KEREN HAPPUCH INTERNATIONAL CHRISTIAN SCHOOL

SECOND TERM JSS 3

WEEK ONE / TWO

DRAWING PRACTICE
ISOMETRIC DRAWING

OBJECTIVES: At the end of this lesson, learners should be able to:

 Define isometric drawing
 State the angle of projection in isometric drawing
 Engage effectively in isometric drawing of different types of blocks.

The word isometric is derived from two words, Iso and metric. ISO
means equal while metric means measure.

Isometric drawing is a form of pictorial drawing which is inclined at an

angle of 30 to the horizontal plane either way.

A pictorial drawing shows the picture of an object in three dimensions

e.g. (top, front, side) of an object in which the three dimensions of
faces are shown as they would appear to the person looking at it.

Isometric Axes
The term isometric axis means the lines formed by the 300 set square
and the vertical line of any given plane or block to be drawn. The lines
that slant at 300 is called the receding lines. The vertical line is also
drawn using the side of the 300/600 set square.
 Isometric axes
The lines drawn are often referred to as projection lines. Apart from
the vertical lines, all other lines are inclined at 300 slant. It is always
better to complete the drawing in construction lines (faint lines) first,
check that everything is correct before outlining the block given.

Steps Involved in Isometric Drawing

1. Drawing the Isometric Axes

After setting your paper on your board and drawing border lines
and title block, follow the steps below:
i. On the lower section of your drawing paper mark a small
cross (+).
ii. Using the 300-600 set-square, supported on the T-square, draw
the first vertical axis from the intersection of the +.
iii. Turn the set square to the 300 slant with the edge intersecting
at the + either to the right or left and draw the first receding
axis.
iv. Rotate the set-square until another edge rest as base on the
T-square on the same intersection and draw the second
receding axis.
2. Outlining the Edges: Finally, using the HB pencil with moderate
pressure, thicken the outline of the given block. You may erase the
extra projected lines on your work since they may not be required
as part of the given block.
3. Dimensioning: This is the technique of adding the actual size
(length, breadth and height) of any block given. The following steps
explains how:
(i). With the aid of the set-square and a little distance from the
block drawn, draw faint projections (the projection lines should not
touch the block) as the block.

(ii). Rotating the set square appropriately, draw arrowhead lines to

indicate demarcations on the given block.

IMPORTANCE OF ISOMETRIC DRAWINGS

1. It helps students to draw objects that appear as they are

2. It helps person who want to fabricate an article to put down his ideas
easily before drawing the detailed description of other parts of the
system.

3. It serves as key for explaining the true shape of an object to technical

and non-technical personnel.

4. Isometric drawing is easily understood by non-technical personnel than

orthographic projection.

DIMENSION
Arrow head lines are lines usually used for dimensioning or dimension lines.
1. Dimension are usually placed outside the outline of the view
2. Dimension should be well spaced on drawing
3. Center line should never be used as dimension lines
4. All dimensions are given in millimeters (mm unless otherwise stated)
5. Dimension are written at right angles to the dimension lines

Examples of Isometric Drawings

(a)

(b)
 OBLIQUE DRAWING
OBJECTIVES: At the end of this lesson, learners should be able to:
 Define oblique drawing.
 State the angle of projection in oblique drawing.
 Draw blocks in oblique projections

Definition: Oblique drawing is a 3-dimensional drawing of objects based on the oblique

axes. It is based on the same principle as isometric drawing

Types of Oblique Drawing

i. Cavalier Projection: This is a situation where an oblique block is

drawn full length, without alteration or distortion of the original
dimension. E.g.

ii. Cabinet Projection: In this method, where the horizontal line is drawn
full size while the 450 slant is drawn half size. E.g.
 Cabinet Projection

Steps Involved in Oblique Projection

Stage 1. Using the 450 set-square, tee-square, and drawing board, draw
the oblique axes as shown on any given block.
Stage 2: Next, locate all given points on any given block according to
the dimensions given. e.g. length, breadth and height. Stage 3: Finally,
you complete by outlining your work.

Figure shows Oblique Drawing Stages

NOTE: Unless you are given specific instructions, all oblique drawings should
be carried out at an angle of 45 0 and dimensions reduced by half. This is very
important in an examination setting.

ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION
OBJECTIVES: At the end of this lesson, learners should be able to:
 Define orthographic projection
 State and explain the angles of projection and
 Convert isometric drawings to orthographic projection.

Definition:
The word orthographic is coined from the word orthogonal (perpendicular) and
graphic (view). orthographic projection can be defined as a two-dimensional
drawing that shows different views of a structure.

