Contents

1 Overview 3

2 Getting Python 5
2.1 Python 2 vs Python 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2 Installing Python in Windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.3 Installing Python on Mac . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.4 Installing Python on Unix environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.5 Keeping Up to Date . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.6 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

3 Interactive mode 11

4 Creating Python programs 13

4.1 Hello, World! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.2 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4.3 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

5 Basic syntax 17

6 Data types 21
6.1 Null object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
6.2 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

7 Numbers 27

8 Strings 29
8.1 String operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
8.2 String constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
8.3 String methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
8.4 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
8.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

9 Lists 39
9.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
9.2 List creation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
9.3 List Attributes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
9.4 Combining lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
9.5 Getting pieces of lists (slices) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
9.6 Comparing lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
9.7 Sorting lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
9.8 Iteration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

III
Contents

9.9 Removing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
9.10 Aggregates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
9.11 Copying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
9.12 Clearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
9.13 List methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
9.14 operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
9.15 Subclassing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
9.16 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
9.17 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

10 Dictionaries 51
10.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
10.2 Dictionary notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
10.3 Operations on Dictionaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
10.4 Combining two Dictionaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
10.5 Deleting from dictionary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
10.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
10.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

11 Sets 55

12 Operators 61
12.1 Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
12.2 Powers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
12.3 Division and Type Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
12.4 Modulo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
12.5 Negation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
12.6 Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
12.7 Identity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
12.8 Augmented Assignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
12.9 Boolean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
12.10 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
12.11 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

13 Flow control 65
13.1 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
13.2 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

14 Functions 73
14.1 Function Calls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
14.2 Closures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
14.3 Lambda Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

15 Scoping 81

16 Exceptions 83

17 Input and output 87

17.1 Input . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

IV
 Contents

17.2 Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
17.3 External Links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

18 Modules 95
18.1 Importing a Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
18.2 Creating a Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
18.3 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

19 Classes 99

20 Metaclasses 125

21 Reflection 129
21.1 Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
21.2 Isinstance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
21.3 Duck typing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
21.4 Callable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
21.5 Dir . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
21.6 Getattr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
21.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

22 Regular Expression 131

22.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
22.2 Matching and searching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
22.3 Replacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
22.4 Splitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
22.5 Escaping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
22.6 Flags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
22.7 Pattern objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
22.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

23 GUI Programming 137

23.1 Tkinter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
23.2 PyGTK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
23.3 PyQt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
23.4 wxPython . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
23.5 Dabo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
23.6 pyFltk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
23.7 Other Toolkits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140

24 Authors 141
24.1 Authors of Python textbook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

25 Game Programming in Python 143

25.1 3D Game Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
25.2 2D Game Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
25.3 See Also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

V
Contents

26 Sockets 147
26.1 HTTP Client . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
26.2 NTP/Sockets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147

27 Files 149
27.1 File I/O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
27.2 Testing Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
27.3 Common File Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
27.4 Finding Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
27.5 Current Directory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
27.6 External Links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152

28 Database Programming 153

28.1 Generic Database Connectivity using ODBC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
28.2 Postgres connection in Python . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
28.3 MySQL connection in Python . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
28.4 SQLAlchemy in Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
28.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
28.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
28.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155

29 Web Page Harvesting 157

30 Threading 159
30.1 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159

31 Extending with C 161

31.1 Using the Python/C API . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
31.2 Using SWIG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164

32 Extending with C++ 167

32.1 A Hello World Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
32.2 An example with CGAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
32.3 Handling Python objects and errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170

33 Extending with ctypes 171

33.1 Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
33.2 Getting Return Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171

34 WSGI web programming 173

35 WSGI Web Programming 175

35.1 External Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

36 References 177
36.1 Language reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

37 Contributors 179

List of Figures 187

VI
 Contents

38 Licenses 191
38.1 GNU GENERAL PUBLIC LICENSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
38.2 GNU Free Documentation License . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
38.3 GNU Lesser General Public License . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193

