MIT, THANDAVAPURA ENGINEERING GEOLOGY (18th Scheme) 2020-21

Engineering Geology (18CV36)

MODULE-1
Definition of Geology: It is a Greek word “Geo” meaning Earth and “logos” meaning study. It is the
science dealing with the study of physical features of Earth and atmosphere.

Engineering Geology: Is the scientific study of rocks, minerals, metals, ores used for industries, civil
engineering structures such as dams, airports, stadiums, National Highways, State Highways,
multistoried buildings, tunnels, bridges etc.

Branches of Geology
1. Physical geology: The branch of geology deals with earth’s composition, structural change and
geological activities.
Eg:- Earthquakes, volcanoes, tsunamis, climate change etc.

2. Structural geology: Branch of geology deals with structure of rocks which have deformed
continuously due to the tectonic forces which help in site suitability mountain ranges, oil & gas
reservoir.
Eg:- Folds, faults & joints.

3. Historical geology: The principles of geology to reconstruct the geological time-scale and to
understanding the geological history of earth. It includes the evolution of single cell organisms, plants,
animals and humans during geological time-scale.
Eg:- Evolution of earth.

4. Mineralogy: The scientific study of minerals their chemistry, crystal structure and physical properties
to discriminate their specific use in particular industries.
Eg:- Quartz, pyrite (gold), galena.

5. Petrology: (Greek word “Petro”- rocks; “logos”- study). The branch of geology deals with the study
of rocks, its structure, formation, texture, composition and origin.
Eg:- Banded gneiss, granite, marble.

6. Mining Geology: The Science and Technology deals with the extraction of minerals & ores from the
earth.
Eg:- Iron, manganese, limestone, pyrite (gold) and copper.

7. Geomorphology: Branch of geology deals with the study of physical features of the earth’s surface
with their relation to geological structures.
Eg:- Mountains, valleys, desert, oceans etc.

8. Paleontology: Branch of geology deals with ancient life of animals and plants.
Eg:- Fossil wood, dinosaur, Hully Mammoth etc.

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9. Environmental geology: Deals with the relation between humans and their environment which helps
to solve land use problems in civil engineering projects.
Eg:- Land use, mitigation of natural hazards.

10. Civil Engineering Geology: Branch of geology deals with the planning, design, site suitability and
maintaining the quality of civil structures.
Eg:- Roads, bridges, dams and similar structures.

APPLICATION OF GEOLOGY IN CIVIL ENGINEERING PRACTICES

1. Geology provides systematic knowledge of construction materials, occurrences, composition &

durability for safe, stable and economic designs of major infrastructures.
2. Natural geological agent such as erosion, transportation and deposition will solve expensive
problems of river control, coastal, harbor work and soil conservation.
3. Surface & sub-surface water mapping determines the volume of total runoff, drainage basin, silting
depth and erosion potential before planning any hydraulic structures.
4. Geology mitigates natural disasters and provides preparedness for future sustainability such as
Earthquakes, Tsunamis, Floods, and Landslides.
5. Planning of Dams, Airports, Stadiums, Highways, Multi-storied buildings are directly concerned
with the underlying geology of the area.
6. Geological nature and structure of rocks are very necessary for tunneling and bridge constructions.
7. Geological structures of folds, faults, joints can be determined through drilled borehole data,
trenches and pits to interpret earthquake conditions for site suitability.
8. Mapping of larger area through Aerial Photographs, Remote Sensing, GIS and GPS data will reduce
the time and cost.
9. Extraction of hard rocks, economic minerals, ores and metals can be planned based on geological
exploration techniques.
10. Slope stability analyses the landslide hazards in hilly terrains through amount of rainfall, rock
characteristics and slope categories concerned with their physical environment.
11. Determining the stability of road cuts, slopes and rock structures is very much necessary in
tunneling, canals and constructing roads in hilly terrains.
12. Determines public works such as drainage system, power plants, water treatment plants, canal,
reservoir, railroads and parks, mine reclamation and dumping areas through RS and GIS techniques.

UNDERSTANDING THE INTERIOR OF THE EARTH:

Our Planet occupies third position from the sun with an approximate distance of 14,96,68,992
kms (93,000,000 miles). The light rays take 8 min & 21 sec to reach the earth surface. Rotation of earth
in its own axis causes plates movements and its collision causing earthquakes. 72% of the earth is
covered by water (ocean and sea) while only 28% is covered by land mass. The Polar diameter of the
earth is about 12,755 kms; whereas the equator diameter covers about 12,713km.

