Statistics for Social Workers
Chapter 1: Basic concepts
1. 1. Basic Statistics, Terminology and definitions
1.1.1 Definition and Classification of Statistics
Definition: Statistics is the sciences of conducting studies to collect, organize, analyzed and draw
conclusions from the data.
In general, statistics can be defined into two senses.
1. In singular sense: It is defined as the science that deals with the methods of collection,
organization, analysis of data and interpretation of the results.
2. In plural sense: It is defined as a set (aggregate) of numerical data or quantitative aspects of
facts.
1.1.2 Classification of Statistics
Statistics can be classified into two broad areas.
1. Descriptive Statistics: It is a part of statistics which can be used to organize and summarize masses
of data.
The frequency distribution, measure of central tendencies such as mean and median, and
measure of variation such as range and standard deviation belong to this category of
statistics.
Example: The average age of students in this class is 21.
2. Inferential Statistics: It is a major part of statistics which consists of generalizing from samples to
populations, performing estimations and hypothesis tests, determining relationships among
variables, and making decisions, conclusions and forecasting about the population based on sample
results.
Example: Drinking decaffeinated coffee can raise cholesterol levels by 7%.
Exercise: Describe the following sentences whether inferential statistics or descriptive statistics.
Suppose that the height of 6 randomly selected students from section 1 is the following:
160cm, 165cm, 175cm, 170cm, 180cm and 185cm.
1. The average height of six students is 172.5cm.
2. The average height of students in this section is not less than 172.5cm.
3. About half of the six students have the height more than 170cm.
4. The average height of students in section 1 is greater than that of section 2.
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Statistics for Social Workers
1.1.3 Stages in Statistical Investigation
According to the definition of statistics (in singular sense), there are 5 stages in statistical
investigation.
Stage 1:Collection of Data: It is a process of obtaining data.
Stage 2:Organization of Data: This includes
Editing: measurement of how important it is .
Classification: similar and differences.
Tabulation: organization of data in row and column.
Stage 3:Presentation of Data: It is a process of showing our data in understandable way.
Example: charts, graphs and tables.
Stage 4:Analysis of Data: It is a process of extracting a useful characteristics associated with data.
Stage 5:Interpretation of Data (Inference): It is a process of making interpretations or conclusions
from sample data for the totality of the population.
It is the most difficult and risk stage. It needs professionals in statistics.
1.1.4 Definition of Some Basic Terms
A variable: is a characteristic or attribute that can assume different values.
Data: is any recordable interrelated observations.
Population: is the totality of all individuals of the phenomena under study.
Sample: It is a part of population selected in statistical manner to study the population.
Parameter: It is statistical value which refers to the population characteristics.
or it is a result obtained from the population.
Statistic: It is statistical value which refers to the sample characteristics.
or it is a result obtained from the sample.
Census: It is a process of studying a population at large.
Example: a researcher wants to study the academic performance of 3rd year student in JU. But for several
constraints he cannot enumerate the whole students. So he took randomly 500 students and obtained the
average GPA to be 2.58.
a. Identify the population? b. Identify the sample? c. Identify the statistic?
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Statistics for Social Workers
1.1.5 Uses, Applications and Limitation of Statistics
Uses of Statistics
a. It condenses and summarizes mass of data into a few presentable, understandable and precise
figures.
b. It facilitates comparison of data.
c. It helps in predicting future trends.
d. It helps in formulating policies.
e. It represents the facts in the form of numerical data.
Applications of Statistics
Statistics can be applied in almost all fields of study. Some of these are:
1. In health 2. In education 3. In agriculture etc
Limitations of Statistics
It is not suited to the study of qualitative phenomena.
It's results are true on the average. (It does not show the exact fact) like law of physics.
It deals with a set (aggregate) of individuals not a single individual.
It can be easily misused.
Statistical interpretations requires a high degree of skill and understanding of the subject.
1.1.6 Types of Variables and Level of Measurements
Types of variables: There are two types of variables.