1
1 Overview

Python1 is a high-level2 , structured3 , open-source4 programming language that can be used

for a wide variety of programming tasks. Python was created by Guido Van Rossum in the
early 1990s, its following has grown steadily and interest is increased markedly in the last
few years or so. It is named after Monty Python’s Flying Circus comedy program.
Python5 is used extensively for system administration (many vital components of Linux6
Distributions are written in it), also its a great language to teach programming to novice.
NASA has used Python for its software systems and has adopted it as the standard scripting
language for its Integrated Planning System. Python is also extensively used by Google to
implement many components of its Web Crawler and Search Engine & Yahoo! for managing
its discussion groups.
Python within itself is an interpreted programming language that is automatically com-
piled into bytecode before execution (the bytecode is then normally saved to disk, just as
automatically, so that compilation need not happen again until and unless the source gets
changed). It is also a dynamically typed language that includes (but does not require one
to use) object oriented features and constructs.
The most unusual aspect of Python is that whitespace is significant; instead of block de-
limiters (braces → ”{}” in the C family of languages), indentation is used to indicate where
blocks begin and end.
For example, the following Python code can be interactively typed at an interpreter prompt,
display the famous ”Hello World!” on the user screen:

>>> print "Hello World!"

Hello World!

Another great Python feature is its availability for all Platforms. Python can run on Mi-
crosoft Windows, Macintosh & all Linux distributions with ease. This makes the programs
very portable, as any program written for one Platform can easily be used at another.
Python provides a powerful assortment of built-in types (e.g., lists, dictionaries and strings),
a number of built-in functions, and a few constructs, mostly statements. For example, loop
constructs that can iterate over items in a collection instead of being limited to a simple
range of integer values. Python also comes with a powerful standard library7 , which includes

1 [Link]
2 [Link]
3 [Link]
4 [Link]
5 [Link]
6 [Link]
7 [Link]

3
Overview

hundreds of modules to provide routines for a wide variety of services including regular
expressions8 and TCP/IP sessions.
Python is used and supported by a large Python Community9 that exists on the Internet.
The mailing lists and news groups10 like the tutor list11 actively support and help new python
programmers. While they discourage doing homework for you, they are quite helpful and
are populated by the authors of many of the Python textbooks currently available on the
market.

Note:
Python 2 vs Python 3: Several years ago, the Python developers made the decision
to come up with a major new version of Python. Initially called “Python 3000”, this
became the 3.x series of versions of Python. What was radical about this was that the
new version is backward-incompatible with Python 2.x : certain old features (like
the handling of Unicode strings) were deemed to be too unwieldy or broken to be worth
carrying forward. Instead, new, cleaner ways of achieving the same things were added.

8 Chapter 22 on page 131

9 [Link]
10 [Link]
11 [Link]

4
2 Getting Python

In order to program in Python you need the Python interpreter. If it is not already installed
or if the version you are using is obsolete, you will need to obtain and install Python using
the methods below:

2.1 Python 2 vs Python 3

In 2008, a new version of Python (version 3) was published that was not entirely backward
compatible. Developers were asked to switch to the new version as soon as possible but
many of the common external modules are not yet (as of Aug 2010) available for Python
3. There is a program called 2to3 to convert the source code of a Python 2 program to
the source code of a Python 3 program. Consider this fact before you start working with
Python.

2.2 Installing Python in Windows

Go to the Python Homepage1 or the ActiveState website2 and get the proper version for
your platform. Download it, read the instructions and get it installed.
In order to run Python from the command line, you will need to have the python direc-
tory in your PATH. Alternatively, you could use an Integrated Development Environment
(IDE) for Python like DrPython[Link] eric[Link]
[Link]/eric/[Link], PyScripter[Link]
aspx?ProductID=4, or Python’s own IDLE3 (which ships with every version of Python since
2.3).
The PATH variable can be modified from the Window’s System control panel. To add the
PATH in Windows 7 :
1. Go to Start.
2. Right click on computer.
3. Click on properties.
4. Click on ’Advanced System Settings’
5. Click on ’Environmental Variables’.
6. In the system variables select Path and edit it, by appending a ’;’ (without quote)
and adding ’C:\python27’(without quote).