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The planet Earth is made up of layered of spherical shells and its structure & composition were
made based on the
i. Observation of surface rocks and minerals followed by laboratory experiments.
ii. Earthquakes flow of heat, magnetic field and gravity.
iii. Comparison of the earth with other planets such as the sun, stars and meteorites.
The average density of earth is 5.5 g/cm3; while the surface rock measures about 2.85 g/cm3.

A section of Earth’s Crust

INTERNAL STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION

The major structural components separated by sharp discontinuities are the CRUST, MANTLE and
CORE.

1. Crust: It forms a very thin surface layers which is divided into continental (land) and oceanic (water)
crust. The average temperature of crust ranges from 5000C - 9000C.
a. Continental crust: It measures about 35-40 km in thickness with an average density of 2.7
3
g/cm mainly composed of SiAl (Felsic composition). e.g., Granite.
b. Oceanic crust: This measures about 7-10 km in thickness with an average density of 3.0 g/cm3
mainly composed on SiMg (Mafic composition). e.g., Basalt.
Mohorovicic discontinuity is the boundary between crust and mantle observed based on the
increase in velocity of earthquake due to chemical differentiation.

2. Mantle: It is the thick shell that extends half the radius down into the earth. Mantle measures about
2,900 km in thickness with an average density of 4.5 g/cm3. This mainly composed of ultramafic rocks
such as Mg, K, Na, Ca and Ni. Temperature ranges from 10000C-40000C. e.g., Eclogites, peridotites.
Wichert Gutenberg’s discontinuity: The boundary between mantle and core observed due to
difference in velocities of solid mantle and molten outer core.

3. Core: It is the central part of the earth mainly composed of Iron and Nickel. It is divided into outer
liquid core and inner solid core. The outer core measures about 2221 km in thickness with an average
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density of 10-12 g/cm3 and the temperature ranges about 44000C-55000C. The solid inner core measures
about 1220 km in thickness with an average density of 13 g/cm3 and temperature ranges from 60000C.

Fig.2. Interior of the Earth

MINEROLOGY
It is the scientific study of minerals, their chemistry, crystal structure and physical properties.
The varieties of minerals were widely used in human’s daily life, building and industrial activities.

Mineral: Homogenous, solid, naturally occurring inorganic substances with definite chemical
composition and atomic structure. More than 5,300 minerals were observed on the earth’s surface; while
only 5230 number of minerals was approved by United State Geological Survey (USGS) in March-
2017. These minerals may be divided into two groups such as rock forming minerals and ore forming
minerals.
i. Rock forming minerals: Rock made up of aggregate of minerals which are abundance in the
earth crust.
ii. Ore forming minerals: High concentration of elements sufficient for economic extraction
and do not occurs abundantly in earth crust; but site specific.
Eg:- Gold, Silver, Copper, Lead, Uranium, Iron, Manganese etc.
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MIT, THANDAVAPURA ENGINEERING GEOLOGY (18th Scheme) 2020-21

MINERAL PROPERTIES
Every mineral have as set of physical, chemical and optical properties that differs from one to
other minerals. It is an utmost important to study and identify these minerals in order to make an
optimum utilization in specified industrial and as building material uses.

1. Color: The passionate attraction of any object which can be seen with the naked eye only when the
light appears on it. It is the most important physical properties which occur due to impurities and
isomorphous variation.
e.g., Galena and pyrite are cubic in structure but galena shows lead grey; while pyrite shows brass
yellow color.

2. Streak: The color of fine powder scratched against a hard porcelain plate (Streak plate).
e.g., Minerals Color Streak color
i. Pyrite brass yellow dark green
ii. Magnetite black cherry red

3. Luster: The surface appearance of the mineral in the reflected light. The luster depends upon the
amount of reflection of the light strikes the surface.
e.g., i. Vitreous luster: broken glass like shine (quartz).
ii. Silky luster: silk like shine (Asbestos).
iii. Resinous luster: Greasy shine (Talc).
iv. Metallic luster: metal like shine (Hematite; galena)
v. Pearly luster: pearl like shine (Muscovite)
vi. Dull luster: No luster.