1. Qualitative (Categorical) Variables: are variables that can be placed into distinct category
according to some characteristics. They are not numeric. They cannot be counted or measured.
Example: gender, religion, color etc
2. Quantitative Variables: are variables which are numerical in nature and can be measured and
counted.
Example: height, weight, no of students, GPA etc.
Quantitative variables can also divided into discrete and continuous variables.
Discrete variables: are variables whose values are determined by counting.
Example: no of students in the class.
Continuous Variables: are variables whose values are determined by measuring rather than
counting.
Example: height of a person.
Exercise: are the following variables discrete or continuous?
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Statistics for Social Workers
a. The no of correct answers on true false test.
b. The duration of effectiveness of a pain medication.
c. The weight of Sunday newspapers.
Chapter Two: Level of Measurement (Measurement Scales)
There are 4 types of measurement scales. These are:
1. Nominal Scale 3. Interval Scale
2. Ordinal Scale 4. Ratio Scale
1. Nominal Scale: When the possible categories of a variable have noa natural order then the
measurement is called nominal scale.
we cannot apply any mathematical operations and inequalities.
Example: Blood type (A,B,AB,O) , sex (f,m), no's given to region (1,2,3,...)
2. Ordinal Scale: When the possible categories of a variable have a natural order then the measurement is
called ordinal scale.
we can apply any mathematical inequalities but we cannot apply any mathematical
operations.
Example: Economic status (low, medium, high), Education level (diploma, degree, master).
3. Interval Scale: It is a scale with arbitrary zero point and zero does not show a total absence of the
quantity being measured.
We can apply any mathematical inequalities.
We can also apply addition and subtraction but we cannot form multiplication and
division.
Example: a) The temperature of a certain area may be . But this does not mean that there is no heat at
all. It simply indicates that it is too cool.
b) The temperature of a certain areas may be .
But we cannot say that is twice as hot as
To show this changes the scale to degree Celsius.
( ) and also ( )
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Statistics for Social Workers
4. Ratio Scale: It is a scale with true zero point and zero shows a total absence of the quantity being
measured.
We can apply any mathematical operation and inequalities.
Example: weight .
Chapter 3: Descriptive Statistics Percentages, Ratios and Rates, Tables, Charts, and Graphs
Ratios:- are used to compare amounts or quantities or describe a relationship between two amounts or
quantities. For example, a ratio might be used to describe the cost of a month’s rent as compared to the
income earned in one month. You may also use a ratio to compare the number of elephants to the total
number of animals in a zoo, or the amount of calories per serving in two different brands of ice cream.
Ratios compare quantities using division. This means that you can set up a ratio between two quantities as a
division expression between those same two quantities.
Here is an example. If you have a platter containing 10 sugar cookies and 20 chocolate chip cookies, you
can compare the cookies using a ratio.
A rate is a ratio that compares two different quantities that have different units of measure. A rate is a
comparison that provides information such as dollars per hour, feet per second, miles per hour, and dollars
per quart, for example. The word “per” usually indicates you are dealing with a rate.
Rates:- can be written using words, using a colon, or as a fraction. It is important that you know which
quantities are being compared.
For example, an employer wants to rent 6 buses to transport a group of 300 people on a company outing.
The rate to describe the relationship can be written using words, using a colon, or as a fraction; and you
must include the units.
METHODS OF DATA PRESENTATION
After having the collected and edited data, the next important step is to organize it. That is to
present it in a readily comprehensible condensed form that aids to draw inferences from it. It is
also necessary that the like be separated from the unlike ones.
The presentation of data is broadly classified in to the following three categories:
Tabular presentation (frequency distribution).
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Statistics for Social Workers
Diagrammatical presentation and
Graphical presentation.
The process of arranging data in to classes or categories according to similarities technically is
called classification.
Classification is a preliminary and it prepares the ground for proper presentation of data.
Tabular Presentation of Data (Frequency Distribution)
Definitions:
Raw data: is a data which is collected in original form (survey), whether it may be counts or
measurements.