1 [Link]
2 [Link]
3 [Link]

5
Getting Python

If you prefer having a temporary environment, you can create a new command prompt
short-cut that automatically executes the following statement:

PATH %PATH%;c:\python27

If you downloaded a different version (such as Python 3.1), change the ”27” for the version
of Python you have (27 is 2.7.x, the current version of Python 2.)

2.2.1 Cygwin

By default, the Cygwin installer for Windows does not include Python in the downloads.
However, it can be selected from the list of packages.

2.3 Installing Python on Mac

Users on Apple Mac OS X will find that it already ships with Python 2.3 (OS X 10.4 Tiger)
or Python 2.6.1 (OS X Snow Leopard), but if you want the more recent version head to
Python Download Page4 follow the instruction on the page and in the installers. As a bonus
you will also install the Python IDE.

2.4 Installing Python on Unix environments

Python is available as a package for some Linux distributions. In some cases, the distribu-
tion CD will contain the python package for installation, while other distributions require
downloading the source code and using the compilation scripts.

2.4.1 Gentoo GNU/Linux

Gentoo is an example of a distribution that installs Python by default - the package system
Portage depends on Python.

2.4.2 Ubuntu GNU/Linux

Users of Ubuntu will notice that Python comes installed by default, only it sometimes is
not the latest version. If you would like to update it, click here5 .

4 [Link]
5 [Link]

6
 Installing Python on Unix environments

2.4.3 Arch GNU/Linux

Arch does not install python by default, but is easily available for installation through the
package manager to pacman. As root (or using sudo if you’ve installed and configured it),
type:

$ pacman -Syu python

This will be update package databases and install python. Other versions can be built from
source from the Arch User Repository.

2.4.4 Source code installations

Some platforms do not have a version of Python installed, and do not have pre-compiled
binaries. In these cases, you will need to download the source code from the official site6 .
Once the download is complete, you will need to unpack the compressed archive into a
folder.
To build Python, simply run the configure script (requires the Bash shell) and compile using
make.

2.4.5 Other Distributions

Python, which is also referred to as CPython7 , is written in the C Programming8 language.

The C source code is generally portable, that means CPython can run on various platforms.
More precisely, CPython can be made available on all platforms that provide a compiler to
translate the C source code to binary code for that platform.
Apart from CPython there are also other implementations that run on top of a virtual
machine. For example, on Java’s JRE (Java Runtime Environment) or Microsoft’s .NET
CLR (Common Language Runtime). Both can access and use the libraries available on
their platform. Specifically, they make use of reflection9 that allows complete inspection
and use of all classes and objects for their very technology.
Python Implementations (Platforms)

Environment Description Get From

Jython Java Version of Jython10
Python
IronPython C# Version of IronPython11
Python

6 [Link]
7 [Link]
8 [Link]
9 [Link]
10 [Link]
11 [Link]

7
Getting Python

2.4.6 Integrated Development Environments (IDE)

CPython ships with IDLE; however, IDLE is not considered user-friendly.12 For Linux,
KDevelop and Spyder are popular. For Windows, PyScripter is free, quick to install, and
comes included with PortablePython13 .
Some Integrated Development Environments (IDEs) for Python

Environment Description Get From

KDevelop Cross Language IDE for KDevelop14
KDE
ActivePython Highly Flexible, Pythonwin ActivePython15
IDE
Anjuta IDE Linux/Unix Anjuta16
Pythonwin Windows Oriented Environ- Pythonwin17
ment
PyScripter Free Windows IDE PyScripter18
(portable)
VisualWx Free GUI Builder VisualWx19
Spyder Free cross-platform IDE Spyder20
Eclipse (PyDev plu- Open Source IDE Eclipse21
gin)

The Python official wiki has a complete list of IDEs22 .