Orthographic projection is used to show at least three view of an object in two

dimensions. The views are front view (elevation), side view (either right side or
left side) and plan (top view) the views are displayed into dimensions. This can be
first angles or 3rd angle projection.

It contains the vertical and the horizontal planes as shown below.

Orthographic Planes

Elevations (Views)

In orthographic projection, there are three basic views referred to as elevations.

These elevations are as follows:
(i) The Plan: This is the view of an object as seen or projected from the top.
(ii) Front elevation: This is the view of an object as seen or projected from the
front side of the object or block.
(iii) End (Side) Elevation: This view is sometimes referred to as the auxiliary
vertical plane. It is the view showing the right or left side of any object
when viewed from the front. E.g.
 Angles of Projection

i. First Angle Projection: Where the plan of a structure is positioned below

the quadrant. It is the British system of drawing elevations.

ii. Third angle projection: This is a condition where the plan of a

structure is positioned above the quadrant while the front view is below the
plan. E.g.

First and Third Angle Positioning of Elevations

Steps in Orthographic Projection and Worked Illustrations

(i) Make a sketch of the required views.

(ii) Draw both the vertical and the horizontal axis to intersect
midway.
(iii) Determine the placing of the views.
(iv). Begin drawing with either the plan or front views.
(iv) From either of the views drawn above, project lines for the other
view.
 (v) Draw the reflector line at 450
(vi) Project the horizontal lines from the front elevation.
(vii) Project the plan to meet the reflector line of the 450.
(viii) Take note of hidden details and outline the elevations to complete
the job.

1st angle
2 nd 1 st

Quadrant quadrant

3 rd 4 th

Quadrant quadrant

The front elevation is drawn on the 2nd quadrant while the plan is on the 3rd quadrant
and side view on the 1st quadrant. The 4th quadrant has no view dawn on it.

Front side

Plan

1st angle projection is the opposite of 3rd angle projection

All the views interchanged

Steps in Orthographic Projection and Worked Illustrations

(i) Make a sketch of the required views.

(ii) Draw both the vertical and the horizontal axis to intersect midway.
(ii) Determine the placing of the views.
(iv) Begin drawing with either the plan or front views.
(v) From either of the views drawn above, project lines for the other
view.
 (vi) Draw the reflector line at 450
(vii) Project the horizontal lines from the front elevation.
(ix) Project the plan to meet the reflector line of the 450.
(x) Take note of hidden details and outline the elevations to complete
the job.

WEEK THREE

PERSPECTIVE DRAWING

OBJECTIVES: At the end of this lesson, learners should be able to:

  Define perspective drawing and state the different types of
perspective drawing.
 Use the internal structure of a room as viewed from an angle to
explain one point perspective drawing.
 Construct a one-point perspective of a major road.

Definition: This is a drawing that gives the distant part of an object, like a
building or road. The drawing tapers to a point called the varnishing point (VP), as
it appears to an observer of an object. This makes the outlook of the distant object
smaller than the real size.

One-
Point Perspective of a Railway Line.

A perspective drawing is similar to the picture of an object as it appears to the eye. Perspective drawing is based
on the fact that all line from the observe appear to converge at some distance point away from the observer.

Certain basic element must be understood to enjoy the proper use of drawing such elements are:

a. The picture plane: this is the plane of projection where the object is located (PP).
b. Station: this is the position of the observer. It is known as SP or point or sight.
c. The vanishing point: this is the paint where all the receding lines or visual rays converge on the horizon
(VP).
d. The Horizon: this is the imaginary line representing the eye level of the observer.

TYPES OF PERSPECTIVE
Perspective drawing can be classified according to the number of vanishing points the drawing has the number
of vanishing points defends on the position or the object with respect to the picture plane e.g.

i. One point perspective or parallel this drawing is similar to the oblique drawing except that the receding
lines converged at one point on the horizon.
 Types of Perspective Drawing

i. One-Point Perspective Drawing: In this type of drawing, the projection

lines converge at a particular point known as the varnishing point. e.g.
Like the one shown above or the one below:

One-point perspective of a room

ii. Two-Point perspective Drawing: This type contains two varnishing

points and the two appear to end at a point in two directions.

Two-Point Perspective

WEEK FOUR
SCALE DRAWING

OBJECTECTIVES: At the end of this lesson, learners should be able to:

 Define scale drawing.
 Identify at least three different types of scale drawing.
 Carry out simple calculations involving scale drawing and represent them
appropriately.
 Draw objects to given scales.
Definition:
Scale drawing can be defined as the drawing of lines and objects to any given
proportion or ratio.