Frequency (f): is the number of observations (values) in a specific class of a distribution.
Frequency distribution (FD): is the organization of raw data in table form, using classes and
frequencies.
Depending on the type of variables, there are two basic types of frequency distributions:
Qualitative (Categorical) frequency distribution and
Quantitative frequency distribution Ungrouped frequency distribution
Grouped frequency distribution
NB: The main purpose of grouping is now summarization and condensation of a mass of data.
1). Categorical (Qualitative) frequency Distribution:
It is often constructed for some data sets that can be placed in a specific category such as nominal or
ordinal data's.
Example: A social worker collected the following data on marital status for 25 persons. (
) Construct a frequency distribution for the following data.
M S D W D
S S M M M
W D S M M
W D D S S
S W W D D
Solution: Since the data are qualitative (categorical), discrete classes can be used. There are four
types of marital status M, S, D, and W. These types will be used as the classes for the distribution.
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Statistics for Social Workers
Classes Frequency (f)
M 6
S 7
D 7
W 5
2). Quantitative Frequency Distribution:
a). Ungrouped Frequency Distribution:
It is often constructed for some data sets in which the number of "distinct values" are small. And
also it is constructed for small set or data on discrete variable.
Steps for constructing ungrouped frequency distribution:
Arrange the data in order of magnitude and then count the frequency.
Example: A survey taken in a restaurant shows that the following number of cups of coffee
consumed with each meal. Construct an ungrouped frequency distribution for the following data.
0 2 2 1 1 2
3 5 3 2 2 2
1 0 1 2 4 2
0 1 0 1 4 4
2 2 0 1 1 5
Solution: First arrange the data in order of magnitude (in ascending order) and then count the
frequency. The distinct values for these data are:
No of cups Frequency (f)
0 5
1 8
2 10
3 2
4 3
5 2
Total 30
Each individual value is presented separately, that is why it is named ungrouped frequency
distribution.
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Statistics for Social Workers
b ). Grouped Frequency Distribution:
When the number of "distinct values" of the data is too large, the data must be grouped in to
classes. So, we divide the values into groups or class intervals, and then count the number of data
values falling in each class interval.
Class intervals (CI): are non-overlapping intervals such that each value in the set of observations
can be placed in one, and only one, of the intervals.
Modified frequency distribution
Relative frequency (rf):
Percentage relative frequency (%rf):
Cumulative frequency: is the number of observations less than/more than or equal to a specific value.
Less than cumulative frequency (lcf): It is the total frequency of all values less than or equal to the
upper class boundary of a given class.
More than cumulative frequency (mcf): It is the total frequency of all values greater than or equal to
the lower class boundary of a given class.
Relative cumulative frequency (rcf): It is the cumulative frequency divided by the total frequency.
Example: Construct a grouped frequency distribution for the following data.
11 29 6 33 14 31 22 27 19 20
18 17 22 38 23 21 26 34 39 27
The complete frequency distribution is given as follows:
Class Class Class f Lcf Mcf rf. %rf %rcf
limit boundary Mark
6 – 12 5.5 – 12.5 9 2 ( ) 2 ( ) 0.10 10% 10%
13 – 12.5 – 16 4 ( ) ( ) 0.20 20% 30%
19 19.5
20 – 19.5 – 23 6 ( ) ( ) 0.30 30% 60%
26 26.5
27 – 26.5 – 30 5 ( ) ( ) 0.25 25% 85%
33 33.5
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Statistics for Social Workers
34 – 33.5 – 37 3 ( ) ( ) 0.15 15% 100%
40 40.5
[Link] DIAGRAMATICAL PRESENTATION OF DATA
These are different techniques for presenting data in visual displays using geometric and pictures.
Importance:
They have greater attraction.
They are easy to understand.
They facilitate comparison.
Diagrams are appropriate for presenting categorical data’s.
