoV2

Dividing by V2,

I2 / V2 = hf I1/V2 + ho

With V2= 0, by KVL in input circuit,

RSI1 + hi I1 + hrV2 = 0

(RS + hi) I1 + hrV2 = 0

Hence, I2 / V2 = -hr / (RS + hi)

= hf (-hr/( RS + hi)+ho

Yo= ho- hf hr/( RS + hi)

The output admittance is a function of source resistance. If the source impedence is resistive then Yo is
real.

Voltage Amplification Factor(Avs) taking into account the resistance (Rs) of the source
 Fig. 5.6 Thevenin’s Equivalent Input Circuit

This overall voltage gain Avs is given by

Avs = V2 / VS = V2V1 / V1VS = Av V1/ VS

From the equivalent input circuit using Thevenin’s equivalent for the source shown in Fig. 5.6

V1 = VS Zi / (Zi + RS)

V1 / VS = Zi / ( Zi + RS)

Then, Avs = Av Zi / ( Zi + RS)

Substituting Av = AiZL / Zi

Avs = AiZL / ( Zi + RS)

Avs = AiZL RS / ( Zi + RS) RS

Avs = AisZL / RS

Current Amplification (Ais) taking into account the sourse Resistance(RS)

Fig. 1.7 Norton’s Equivalent Input Circuit

The modified input circuit using Norton’s equivalent circuit for the calculation of
Ais is shown in Fig. 1.7 Overall Current Gain, Ais = -I2 / IS = - I2I1 /I1 IS = Ai I1/IS
From Fig. 1.7 I1= IS RS / (RS + Zi) I1 / IS = RS / (RS + Zi)
and hence, Ais = Ai RS / (RS + Zi)

Operating Power Gain (AP)

The operating power gain AP of the
transistor is defined as AP =
P2 / P1 = -V2 I2 / V1 I1 = AvAi =
Ai AiZL/ Zi
AiP = LA 2(Z
i /Z)

Small Signal analysis of a transistor amplifier

Ai = - hf / ( 1+ ZL ho) Av = AiZL / Zi

Zi = hi + hr A1ZL = hi - hf hr / (YL + ho) Avs = Av Zi / ( Zi + RS) = AiZL / ( Zi + RS)

= AisZL / RS

Yo= ho- hf hr/( RS + hi) = 1/ Zo Ais = Ai RS / (RS + Zi) = Avs = Ais RS/ ZL