There are several commercial IDEs such as Komodo, BlackAdder, Code Crusader, Code
Forge, and PyCharm. However, for beginners learning to program, purchasing a commercial
IDE is unnecessary.

2.5 Keeping Up to Date

Python has a very active community and the language itself is evolving continuously. Make
sure to check python.org23 for recent releases and relevant tools. The website is an invaluable
asset.

12 The Things I Hate About IDLE That I Wish Someone Would Fix ˆ{[Link]
blog/2011/11/29/the-things-i-hate-about-idle-that-i-wish-someone-would-fix/} .
13 [Link]
14 [Link]
15 [Link]
16 [Link]
17 [Link]
18 [Link]
19 [Link]
20 [Link]
21 [Link]
22 [Link]
23 [Link]

8
 Notes

Public Python-related mailing lists are hosted at [Link].org24 . Two examples of such
mailing lists are the Python-announce-list to keep up with newly released third party-
modules or software for Python and the general discussion list Python-list . These lists are
mirrored to the Usenet newsgroups [Link] & [Link]
.

2.6 Notes

24 [Link]

9
3 Interactive mode

Python has two basic modes: normal and interactive. The normal mode is the mode where
the scripted and finished .py files are run in the Python interpreter. Interactive mode is
a command line shell which gives immediate feedback for each statement, while running
previously fed statements in active memory. As new lines are fed into the interpreter, the
fed program is evaluated both in part and in whole.
To start interactive mode, simply type ”python” without any arguments. This is a good
way to play around and try variations on syntax. Python should print something like this:

$ python
Python 3.0b3 (r30b3:66303, Sep 8 2008, 14:01:02) [MSC v.1500 32 bit (Intel)]
on win32
Type ”help”, ”copyright”, ”credits” or ”license” for more information.
>>>

(If Python doesn’t run, make sure your path is set correctly. See Getting Python1 .)
The >>> is Python’s way of telling you that you are in interactive mode. In interactive
mode what you type is immediately run. Try typing 1+1 in. Python will respond with 2 .
Interactive mode allows you to test out and see what Python will do. If you ever feel the
need to play with new Python statements, go into interactive mode and try them out.
A sample interactive session:

>>> 5
5
>>> print (5*7)
35
>>> ”hello” * 4
’hellohellohellohello’
>>> ”hello”.__class__
<type ’str’>

However, you need to be careful in the interactive environment to avoid confusion. For
example, the following is a valid Python script:

if 1:
print("True")
print("Done")

If you try to enter this as written in the interactive environment, you might be surprised
by the result:

1 Chapter 2 on page 5

11
Interactive mode

>>> if 1:
... print(”True”)
... print(”Done”)
File ”<stdin>”, line 3
print(”Done”)
ˆ
SyntaxError: invalid syntax

What the interpreter is saying is that the indentation of the second print was unexpected.
You should have entered a blank line to end the first (i.e., ”if”) statement, before you started
writing the next print statement. For example, you should have entered the statements as
though they were written:

if 1:
print("True")

print("Done")

Which would have resulted in the following:

>>> if 1:
... print(”True”)
...
True
>>> print(”Done”)
Done
>>>

3.0.1 Interactive mode

Instead of Python exiting when the program is finished, you can use the -i flag to start an
interactive session. This can be very useful for debugging and prototyping.

python -i [Link]

12
4 Creating Python programs

Welcome to Python! This tutorial will show you how to start writing programs.
Python programs are nothing more than text files, and they may be edited with a standard
text editor1 program.2 What text editor you use will probably depend on your operating
system: any text editor can create Python programs. However, it is easier to use a text
editor that includes Python syntax highlighting3 .