Types of Scales

(i). Full Scale: This is the scale used to represent objects as they are or appear in
real life or as it is given on a diagram. It is technically written as a ratio of n:n,
where „n‟ represents any number. E.g. 1:1.

(ii). Reduction scale: This is a scale that is used to reduce the size of objects as
they appear. It is technically written as 1:n, where „n‟ could represent any
number. E.g, 1:2, 1:10, 1:100, 1: 5,000,000.

(iii). Enlarged scale: This scale is used to enlarge objects to be bigger than their
usual size. It is technically written as n:1, where „n‟ could represent any number.
Eg. 2:1, 10:1, 100:1 100,000:1.

Calculations Involving Scale Drawing

Examples:

1. Draw to a scale of 1:20 the line EF = 80cm.

Solution
Given that EF = 80cm

∴ 80cm x 1
1 20
= 80
20

= 4cm or 40mm

The expected line to be drawn will be:

 2. Draw to a scale of 1:10 the line AB = 60cm

Solution

Given that AB = 60cm

therefore, 60 x 1
1 10
6cm or 60mm

The Line to be drawn will look like:

WEEK FIVE
 TOOLS, MACHINES AND PROCESSING

OBJECTIVES: At the end of this lesson, learners should be able to:

 Define woodwork machine.
 Identify five portable power hand tools
 Identify four machine tools
 State the uses of wood working machines

Definition: Woodwork machines are specially designed machines used for wood
operations in furniture work.

There are two basic classes of wood working machines in use.

They are:

[Link] Power Hand Tool Machines (Electrically powered)

[Link]- work machines.

1. Portable Power Hand Tool Machines include the following:

(i) Hand drills: This is an electrically powered tool used for boring holes in
wood.
It contains the chuck which turns the drill bit clockwise and anti-clockwise.

Portable drilling machine

Note: Boring is the act of making narrow holes in a material such as in wood or metal.
Holes are bored in materials with tools called bits or drills. The boring tools are:

The ratchet brace: This is the tool used to hold bits of various sizes in the chucks. Some
of the bits include:
(a) Centre bit: For boring shallow holes in wood.
(b) Dowel bit: Used where two components are to be held together by the dowel pin.

(c) Countersink bit: Used to enlarge the existing holes in wood.

(d) Double twist drill: Used for boring deep hole in wood

2. Gimlet: This is the tool used for boring holes in wood before inserting small nails and
screws
Bradawl: This tool can be used to replace gimlets, could be used as screw-driver to
insert small screws, and could also be used for forming small holes before using screws
or nails in the woodwork.

4. Hand drill: The difference between this tool and the wood brace is in the use of gear
to turn the drill bit

(ii) Belt sander: This machine is used for sanding (smoothening) the surface of
wood. Abrasive is used to coat the rollers in this electrically powered tool. E.g.

Belt sander

(iii) Circular saw: The circular saw is used for cross-cutting timber, for cutting
depth and for forming grooves on timber. It is electrically powered also. It can be
adjusted to any desired position.
 Circular saw

There are two most popular circular saw, Rip saw and Cross -cut saw

Rip saw is used for cutting along the grain of wood by a process called ripping
while cross cut saw is used for cutting across the grain of wood and this is
called cross cutting.

(iv) Saber Saw: This is a flexible saw used for cutting complex shapes like
curves on plywood. Like the curves found on loudspeakers.

Saber saw

(v) Nailing gun: the machine is used instead of the hammer, in sticking nails into
wood.

Nailing gun

2. Wood –Work Machines:

The machines covered in this section are usually mounted in engineering

workshops, since they are not portable in nature. There are six different ones to be
considered.
(i) Circular sawing machine: It is used for both cross-cutting and ripping
operations during wood work.

Circular sawing machine

(ii) Band sawing machine: This machine uses the band saw. It is used for
cutting straight lines, circular and irregular curves on timber and plywood.

Band saw

(iii) Thicknessing machine: This is the machine used for forming the required
thickness for stool and table legs.

Thicknessing machine

(iv) Surface planer: The surface planer is designed for planning operations,
especially planks. It can also be adopted for rebating and tenoning jobs. It
has a wide, flat surface for supporting any load laid on it.
 Surface planers
(v) Drill press: This machine has multiple applications. It is primarily
used for drilling operations, for boring holes on wood and metals. It can
also be used for sanding, shaping and mortising.

Drill press

(vi) Wood lathe: This is the father of all machines. Primarily, it is used for
turning operations to form table legs and lamp stands or stool stands. It is
used also for scraping, sanding, grooving. E.g.