The two most commonly used diagrammatic presentation for discrete as well as qualitative data are:
• Bar charts and • Pie charts
1. Bar chart
There are three types of bar charts. These are:
I) Simple bar chart II) Component bar chart III) Multiple bar chart
a). Simple Bar chart:
It is a chart which is used to present data that has only one categorical variable. It shows
changes in the totals of different categories.
Example: Construct a simple bar chart for the following table showing the number of females and
males living in a certain Kebele reported as of July 31, 2012.
Sex Number of people
Female 2500
Male 3000
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Statistics for Social Workers
b). Component Bar chart
It is used to present data which have more than one categorical variable. For each category the bars are
subdivided in to components to allow comparison between parts. The bars represent the total value of a
variable with each total broken in to its component parts and different colors or designs are used for
identifications.
Example: Construct the component bar chart for the number of children who were vaccinated with DPT,
POLIO and BCG antigens in Jimma University Medical Center in 1979 E.C.
Sex
Antigen Male Female Total
DPT 250 300 550
Polio 300 320 620
BCG 200 210 410
c). Multiple Bar chart
These are used to
display data on
more than one
categorical
variable.
They are used for
comparing
different variables at the same time.
Example: Draw a multiple bar chart for the above vaccination data.
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Statistics for Social Workers
2. Pie-Chart
It is used to show the partitioning of a total data into its component parts using circles. The circles
should be divided into sectors proportional to the frequencies of the categories they represent.
Steps to draw a pie chart
1. Convert frequencies into percentage relative frequency.
2. Draw a circle of any radius.
3. Convert percentage relative frequencies into degree measures.
Example: Draw the pie chart for the following hospital data. First construct a table providing the central
angles.
Wards Frequency Percentage rf Central angle
Medical A 85 42.5% 1530
Surgical A 65 32.5% 1170
Pediatrics 50 25% 900
Total 200 100% 3600
[Link] Graphical presentation of data
a) Histogram
It presents a grouped frequency distribution of a continuous type. It is drawn by making class boundaries in
the x-axis and frequencies in the y-axis.
Example: Draw a histogram for the following grouped age data.
Class limit Class boundaries Midpoint Frequency
15-19 14.5-19.5 17 2
20-24 19.5-24.5 22 8
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Statistics for Social Workers
25-29 24.5-29.5 27 6
30-34 29.5-34.5 32 12
35-39 34.5-39.5 37 7
40-44 39.5-44.5 42 6
45-49 44.5-49.5 47 4
50-54 49.5-54.5 52 3
55-59 54.5-59.5 57 1
60-64 59.5-64.5 62 1
Histogram
b) Frequency polygon
It is a multi-sided figure which is drawn by plotting the class marks (midpoints) in the x-axis and the
frequencies in the y-axis. Then connect the points with straight lines and extend these lines on both ends so
that it reaches the horizontal axis at the class mid points. This allows the total area to be enclosed.
Example: draw the frequency polygon for the following age data.
Class limit Mid point Frequency
15-19 17 2
20-24 22 8
25-29 27 6
30-34 32 12
35-39 37 7
40-44 42 6
45-49 47 4
50-54 52 3
55-59 57 1
60-64 62 1
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Statistics for Social Workers
Note: The total area under the frequency polygon is equal to the area under the histogram.
c) Ogives or cumulative frequency polygon (curve)
It plotted in association with the class boundaries on the x- axis and the cumulative frequencies on the y-
axis. Then connect the points with straight lines.
The curves obtained are called the “less than” and “more than”ogives (curves).
Less than ogive:It is plotted by "UCB" in the x-axis against the "lcf" in the y-axis.
More than ogive: It is plotted by "LCB" in the x-axis against the "mcf" in the y-axis.
Example: Draw the less than and more than ogives for the following age data.
Class limit Frequency LCF More than
23-26 3 ( ) ( )
27-30 4 ( ) ( )
31-34 3 ( ) ( )
35-38 5 ( ) ( )
39-42 5 ( ) ( )
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Statistics for Social Workers
14
By: Abiyot Negash (Assistant Professor)