4.1 Hello, World!

The first program that beginning programmers usually write is the ”w:Hello, World!” pro-
gram4 . This program simply outputs the phrase ”Hello, World!” then terminates itself. Let’s
write ”Hello, World!” in Python!
Open up your text editor and create a new file called [Link] containing just this line
(you can copy-paste if you want):

print('Hello, world!')

This program uses the print function, which simply outputs its parameters to the terminal.
By default, print appends a newline character to its output, which simply moves the cursor
to the next line.

Note:
In Python 2.x, print is a statement rather than a function. As such, it can be used
without parentheses, in which case it prints everything until the end of the line and
accepts a standalone comma after the final item on the line to indicate a multi-line
statement. In Python 3.x, print is a proper function expecting its arguments inside
parentheses. Using print with parentheses (as above) is compatible with Python 2.x and
using this style ensures version-independence.

Now that you’ve written your first program, let’s run it in Python! This process differs
slightly depending on your operating system.

1 [Link]
2 Sometimes, Python programs are distributed in compiled form. We won’t have to worry about that for
quite a while.
3 [Link]
4 [Link]

13
Creating Python programs

4.1.1 Windows

• Create a folder on your computer to use for your Python programs, such as
C:\pythonpractice , and save your [Link] program in that folder.
• In the Start menu, select ”Run...”, and type in cmd . This will cause the Windows terminal
to open.
• Type cd \pythonpractice to c hange d irectory to your pythonpractice folder, and
hit Enter.
• Type [Link] to run your program!
If it didn’t work, make sure your PATH contains the python directory. See Getting Python5 .

4.1.2 Mac

• Create a folder on your computer to use for your Python programs. A good suggestion
would be to name it pythonpractice and place it in your Home folder (the one that con-
tains folders for Documents, Movies, Music, Pictures, etc). Save your [Link] program
into this folder.
• Open the Applications folder, go into the Utilities folder, and open the Terminal program.
• Type cd pythonpractice to c hange d irectory to your pythonpractice folder, and hit
Enter.
• Type python ./[Link] to run your program!

Note:
If you have both Python 2 and Python 3 installed (Your machine comes with a version
of Python 2 but you can install Python 3a as well), you should run python3 [Link]

a [Link]

4.1.3 Linux

• Create a folder on your computer to use for your Python programs, such as ˜/python-
practice , and save your [Link] program in that folder..
• Open up the terminal program. In KDE, open the main menu and select ”Run Com-
mand...” to open Konsole. In GNOME, open the main menu, open the Applications
folder, open the Accessories folder, and select Terminal.
• Type cd ˜/pythonpractice to c hange d irectory to your pythonpractice folder, and
hit Enter.
• Type python ./[Link] to run your program!

Note:
If you have both Python version 2.6.1 and Python 3.0 installed (Very possible if you are
using Ubuntu, and ran sudo apt-get install python3 to have python3 installed), you
should run python3 [Link]

5 Chapter 2 on page 5

14
 Hello, World!

4.1.4 Linux (advanced)

• Create a folder on your computer to use for your Python programs, such as ˜/python-
practice .
• Open up your favorite text editor and create a new file called [Link] containing just
the following 2 lines (you can copy-paste if you want):6
7

#! /usr/bin/python
print('Hello, world!')

Note:
If you have both python version 2.6.1 and version 3.0 installed (Very possible if you are
using a debian or debian-based(*buntu, Mint, …) distro, and ran sudo apt-get install
python3 to have python3 installed), use
! /usr/bin/python3
print('Hello, world!')

• save your [Link] program in the ˜/pythonpractice folder.