Wood Lathe
 WOODWORK PROJECTS

Woodwork projects demand a lot of organization and planning. This is done so as

to present a professionally finished product.

Stages in Woodwork Project

1. Design Stage: This is the stage where your mind conceives of a concept or an
idea of what type of article you want to produce and how I will look like.
2. Drawing Stage: This is the stage where you draw your concept or
idea. It could be a very simple sketch. It could be the whole article
first, then the views.
3. Fabrication Stage: This stage is a combination of the working
drawing and your cutting list. This list shows the dimension,
quantity and description of the article.
Sample of a Cutting List for a Wooden Tray Project
Part Length Width Thickness Material
Side 2 400 120 18 Opepe
End 2 200 120 6 Opepe
Bottom 1 400 180 8 Plywood

In order to use wood to produce furniture articles, they must be joined together.
These parts are generally referred to as joints in woodwork.

Classes of Wood Joints

Wood joints are grouped into three classes, namely:

1. Box Joints: These are the classes of wood joints that form angle of 900. They
include butt and dovetail joints.

(a) Butt joint: These are joints used in the construction of boxes, window frames,
roofing and cabinet products, door frames, tables and chairs.
 Butt Joints

(b) Dovetail joint: This type of joint is used for making bookshelves drawers for
office tables and for making corner joints.

Dovetail joints
2. Framing joints: These are joints that are used to form frames or network with cris-
crossing endings. They include housing, halving, mortise and bridle joints.

Half-Lap Joints

(a) Housing and Halving joints: These are joints used for making wardrobe,
chairs, table, cupboard and other articles of this nature.
 Cross halving joints

(b) Mortise and Tenon Joints: These are the strongest types of joints. There is
the common, haunched and bareface M&T joints. These joints are used for
making door, window frames, tables, chairs and bench legs.

M& T Joints

3 Widening joints: These joints are used for increasing either breath or length of
boards. They include joints like tongue and groove joints, dowell joints.

(a). Tongue and Groove joints: These are joints used as floor and wall tiles in
most British homes. It is mainly used for decoration.

Tongue and Groove Joints

(b). Dowell joint: Dowell joints are usually stronger and are used for cabinets and
dining tables. E.g.
 Dowell Joints

Non-Wood Materials in Woodwork Projects

A number of non-wood materials used in woodwork include the following:

• Adhesive (gum and glue).

• Abrasive (sand paper).
• Hinges and locks.
• Nails, screws and fittings.

1. Adhesives: These are substances that can bond wooden, leather and other non-
wood materials together. There are three groups of adhesives as shown below.

(a) Protein Adhesives: These are natural adhesives derived from various protein
sources. They include scotch glue (animal glue), casein glue made from milk and
blood albumen glue (animal blood).

(b) Synthetic Adhesives: These are adhesives made from organic compounds.
They include thermoplastic glue ( adhesives that can melt under heat) and
thermoset glues( glue that cannot melt under heat).

(c) Contact adhesives: These are the type of adhesives used for dissimilar
materials. Examples of dissimilar materials are wood and leather, paper and
leather or plastic and metal. The types of adhesives in this group include evostik,
bostick, super-glue, araldite, etc.

[Link]:These are papers, cloths and fibers that are coated with hard
minerals like sand, used to smoothen the surface of other materials like rough
surfaces of wood, rusted metals, etc. They are grouped as either as coarse (rough)
type, medium and fine (smooth) type. E.g.
 Abrasive
[Link]: Hinges are fittings used to hold doors and windows in place. They help
the doors and windows to swing easily. There are different types of hinges in use
depending on the type of work to be done. The common types of hinges are as
follows:

(a).Flat hinges: These are general-purpose hinges that come in different sizes.
They are commonly used for wooden doors, windows and lockers. E.g.

Flat hinges

(b).Tee hinges: These are hinges that look like the letter „T‟ in shape. They are
used for bigger doors used on shops and garage doors. E.g.
 Tee hinges
(c).Butt hinges: These hinges look exactly like the flat hinges. The only
difference is that these hinges are a little bigger than the flat hinges. They are
used for both external and internal doors. E.g.

Butt hinges
(d).Lift-off hinges: These types of hinges are used for special types of jobs.
e.g.

Lift-
off hinges

[Link]: Locks are used to secure openings.

i. Wardrobe lock, box lock, and cupboard locks: They are used for cabinets,
boxes and chests. E.g.

Wardrobe lock Box lock Cupboard lock

 iii. Mortise lock, cylinder latch lock, rim lock, sliding door lock and the
common padlock: These types of locks are used on doors, especially
room doors. E.g.