4. Crystal System: The regular polyhedral form bounded by smooth surfaces due to intermolecular
forces. There are six groups of crystal systems for common practices.
a. Isometric/ Cubic b. Tetragonal c. Hexagonal
d. Orthorhombic e. Monoclinic f. Triclinic

Crystal structure:

Crystal models:

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5. Structure/ Habit: The arrangement of atoms within the mineral to form a specific structure.
a. Columnar structure: Arrangement of e. Botryoidal structure: Minerals shows
minerals in the form of thin and thick columns. aggregates of spheroidal mass resembling of
grapes.

e.g., Hornblende
e.g., Hematite.
b. Fibrous structure: Arrangement of minerals
in thread/ hair like structures. f. Accicular structure: Arrangement of minerals
in thin sharp needle like structures.

e.g., Asbestos.
e.g., Muscocite mica.
c. Bladed structure: Arrangement of minerals in
thin blade like parts. g. Radiating: This forms when needles are
arranged around a central point.

e.g., Kyanite.
e.g., Iron pyrite.
d. Granular structure: Arrangement of minerals
in numerous coarse and fine grains. h. Foliated: Minerals consists of thin separable
sheets.

e.g., Chromite.
e.g., Mica.
6. Specific gravity: The ratio of the mineral weight to an equal volume of water. The heavier and
closely spaced atoms will have high specific gravity; whereas lighter and widely spaced atoms will have
low specific gravity such as high, medium and low.

7. Hardness: The ability to scratch one mineral by another higher order of mineral. Friedrich Mohs
(1812), a German Mineralogist has selected ten minerals of distinctly different hardness that ranged
from a very soft mineral (talc) to a very hard mineral (diamond).
Moh’s Scale of Hardness
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Resistance Name of the Composition Remarks

Number Minerals
1 Talc Mg3 (SiO10)(OH)2 (Hydrated silicate) Can be easily scratched by
2 Gypsum CaSO4 (Hydrated Calcium Sulphate) Finger nail
3 Calcite CaCO3 (Calcium Carbonate) Can be hardly scratched by
4 Fluorite CaF2 (Calcium Fluorite) finger nail and easily by
5 Apatite Ca3 (F, Cl, OH) (PO)4 penknife
6 Orthoclase KAlSi3O8 Can be hardly scratched
7 Quartz SiO2 (Silicon di oxide) with penknife
8 Topaz Al2 (SiO4)(SOH)2
9 Corundum Al2O3 (Oxides of Al) Cannot be scratched
10 Diamond C (Pure Carbon)

8. Cleavage: The tendency of a mineral to split up in a specified direction. The different terms of
cleavage are perfect (mica) and imperfect (fluorite). Perfect cleavages are those minerals which splits up
to form smooth surface easily; whereas imperfect minerals do not split up evenly with an average force.

9. Fractures: The appearance of the mineral broken surface. The different terms of fractures are even,
uneven, conchoidal and hackly.
Even: Minerals break up with smooth and flat surface.
Uneven: Mineral breaks up with rough surface.
Conchoidal: Mineral breaks up with curved surface.
Hackly: Mineral breaks with irregular surface and having sharp edges.

These minerals were classified into 5 groups such as oxides, silicates, carbonates, sulfides and sulfates.

Sl No Groups Minerals Chemical Composition

1. Oxides i. Hematite Fe2O3
ii. Magnetite Fe3O4
2. Silicates i. Quartz SiO2
ii. Feldspars: a. Orthoclase K Al Si3O8
b. Plagioclase Na Al Si3O8 (Albite)
iii. Mica: a. Biotite K (Mg Fe) Al Si3O10 (OH)2
b. Muscovite K Al2 (Si2 Al10) (OH)2
3. Carbonates i. Limestone CaCO3
ii. Dolomite Ca Mg CO3
iii. Siderite FeCO3
4. Sulfides i. Pyrite FeS2
ii. Galena PbS
iii. Spharelite ZnS
5. Sulfates i. Gypsum CaSO4 2H2O
ii. Barite BaSO4
iii. Monazite

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COMPOSITION AND THEIR USE IN THE MANUFACTURE OF CONSTRUCTION

MATERIALS

I. OXIDE GROUP OF MINERALS

1. HEMATITE and 2. MAGNETITE

Sl Identification criteria Physical properties of Physical properties of minerals

No minerals
1. Name of the mineral Hematite Magnetite
2. Chemical composition Fe2O3 Fe3O4
3. Color Metallic grey, dull to bright Black
red
4. Streak Bright red to dark red Cherry red
5. Luster Metallic Metallic
6. Crystal Structure Trigonal Isometric
7. Structure/ Habit Radiating, fibrous, botryoidal Octahedral
8. Specific gravity 5 5
9. Hardness 6 6
10. Cleavage None Imperfect
11. Fracture Uneven Uneven
12. Uses Used as main ore of iron, Used as iron ore and conversion of
pigments, radiation steel, audio recording and magnetite
shielding, ballast and steel. powder as recording medium.