• Open up the terminal program. In KDE, open the main menu and select ”Run Com-
mand...” to open Konsole. In GNOME, open the main menu, open the Applications
folder, open the Accessories folder, and select Terminal.
• Type cd ˜/pythonpractice to c hange d irectory to your pythonpractice folder, and
hit Enter.
• Type chmod a+x [Link] to tell Linux that it is an executable program.
• Type ./[Link] to run your program!
• In addition, you can also use ln -s [Link] /usr/bin/hello to make a s ymbolic l in
k [Link] to /usr/bin under the name hello , then run it by simply executing hello
.
Note that this mainly should be done for complete, compiled programs, if you have a script
that you made and use frequently, then it might be a good idea to put it somewhere in your
home directory and put a link to it in /usr/bin. If you want a playground, a good idea is to
invoke mkdir ˜/.local/bin and then put scripts in there. To make ˜/.local/bin content
executable the same way /usr/bin does type $PATH = $PATH:˜/local/bin (you can add
this line into you’re shell rc file for exemple ˜/.bashrc)

6
7 A Quick Introduction to Unix/My First Shell Script ˆ{[Link]
20Introduction%20to%20Unix%2FMy%20First%20Shell%20Script} explains what a hash bang line does.

15
Creating Python programs

Note:
File extensions aren’t necessary in UNIX-like file-systems. To linux, [Link] means the
exact same thing as [Link], hello.mp3, or just hello. Linux mostly uses the contents
of the file to determine what type it is.
johndoe@linuxbox $ file /usr/bin/hello
/usr/bin/hello: Python script, ASCII text executable

4.1.5 Result

The program should print:

Hello, world!

Congratulations! You’re well on your way to becoming a Python programmer.

4.2 Exercises

1. Modify the [Link] program to say hello to someone from your family or your friends
(or to Ada Lovelace8 ).
2. Change the program so that after the greeting, it asks, ”How did you get here?”.
3. Re-write the original program to use two print statements: one for ”Hello” and one
for ”world”. The program should still only print out on one line.
Solutions9

4.3 Notes

8 [Link]
9 [Link]

16
5 Basic syntax

There are five fundamental concepts in Python1 .

5.0.1 Case Sensitivity

All variables are case-sensitive. Python treats ’number’ and ’Number’ as separate, unrelated
entities.

5.0.2 Spaces and tabs don’t mix

Because whitespace is significant, remember that spaces and tabs don’t mix, so use only one
or the other when indenting your programs. A common error is to mix them. While they
may look the same in editor, the interpreter will read them differently and it will result in
either an error or unexpected behavior. Most decent text editors can be configured to let
tab key emit spaces instead.
Python’s Style Guideline described that the preferred way is using 4 spaces.

Tips: If you invoked python from the command-line, you can give -t or -tt argument to
python to make python issue a warning or error on inconsistent tab usage.

pythonprogrammer@wikibook: $ python -tt [Link]

This will issue an error if you have mixed spaces and tabs.

5.0.3 Objects

In Python, like all object oriented languages, there are aggregations of code and data called
Objects, which typically represent the pieces in a conceptual model of a system.
Objects in Python are created (i.e., instantiated) from templates called Classes2 (which
are covered later, as much of the language can be used without understanding classes).
They have ”attributes”, which represent the various pieces of code and data which comprise
the object. To access attributes, one writes the name of the object followed by a period
(henceforth called a dot), followed by the name of the attribute.

1 [Link]
2 Chapter 19 on page 99

17
Basic syntax

An example is the ’upper’ attribute of strings, which refers to the code that returns a copy
of the string in which all the letters are uppercase. To get to this, it is necessary to have
a way to refer to the object (in the following example, the way is the literal string that
constructs the object).

'bob'.upper

Code attributes are called ”methods”. So in this example, upper is a method of ’bob’ (as
it is of all strings). To execute the code in a method, use a matched pair of parentheses
surrounding a comma separated list of whatever arguments the method accepts (upper
doesn’t accept any arguments). So to find an uppercase version of the string ’bob’, one
could use the following:

'bob'.upper()

5.0.4 Scope

In a large system, it is important that one piece of code does not affect another in difficult to
predict ways. One of the simplest ways to further this goal is to prevent one programmer’s
choice of names from preventing another from choosing that name. Because of this, the
concept of scope was invented. A scope is a ”region” of code in which a name can be used
and outside of which the name cannot be easily accessed. There are two ways of delimiting
regions in Python: with functions or with modules. They each have different ways of
accessing the useful data that was produced within the scope from outside the scope. With
functions, that way is to return the data. The way to access names from other modules
lead us to another concept.