Mortise lock cylinder latch lock Rim lock

Sliding door lock Common padlock

[Link]: Nails are used to fasten wood pieces together. The different types of
nails c include the following:

(a).Round nail: These are nails used for fastening packing cases. E.g.

Round nail
(b).Oval nail: These are nails used in upholstery furniture jobs, like coition chairs.
E.g.

Oval nail
(c).Cut floor brad nail: These are nails used for fastening floor boards. E.g.
 Cut floor brad nails
(d).Panel pin nails: These are the nails used for cabinet work, picture frame and
any other lighter job. E.g.

Panel pin nails

[Link]: Screws are also used for fastening wood pieces together, for firmer
result. The following describes the different types of screws:

(a).Counter-sunk screw: This is a general-purpose screw used in all types of

wood work. They come in different sizes. They have a straight slot. E.g.

Counter-sunk screw
(b).Round head screw: It is used to fasten metal handles on wooden materials.
E.g.

Round head screw

(c).Raised head screw: These are screws used in most furniture work like
cabinets and office tables. E.g.
 Raised head screw
[Link]: Fittings are used as part of the finishing process in furniture. They
include catches, handles and stays. E.g.

Catches Handles Stays

[Link]: Finishes are chemicals used on the surfaces of wood work used to
beautify it after sanding and scraping. The different types of finishes include the
following:

(a) Varnish: These are chemicals that give wood a hard, tough layer coating.
There are two types namely, the oil and the spirit vanishes.

Varnish on timber
(c) Lacquer: This is the finish that is commonly used by furniture makers. It gives
furniture a glossy, shiny finish. It adapts to any weather. E.g.

Wood Lacquers in colours

(d)French polish: This finish is used generally to beautify woodwork. It easily
dissolves in thinner or spirit. E.g.
 Shades of French polishes
(e) Wax polish: This polish is derived from animal fat, used for beautification
of wood work. There are three types of wax polish namely, animal wax,
vegetable wax and mineral wax. E.g.

Wax polish
(e) Paints: This finish is used to decorate and preserve any wood work. They
include gloss oil, semi-oil, metallic and plastic paints. E.g.

Different shades of furniture paints

(f) Creosote: This type of finish is used as a preservative against fungus and
insect attack. E.g.

Containers of Creosote
 WEEK SEVEN

METAL WORK PROJECTS

OBJECTIVES: At the end of this lesson, learners should be able to:

 Define fabrication
 State at least five steps involved in fabrication
 State at least five tools used for metalwork fabrication 4. State at least one use each of the
tools mentioned in 3 above

Definition

Metalwork project involves the use of metal sheets to fabricate articles.

Fabrication: Fabrication is the use of metal sheets to make different metal articles
for use.

Fabrication Processes

i. Sketching: This is art of drawing the desired article, with dimensions on

paper first.
ii. Measurement: On the metal sheet, the size of the article to be
fabricated must be measured next, using a scriber.

iii. Marking out: At this stage, the scriber is used to mark-out parts of the
article on the metal sheet.
iv. Cutting: A snip is used at this stage to cut through the path marked on
the metal sheet.
v. Filing: To smoothen the rough edges of the cut article, a pedestal
grinder or file can be used to achieve this.

Tools for Metalwork Fabrication

(i).Measuring tool: The basic measuring tools used in metal work include centre
square, steel rule, outside and inside calipers and protractor. These tools are all
used for measuring lengths, widths and angles. E.g.
 Measuring tape

(ii).Marking-out tool: The main tool used here is the scriber. This tool is used
together with measuring tools. e.g.

A scriber
(iii).Cutting tools: The list in this category, include chisels, snips, bench shears
and hack saw. One must consider the thickness of the metal you are about to cut
before choosing the right cutting tool. E.g.

Cutting tools

(iv).Files: In metal work projects, files are used to remove sharp and rough edges
so as to produce a smooth final finish. E.g.
 Files

(v).Drill bits: Drill bits are fitted into the chuck of drilling machines. They are
used to bore holes on metal plates. They come in different types which include
counter sunk, flat, straight-fluted, twist and combination drill bits. E.g.

Drill bits

Shape Development

(i).Bending: Most metalwork project involves bending and folding, either

cylindrically or as square-box shape. This changes the shape of the metal. E.g.

Bending a metal sheet

(ii). Drawing down: This is the process of stretching a metal by hammering. E.g.
 Drawing down
(iii). Twisting: This is a beautification process in forging operation. E.g.

(iv). Upsetting: This is the process of increasing the thickness of a metal. It is

useful in processing bolt heads. E.g.