[Link] and 4. BAUXITE

Sl Identification Physical properties of Physical properties of minerals

No criteria minerals
1. Name of the mineral Chromite Bauxite
2. Chemical composition FeCr2O4 Al2O32H2O
3. Color Black Reddish brown, yellowish by iron
oxides
4. Streak Brownish black White stained red
5. Luster Sub metallic Dull
6. Crystal Structure Hexa-Octahedral Monoclinic
7. Structure/ Habit Crystalline, Massive Pisolitic earthy, massive
8. Specific gravity 4.8 2.5
9. Hardness 5.5 3
10. Cleavage Nil Nil
11. Fracture Uneven Earthy, Uneven
12. Uses Refractory materials, ore of Ore of aluminum, refractory bricks,
Chromium porcelain cement

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II. SILICATE GROUP OF MINERALS

5. QUARTZ
Sl Identification criteria Physical properties of minerals
No
1. Name of the mineral Quartz
2. Chemical composition SiO2
3. Color White, Pink, Grey and colorless
4. Streak White/ colorless
5. Luster Vitreous
6. Crystal Structure Hexagonal
7. Structure/ Habit Granular/ massive
8. Specific gravity 2.7 (medium)
9. Hardness 7 to 7.5
10. Cleavage Absent
11. Fracture Conchoidal
12. Uses Most important rock forming mineral in granite, gneisses, sandstone
and quartzite. Used as gemstones, ornamental stones, manufacturing
of oscillator plates, optical lenses and building stones etc.

6. KAOLIN and 7. ASBESTOS

Sl Identification Physical properties of Physical properties of minerals
No criteria minerals
1. Name of the mineral Kaolin Asbestos
2. Chemical composition China clay- H4Al2SiO9 2H2O, CaMg Silicate
3. Color Dull white Grayish, yellowish
4. Streak White Pale grayish white
5. Luster Greasy, pearly Silky
6. Crystal Structure Triclinic Orthorhombic
7. Structure/ Habit Powdery Fibrous
8. Specific gravity 2.65 3.2
9. Hardness 1 2.5
10. Cleavage Nil Perfect
11. Fracture Earthy Hackly
12. Uses Cement stiffener, bricks, Fire proof, Electrical & thermal
glazed tiles filler, ceramic and insulator, Ayurvedic medicine
refractory

VARIEITES OF QUARTZ
1. Quartz crystal: It is a transparent and colorless mineral of quartz having composition of pure
Silicon-di-oxide (SiO2).
2. Rose quartz: It’s a pink color and translucent variety of quartz mineral. The color of the mineral is
due to the mineral content of Dumortierite (aluminium boro-silicate).
3. Milky quartz: It’s a white color and commonest variety of quartz.
4. Amethyst: It’s a purple/ violet variety of transparent mineral.

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5. Flint: It’s a compact cryptocrystalline silica of black or various shades of grey color. This breaks up
with well marked conchoidal fracture and shows sharp cutting edges. This has main uses in fabrication
of weapons, jewellery industries and building materials.
6. Opal: It’s hydrated silica in chemical composition, compact form and occurs in various colors such as
white, grey, yellow, red and brown. This shows subvitreous to vitreous luster, conchoidal fracture,
hardness of 5 to 7 with medium specific gravity. This exhibits brilliant play of colors and used in
gemstone jewellery.

8. FELDSPAR: (a). ORTHOCLASE FELDSPAR and (b). PLAGIOCLASE FELDSPAR

Sl Identification Physical properties of Physical properties of minerals
No criteria minerals
1. Name of the mineral Orthoclase feldspar Plagioclase feldspar
2. Chemical KAlSi3O8 NaAlSi3O8
composition
3. Color Pink, orange White
4. Streak White White
5. Luster Vitreous to pearly Vitreous, pearly
6. Crystal Structure Monoclinic Triclinic
7. Structure/ Habit Prismatic/ tabular Massive to granular
8. Specific gravity 2.6 2.7
9. Hardness 6 6
10. Cleavage Basal/ prismatic Perfect in two directions
11. Fracture Conchoidal to uneven ---
12. Uses Used in the manufacture of Important component of many
glass and ceramics; building stones. Labrodorite,
Moonstone orthoclase mineral spectrolite, sunstone and moonstone
used as gemstone. are gem-quality plagioclase feldspars.