5.0.5 Namespaces

It would be possible to teach Python without the concept of namespaces because they are
so similar to attributes, which we have already mentioned, but the concept of namespaces is
one that transcends any particular programming language, and so it is important to teach.
To begin with, there is a built-in function dir() that can be used to help one understand
the concept of namespaces. When you first start the Python interpreter (i.e., in interactive
mode), you can list the objects in the current (or default) namespace using this function.

Python 2.3.4 (#53, Oct 18 2004, 20:35:07) [MSC v.1200 32 bit (Intel)] on win32
Type "help", "copyright", "credits" or "license" for more information.
>>> dir()
['__builtins__', '__doc__', '__name__']

This function can also be used to show the names available within a module namespace.
To demonstrate this, first we can use the type() function to show what __builtins__ is:

>>> type(__builtins__)
<type 'module'>

Since it is a module, we can list the names within the __builtins__ namespace, again
using the dir() function (note the complete list of names has been abbreviated):

18
 Notes

>>> dir(__builtins__)
['ArithmeticError', ... 'copyright', 'credits', ... 'help', ... 'license', ...
'zip']
>>>

Namespaces are a simple concept. A namespace is a place in which a name resides. Each
name within a namespace is distinct from names outside of the namespace. This layering of
namespaces is called scope. A name is placed within a namespace when that name is given
a value. For example:

>>> dir()
['__builtins__', '__doc__', '__name__']
>>> name = "Bob"
>>> import math
>>> dir()
['__builtins__', '__doc__', '__name__', 'math', 'name']

Note that I was able to add the ”name” variable to the namespace using a simple assign-
ment statement. The import statement was used to add the ”math” name to the current
namespace. To see what math is, we can simply:

>>> math
<module 'math' (built-in)>

Since it is a module, it also has a namespace. To display the names within this namespace,
we:

>>> dir(math)
['__doc__', '__name__', 'acos', 'asin', 'atan', 'atan2', 'ceil', 'cos', 'cosh',
'degrees', 'e',
'exp', 'fabs', 'floor', 'fmod', 'frexp', 'hypot', 'ldexp', 'log', 'log10',
'modf', 'pi', 'pow',
'radians', 'sin', 'sinh', 'sqrt', 'tan', 'tanh']
>>>

If you look closely, you will notice that both the default namespace, and the math module
namespace have a ’__name__’ object. The fact that each layer can contain an object with
the same name is what scope is all about. To access objects inside a namespace, simply use
the name of the module, followed by a dot, followed by the name of the object. This allow
us to differentiate between the __name__ object within the current namespace, and that of
the object with the same name within the math module. For example:

>>> print (__name__)

__main__
>>> print (math.__name__)
math
>>> print (math.__doc__)
This module is always available. It provides access to the
mathematical functions defined by the C standard.
>>> [Link]
3.1415926535897931

19
6 Data types

Data types determine whether an object can do something, or whether it just would not
make sense. Other programming languages often determine whether an operation makes
sense for an object by making sure the object can never be stored somewhere where the
operation will be performed on the object (this type system1 is called static typing). Python
does not do that. Instead it stores the type of an object with the object, and checks when
the operation is performed whether that operation makes sense for that object (this is called
dynamic typing).