Upsetting

Metal Finishing

Metal finishing is the process of beautifying metal surfaces so as to prevent rust

and prolong its economic life.

Types of Metal Finishing

a. Buffing: This is the method of using wheels covered with soft cloth or
leather to polish the surface of metal. E.g.
Buffing
b. Lacquering: This is the application of lacquer to metal surface to prevent
corrosion.

c. Enameling: This is the application of corrosion-resistant material, like

plastics, on metal to make the surface glossy and hard. E.g. kerosene stoves.

Enamelling
d. Scratching: This is the use of a thin metal piece and steel brush for cleaning
metal parts thoroughly to be finished. E.g.

Metal brush

e. Painting/Spraying: This is the application of oil paint to metal for coating

purpose. E.g.
 Spraying
f. Copper finishing: This is the oxidation of copper surface to form shades of
different colours like purple, red, brown, etc.

Copper finishing
g. Spot Finishing: This is the forming of pressed spots on metal by the use of
ornamental finishing and abrasive powder and oil spread over the metal.
Spot is achieved by placing the metal over a spinning wood on a drill
chuck. E.g.

Spot finishing
h. Electroplating: This is the protective coating of a metal with other metal such
as tin, zinc or chromium so as to prevent corrosion.

Electroplating
 WEEK 8
SOLDERING AND BRAZING

Metal joining is defined as the process of sticking metals together with the
use of fasteners, either permanently or temporarily.
Methods of Joining Metals

1. Soldering

Soldering is a method of joining metal surfaces together by means of an alloy metal

called solder (flexible lead wire)

Types of Soldering.

(i) Soft Soldering: This type of soldering takes place in temperatures between 1880 c -
2500c. The soft solder used during this soldering operation is an alloy of tin and
lead. It is used on radios and television.
Note: when the solder melts below the red hot temperature of the soldering iron is called soft
soldering.
There are three major kinds of soft soldering
1. Tinsmith solder (melting point 188oc used in radio and T.V. works)
2. Blow pipe solder (melting point 230oc used for general bench work)
3. Plumber’s solder (melting point 250oc used for soldering plumbing joints)

(ii) Hard (Silver) Soldering: Silver soldering makes use of solder which melts above
red heat. The solder is an alloy of copper and zinc. It is used on fridges and air-
conditioners.
Note: when the solder melts at or above red heat, it is called hard soldering or
brazing. Hard soldering is used for joining metals likes copper, silver, gold in
jewelry and art metal work. It can also be used on all carbon and alloy steel. It is
also used to join band saw blades.

Tools and Materials Required for Soldering

Both the tools and materials used during soldering operations are grouped together. They
include the following:
(i) Soldering bit: is used to apply heat and soft solder to a large surface area of metal
parts. Example the one used in panel beating. There are two common pattern of
soldering (a) straight soldering bit (b) Hatchet Soldering bit
Straight soldering bit is used for general work for getting into restricted places.
Hatchet soldering bit is used for making long joints because of its blade like edges.

Soldering bits
(ii) Soldering iron: is used to apply heat and soft solder to smaller spots and joints in
electrical and electronic circuits. (Radio and television).

Soldering iron

(iii) Solder: is an alloy whose melting point is lower than that of the metals to be joined
through this method.

|
Solder
(iv) Flux: These are chemical reagents used for clearing and removing oxides from
surfaces to be joined. This is to prevent oxides from forming on such surfaces so as
to achieve a smooth finish. Some flux used are olive oil, candle grease and resin.
 Soldering flux container
(v) Heat source: Heat source during soldering may be electrically applied or manually
applied.
Note: cleaning up the soldering bit is called Tinning the bit.

2. Brazing
Brazing is the joining of metals using an alloy of copper plus zinc (brass). Brazing is a
type of hard soldering, that ranges from 8500 C and 9500 C.
Brazing is used for making stronger joints and a red heat is usually needed to melt them.
Brazing is a type of hard soldering which uses filler rods to join the metals together.

Brazing operation in progress

Flux for Brazing: The soldering flux for brazing is borax. Flux is a cleaning agent that
removes oxide from joints. Borax, in the form of white powder is mostly used during
brazing.

Heat Source: In brazing, the heating tool is the brazing hearth.

 Brazing hearth

Procedures for Brazing

(i) Clean the metals to be joined especially at the joint point.

(ii) Apply borax to clean up and leave a coat on the metal surfaces.
(iii) Clamp the work piece in place before applying heat.
(iv) Apply the filler rod to the joint and heat with oxyacetylene flame.