9. MICA: (a). BIOTITE (b). MUSCOVITE

Sl Identification Physical properties of minerals Physical properties of
No criteria minerals
1. Name of the mineral Biotite mica Muscovite mica
2. Chemical K (Mg,Fe)3 AlSi3O10 (F, OH)2 KAl2(AlSi3O10)(F,OH)2
composition
3. Color Dark brown White, silvery
4. Streak White White
5. Luster Vitreous to pearly Vitreous, silky, pearly
6. Crystal Structure Monoclinic Monoclinic
7. Structure/ Habit Massive to platy Massive to platy
8. Specific gravity 3 2.7
9. Hardness 2.5 2
10. Cleavage Perfect Perfect
11. Fracture Micaceous Micaceous
12. Uses It is used extensively to constrain ages Used in fireproofing and
of rocks by either K-Ar dating. Used insulating materials and to
to assess the temperature of some extent as a lubricant.
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metamorphic rocks due to partitioning

of iron and magnesium occurs
between biotite and garnet.

III. CARBONATE GROUP OF MINERALS

10. CALCITE AND 11. DOLOMITE
Sl Identification criteria Physical properties of minerals Physical properties of minerals
No
1. Name of the mineral Calcite Dolomite
2. Chemical composition CaCO3 CaMgCO3
3. Color White Brown
4. Streak Granular White
5. Luster Vitreous Vitreous, pearly
6. Crystal Structure Rhombohedral Hexagonal
7. Structure/ Habit Crystalline Granular
8. Specific gravity 2.7 2.9
9. Hardness 3 4
10. Cleavage Perfect Perfect
11. Fracture Conchoidal Uneven
12. Uses Used in optical microscopes, Used in construction industry,
chemical industries, manufacture crushed and sized for road base
of bleaching powder, calcium material, production of cement,
carbide, glass, papers and paints. acid neutralization in the chemical
industry.

IV. SULPHIDE GROUP OF MINERALS

12. PYRITE and 13. GALENA
Sl Identification Physical properties of minerals Physical properties of minerals
No criteria
1. Name of the mineral Pyrite Galena
2. Chemical composition FeS2 PbS
3. Color Brass yellow Bright metallic lustre
4. Streak Dark green to dark brown Lead grey to black
5. Luster Metallic Metallic
6. Crystal Structure Isometric Isometric
7. Structure/ Habit Cubic Cubic
8. Specific gravity 5 7.5
9. Hardness 6.5 2.5
10. Cleavage Conchoidal Perfect
11. Fracture Uneven uneven
12. Uses Pyrite contains 0.25% of gold by Ore of lead used in residential
weight or more, also used for the paints, motor vehicle fuels,
production of sulfur and sulfuric ammunition, fishing weights,
acid and crude oil processing. ceramic glazes and pesticides.

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[Link]
Sl No Identification criteria Physical properties of minerals
1. Name of the mineral Chalcopyrite
2. Chemical composition CuFeS2
3. Color Golden yellow
4. Streak Black to greenish black
5. Luster Metallic
6. Crystal Structure Tetragonal
7. Structure/ Habit Crystalline
8. Specific gravity 4.3
9. Hardness 4
10. Cleavage Absent
11. Fracture Uneven
12. Uses Ore of copper & silver

V. SULFATE GROUP OF MINERALS

15. BARITE and 16. GYPSUM
Sl Identification Physical properties of Physical properties of minerals
No criteria minerals
1. Name of the mineral Barite Gypsum
2. Chemical composition BaSO4 CaSO4, 2H2O
3. Color White White
4. Streak Colorless Colorless
5. Luster Vitreous Vitreous
6. Crystal Structure Orthorhombic Monoclinic
7. Structure/ Habit Flaky Flaky
8. Specific gravity 4.5 2.3
9. Hardness 3.5 1.5
10. Cleavage Perfect Perfect
11. Fracture Uneven Fibrous
12. Uses Used in chemical & sugar Used in the manufacture of plaster of
industries, paper, paint, Paris, cement and other constructive
ceramic industries, glass and materials, fertilizers and as ornamental
paint. stones.

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