EEE1001

ELECTRIC CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS

Module 2 – Lecture 2

Dr. Arindam Dutta

Assistant Professor
School of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
VIT Bhopal

Email: arindamdutta@[Link]
Cabin: C-509
 R—L Series Circuit

A voltage, V of frequency, f is applied across the circuit. The voltage drop across the resistance is VR and across the inductor
is VL. Current flowing through the circuit is I. To get V, VR and VL are to be added vectorially as they are all not in phase, i.e.,
they are not along the same direction. To draw the current and voltage phasor we take the current I as the reference phasor
since current I is common to VR and VL. VR and I are in phase. VL leads I by 90°. The angle between V and I is called the
power factor angle φ. Power factor is cos φ. Considering the triangle ABC:

V, VR, VL and I are RMS values 2

 R—L Series Circuit
Z is called the impedance of the total circuit. Triangle ABC is called the impedance triangle which is redrawn as shown
below. From the impedance triangle:

The current, I has been kept aside which is common to all the sides. Impedance Z can be represented as the vector sum
of R and XL. since IXL is leading I by 90° and R is in phase with I, we can write

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 Apparent Power, Real Power, and Reactive Power
Apparent power (S): The product of the RMS value of voltage (V) and current (I). It is denoted by S.
Apparent power, S = VI = Voltage × Current VA or kVA

Real or true power or active power (P or W): It is the power which is actually dissipated in the circuit resistance
(watt-full power).
Active power, P = Apparent power × power factor
P = VI cosφ Watts or kW

Reactive power (Q): It is the power developed in the inductive reactance of the circuit (watt-less power).
Q = I2 XL = I2 Z sinφ = I (ZI) sinφ
Q = VI sinφ VAR or kVAR

These three powers are shown in the form of a power triangle from where it can be seen that

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 Power in R—L Series Circuit

The expression for the voltage and current in series R–L circuit are v = Vm sin ωt and i = Im sin (ωt - φ), as I lags V by an
angle φ.

The average power over a complete cycle is calculated as

Pav

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 Power in R—L Series Circuit
• Power factor is the cosine of the phase angle (φ) between the voltage and current; cos φ. It is also expressed as the
ratio, R/Z = resistance / impedance = cos φ.

• In an R–L series circuit, I lags V by the power factor angle φ. The in-phase component of I is I cosφ and quadrature
component is I sinφ Multiplying all the sides of the triangle ABC by kV (kilo-volt), we can draw the power triangle as in

kVA cosφ = kW
kVA sinφ = kVAR

• In the power triangle diagram, if φ is taken as zero, i.e., if the circuit is resistive, reactive power, Q becomes zero. If the
circuit is having pure inductance or capacitance, φ = 90°, active power, P becomes zero. Reactive power will be present
whenever there is inductance or capacitance in the circuit.

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 R—C Series Circuit
• The voltage drop across the resistance is VR and across the capacitor is VC.

• VR = IR, VC = IXC, where XC = 1/ωC = 1/2πfC

• I leads V by an angle φ or supply voltage V lags current I by an angle φ.

Z = R – jXc or

• V, VR, VC and I are RMS values

 Power in R—C Series Circuit

The average power over a complete cycle is calculated as

Pav
 R—L—C Series Circuit

• The voltage drop across resistance is VR, across inductor is VL, and
across capacitor is VC.

• VR = IR, VL = IXL, where XL = ωL = 2πfL, VC = IXC, where XC =

1/ωC = 1/2πfC

• V, VR, VL, VC and I are RMS values

• The phasor diagram depends on the magnitude of VL and VC, which

depends on XL and XC. So, three different cases can be considered:

o (a) When XL > XC

o (b) When XL < XC

o (c) When XL = XC
 R—L—C Series Circuit (XL > XC)
The circuit will effectively be inductive in nature and I will lag V. IXL, i.e., VL is greater than IXC, i.e., VC. So, the resultant of
VL and VC will be VL - VC so that V is the phasor sum of VR and (VL - VC).
 R—L—C Series Circuit (XL < XC)
The circuit will effectively be capacitive in nature and I will lead V. IXC, i.e., VC is greater than IXL, i.e., VL. So, the resultant
of VL and VC will be VC - VL so that V is the phasor sum of VR and (VC - VL).
 R—L—C Series Circuit (XL = XC)

• When XL = XC, VL and VC will cancel each other and their resultant will be zero.

• The circuit will effectively be resistive in nature and I will be in phase with V.

• The impedance of the circuit will be minimum, i.e., equal to R.

Power in R—L—C Series Circuit
 Resonance in AC circuits
• In ac circuits resonance occurs when two independent energy storing devices are capable of interchanging
energy from one another

• When frequency is variable, the inductive and capacitive reactance of the circuit elements

XL = 2πfL and XC = 1/2πfC

will change

• The current in the circuit will depend upon the values of XL and XC and that of R

• A condition may occur at a particular frequency that the impedance offered to the flow of current is
maximum or minimum

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 Resonance in AC series circuits
The supply voltage is constant but its frequency is variable

As the frequency is changing, both XL and XC will change. Inductive reactance XL will increase as the frequency, f is
increasing while the capacitive reactance, XC will decrease with increasing frequency. The value of R is independent of
frequency.