Safety Precautions to Observe During Soldering/Brazing

(i) Avoid inhaling fumes from molten flux by not leaning over too close to the joint
being brazed.
(ii) When the brazing operation is complete, wash off your hands and spot where flux
was applied.
(iii) Ensure that the workshop is properly ventilated for free flow of air.
(iv) Do not allow borax or any other flux to rub your skin. It could be dangerous.

3. Welding

Definition: Welding is the process of melting a metal work piece and a filler to form a
pool of molten strong joint. Welding is permanent fastener for metals.

Types of Welding

i. Arc Welding: This is the process of maintaining an electric arc between an

electrode and a base material to melt metals at a welding point. The electrode
may be consumable or non-consumable.

Arc welding in progress

ii. Gas (Oxyacetylene) Welding: This process involves the use of combustion of
acetylene in oxygen to produce a welding flame of about 31000C. It is widely
 used for welding pipes and tubes and for cutting metals or panel beating in
vehicles.

Gas welding in progress

4. Mechanical Fasteners: These are often referred to as temporary fasteners

since parts can be easily separated. Mechanical fasteners include screw and nut,
bolt and nut, taper pin, stud and split pin.

Mechanical fasteners

5. Riveting: This is a permanent fastener in metalwork. The rivet has a head

and a buck-tail. For the rivet to be installed, the head is positioned in a drilled hole
and the tail is made to deform by hammering, so that it spreads to twice its original
shaft diameter.

Rivets

Assignment

1. State five differences between soldering and brazing

2. Mention two similarities between soldering and brazing
 WEEK 9
MACHINE MOTION: LINEAR

Definition
Motion can be defined as the movement of a body (object) from one point to
another with the application of force.

Types of Motion

1. Linear Motion: This is the motion of a body moving in a straight line. Example a
push-pull link mechanism is a simple machine that operates with linear motion.

push-pull link mechanism

2. Rotary Motion: This is motion of a body moving in a circular form. Examples

rotation of a fan, vehicle tyres, the handle of the clock.

A rotary drive mechanism

3. Reciprocating Motion: This is a linear motion that reverses direction periodically.

 4. Oscillations: This is a rotary motion that reverses or changes direction
periodically. example motion of a pendulum bob in clocks.

5. Irregular Motion: This is the type of motion that changes direction in a random
manner. Example smoke particles have irregular motion.

Transmission of Linear Motion

1. Slots: A slot is a whole with different shapes such as triangular, circular,

rectangular or square.
A slot usually has a corresponding shaped object that can be moved in and out of the
slot. For example, a rod can be moved in and out of a cylindrical pipe. Again, a drawer
in a cabinet follows a straight line path because it is guided by the cabinet slot.
 Cabinet drawer

2. Slides: A slide is a rigidly supported object over which another can move.
Arrangement of mechanisms that operate as slides include sliding doors, gates and
bolt lockers.

Slides

3. Levers and Linkages: This is an arrangement of a pivoted rigid bar used to transmit
linear motion.
When more than two levers are combined, one of the arrangement becomes the linkage
between the driver arm lever and the driven arm lever.

Simple Reverse Motion Linkages

In the arrangement above, linear motion can be transmitted over a long distance. Motion
can be transmitted from the driver arm to the driven arm without changing the direction.

The application of levers and linkages can be seen in automobile bonnet lever
mechanism, bicycle arm break lever and in the gas pedal throttle lever arrangement.
 WEEK 10
ROTARY MOTION
Rotary Motion: This is motion of a body moving in a circular form. Example rotation of
a fan, vehicle tyres, the handle of the clock,

A rotary drive mechanism

Types of Rotary Motion

1. One-Way Rotary Motion: This is the type of motion that is clockwise or anti-
clockwise. In a one way rotary motion, a reversal of direction can lead to damage to
such a machine.
Examples of one-way rotary motion includes driving shaft of an automobile,
electric fan, circular sawing machine

Note: In bicycle, ratchets are used to prevent rotation of wheels in reverse

directions while in wristwatches, gear teeth are used to prevent rotation in the
reverse direction

Ceiling fan

2. Reversible Rotary Motion: This is type of rotary motion that can go clockwise and
anti-clockwise. Example, in vehicles, reversible rotary motion makes it possible for a
car to reverse and go backward.

A crane also has reversible rotary motion to be able to lift and drop loads in its load drum.
Function of the Clutch: The function of the clutch is to disconnect two shafts running at
different speeds, that is, the engine crankshaft and the gearbox shaft.

The clutch system

Types of Car Engines

1. Front- Engine Rear-Wheel Drive: This is an engine that consists of a clutch, a gear
box, a propeller shaft and a rear axle. Most cars in Nigeria operate with this type of
engine.