At some frequency f0, the magnitude of XL will be equal to XC. Since XL and XC are vectorially jXL and –jXC, the two
reactances will cancel each other when frequency is f0. At f0 the impedance of the circuit is equal to R which is the
minimum value of Z. So, at f = f0 maximum current (I = V/R) will flow through the circuit. 15
 Resonance in AC series circuits
This condition of the circuit when XL equals XC, Z = R, and current is maximum is called the resonant condition and the
frequency, f0 at which resonance occurs is called the resonant frequency. At resonance, since XL equals XC,

At resonance, frequency is f0, current I0 = V/R, and power factor (cosφ) is unity.
As VL = VC and they are in phase opposition, the net voltage across L and C in series is equal to zero. Thus, the supply
voltage will be equal to VR.

Since at resonance, current is maximum and is very high, power dissipation I02R is maximum and the rate of energy
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storage in the inductor and the capacitor is maximum and they are equal.
 Problem
Q: An R–L–C series circuit has R = 10 Ω, L = 0.1 H, and C = 8 μF. Calculate the resonant frequency.

For resonance

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 Problem
Q: A resistor, a variable iron-core inductor, and a capacitor are connected across a 230 V, 50 Hz supply. By varying the
position of the iron core inside the inductor coil, its inductance is changed. Maximum current of 1.5 A was obtained in
the circuit by changing the inductance of the coil. At that time the voltage across the capacitor was measured as 600 V.
Calculate the values of circuit parameters.

A: Maximum current flows at resonance when XL = XC and Z = R

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AC Parallel Circuits

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 AC Parallel Circuits

The equivalent impedance of the circuit can be found out by

1 1 1 1
= + +
𝑍 𝑍1 𝑍2 𝑍3

Therefore, the line current, I = V / Z

Alternatively, the line current can be calculated by, I = I1 + I2 + I3 (vector addition)

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 AC Parallel Circuits
Admittance: It is the reciprocal of impedance, denoted by Y and is measured in unit mho or Siemens.

G = R/Z2 mho = conductance; B = X/Z2 mho = susceptance

B is negative if the circuit is inductive and B is positive if the circuit is capacitive. 21
 AC Parallel Circuits
Admittance Method

..

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 Resonance in AC Parallel Circuits
Let us consider an inductive coil and a capacitor in parallel connected across a constant voltage variable frequency
supply source. Practically, both the capacitor and the inductor will have some losses represented by a small resistance in
series. Here we assume the capacitor as a loss-less one while the inductor coil has some resistance which has been
shown separately.

The resonance frequency of a parallel L and C circuit is

If we consider the value of R as negligible, then the resonance frequency is

The impedance at resonance is given by

The line current is given by

The line current I is the minimum current occurring at resonance. The circuit behaves like a resistive circuit only since
the reactive component currents cancel each other. Z0 is therefore resistive only. Since current is minimum, Z0 is
maximum under the resonant condition.

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 Problem
Q: An inductive coil has a resistance of 10 Ω and inductance of 100 mH. This coil is connected in parallel with a
capacitor of 20 μF. A variable frequency power at 100 V is applied across this parallel circuit. Calculate the frequency at
which the circuit will resonate. Also calculate the dynamic impedance of the circuit and resonant current.

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AC Series-Parallel Circuits

Impedance

Total Impedance

Total current

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 Vector Algebra

the figure,

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 Vector Algebra
Addition and subtraction of phasor quantities

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 Vector Algebra
Multiplication and division of phasor quantities

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 Problem
Q: A coil having a resistance of 5 Ω and inductance of 30 mH in series are connected across a 230 V, 50 Hz supply.
Calculate current, power factor, and power consumed.

Current I is lagging the voltage, V by 62°. Power factor = cos {(0° – (–62°)} = cos (62°) = 0.47 lagging.
Power consumed = VI cosφ = 230 × 21.57 × 0.47 W = 2331.7 W 29
 Problem
Q: Two impedances Z1 and Z2 are connected in parallel across a 230 V, 50 Hz supply. The impedance, Z1 consists of a
resistance of 14 Ω and an inductance of 16 mH. The impedance, Z2 consists of a resistance of 18 Ω and an inductance of 32
mH. Calculate the branch currents, line current, and total power factor. Draw the phasor diagram showing the voltage and
currents.

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 Problem

Line current, I = I1 + I2 = 15.41 ∠–19.6° + 11.15 ∠–29°

= (14.52 – j5.17) + (9.75 – j5.41)
= (24.27 – j10.58) A
= 26.48 ∠–23.55° A

Power factor = cos {0° – (–23.55°)} = cos (23.55°) = 0.917 lagging. 31

 Problem
Q: Determine the total current drawn from the supply by the series–
parallel circuit. Also calculate the power factor of the circuit.

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