2. Front-Engine Front Wheel Drive: In this type of engine, every other parts
mentioned in 1 above is present except for the propeller shaft. Transmission is
directly from the gearbox to the rotating wheels.

3. Rear-Engine Rear-Wheel Drive: In this type of engine, there is no propeller shaft

also. The clutch, engine and gearbox are all engineered at the back of the car.
Example is Volkswagen cars. E.g.
 Rear-Engine Rear-Wheel Drive
1. Front-Engine 4-Wheel Drive: This is a more recent technological advancement in
the engineering of cars. There is no propeller shaft and most times no mechanical
gearbox. The gear system is a hydraulic system. This car contains the brake and the
accelerator only, with all four wheels connected to the gear box.

Mechanical Gear System and Hydraulic Gear System.

Control of Rotary Motion-Brakes

Brakes are meant to control motion. Kinetic energy in a moving object is absorbed by the
brake. This produces heat on the brake as kinetic energy is converted into potential
energy. As the brake absorbs heat, the vehicle slows down until it finally comes to a stop.

How Brakes Work

There are different types of brakes. However, the principle of how the brake works is the
use of friction. If the brake in a car or bicycle is pressed against the rotating drum or disc
or wheel, the resulting friction between the pad and the drum or wheel slows down the
rotating wheels, until they eventually come to a stop.

Bicycle brake Disc Brake

 Conversion of Rotary Motion to Linear Motion

1. Sewing Machine: In some machines, it is necessary for a change from one form of
motion to another along its line of operation. Example a sewing machine will need to
convert linear motion from the moving pedal to rotary motion at the wheel and finally
to linear motion again at the needle.

A Sewing machine

2. Piston-Crank mechanism of a car engine is another example of converting rotary

motion at one point of an engine to rotary motion at another point of the same
engine.

Piston-Crank Mechanism in a vehicle engine

3. Crank and Slider: The crank and slider mechanism is used in certain machines. The
mechanism consist of a rotating crank which rotates about its center and an
arrangement of levers which acts as a linkage to a sliding block constrained to execute
linear motion at the other end.

In an automobile, this system is described as the piston and crankshaft. So, in a machine,
the crank and slider device can work in changing rotary motion to linear motion or from
linear motion into rotary motion.
 The Crank and Slider Mechanism

Other examples of machines involved in converting one form of energy to another are;
Screw jack, Rack and piston steering system, Crankshaft and cylinder, Metalwork table
vice, Woodworker’s vice, Pipe vice, G-clamp

G-clamp Steering system Pipe vice

GEARS

Gears are metallic wheels with teeth

They are used to

 1. Transmit power or energy from one shaft to another
2. Change speed of shaft to either high or low speed
3. Change the running direction of a shaft

There are various types of gear

1. Spur gears: these are used for transmitting drive between parallel shafts

2. Bevel gear: these are used for transmitting power/drive between shafts at angle

3. Rack and pinion gears: these gears are used for converting rotary motion of the pinion to linear motion
of the rack

When two gears mesh, one is the driver and the other is driven. The driver produces the power while the other
is driven
Calculating the speed of gears

The speed of the rotation of a gear is directly proportional to the number of teeth of the gear.

Example

A gear has 20 teeth. Its speed of rotation is 10 rpm. The gear drives another gear with 10 teeth determine the
speed of the 10 tooth gear.

Solution

20 teeth x 10 rpm =

10 teeth x (y) rpm ( driver gear x rpm ) / driven x rpm

X rpm = (20teeth x 10 rpm )/10 teeth

X rpm = 20 rpm

Example 2

Determine the speed of rotation of a 20 tooth gear when it is driven by a 40 tooth gear and rotating at 10 rpm

Solution

40 teeth x 10 rpm = 20 teeth x y rpm

Y rpm = (40 teeth x 10 rpm ) / 20 teeth

Y rpm = 20 rpm

Calculating gear ratio

Note: when a small gear drives a larger gear the result is gear reduction. Gear reduction produces increase in
torque and decrease in speed.

Gear ratio = number of teeth of the driven gear / number of teeth of the driving gear.

(Speed A x number of teeth A ) = ( Speed B x Number of teeth B) ie Gear ratio

Example: If a gear with 15 teeth is used to drive a gear with 30 teeth, the ratio is 2:1

Driven/driver = 30 /15 = 2:1

Example 2

If a gear with 15 teeth is driven by a gear with 30 teeth, the ratio is 1:2

Driven/driver = 15/30 = 1:2

Questions