Built-in Data types

Python’s built-in (or standard) data types can be grouped into several classes. Sticking to
the hierarchy scheme used in the official Python documentation these are numeric types,
sequences, sets and mappings (and a few more not discussed further here). Some of
the types are only available in certain versions of the language as noted below.
• boolean: the type of the built-in values True and False . Useful in conditional expres-
sions, and anywhere else you want to represent the truth or falsity of some condition.
Mostly interchangeable with the integers 1 and 0. In fact, conditional expressions will
accept values of any type, treating special ones like boolean False , integer 0 and the
empty string "" as equivalent to False , and all other values as equivalent to True . But
for safety’s sake, it is best to only use boolean values in these places.
Numeric types:
• int: Integers; equivalent to C longs in Python 2.x, non-limited length in Python 3.x
• long: Long integers of non-limited length; exists only in Python 2.x
• float: Floating-Point numbers, equivalent to C doubles
• complex: Complex Numbers
Sequences:
• str: String; represented as a sequence of 8-bit characters in Python 2.x, but as a sequence
of Unicode characters (in the range of U+0000 - U+10FFFF) in Python 3.x
• byte: a sequence of integers in the range of 0-255; only available in Python 3.x
• byte array: like bytes, but mutable (see below); only available in Python 3.x
• list
• tuple
Sets:
• set: an unordered collection of unique objects; available as a standard type since Python
2.6

1 [Link]

21
Data types

• frozen set: like set, but immutable (see below); available as a standard type since Python
2.6
Mappings:
• dict: Python dictionaries, also called hashmaps or associative arrays, which means that
an element of the list is associated with a definition, rather like a Map in Java2

Some others, such as type and callables

Mutable vs Immutable Objects

In general, data types in Python can be distinguished based on whether objects of the type
are mutable or immutable. The content of objects of immutable types cannot be changed
after they are created.

Some immutable types: Some mutable types:

• int, float, long, complex • byte array
• str • list
• bytes • set
• tuple • dict
• frozen set

Only mutable objects support methods that change the object in place, such as reassignment
of a sequence slice, which will work for lists, but raise an error for tuples and strings.
It is important to understand that variables in Python are really just references to objects
in memory. If you assign an object to a variable as below

a = 1
s = 'abc'
l = ['a string', 456, ('a', 'tuple', 'inside', 'a', 'list')]

all you really do is make this variable (a , s , or l ) point to the object (1 , 'abc' , ['a
string', 456, ('a', 'tuple', 'inside', 'a', 'list')] ), which is kept somewhere
in memory, as a convenient way of accessing it. If you reassign a variable as below

a = 7
s = 'xyz'
l = ['a simpler list', 99, 10]

you make the variable point to a different object (newly created ones in our examples). As
stated above, only mutable objects can be changed in place (l[0] = 1 is ok in our example,
but s[0] = 'a' raises an error). This becomes tricky, when an operation is not explicitly
asking for a change to happen in place, as is the case for the += (increment) operator, for
example. When used on an immutable object (as in a += 1 or in s += 'qwertz' ), Python
will silently create a new object and make the variable point to it. However, when used
on a mutable object (as in l += [1,2,3] ), the object pointed to by the variable will be

2 [Link]

22
 Notes

changed in place. While in most situations, you do not have to know about this different
behavior, it is of relevance when several variables are pointing to the same object. In our
example, assume you set p = s and m = l , then s += 'etc' and l += [9,8,7] . This
will change s and leave p unaffected, but will change both m and l since both point to the
same list object. Python’s built-in id() function, which returns a unique object identifier
for a given variable name, can be used to trace what is happening under the hood.
Typically, this behavior of Python causes confusion in functions. As an illustration, consider
this code:

def append_to_sequence (myseq):

myseq += (9,9,9)
return myseq

t=(1,2,3) # tuples are immutable

l=[1,2,3] # lists are mutable

u=append_to_sequence(t)
m=append_to_sequence(l)

print('t = ', t)
print('u = ', u)
print('l = ', l)
print('m = ', m)

This will give the (usually unintended) output:

t = (1, 2, 3)
u = (1, 2, 3, 9, 9, 9)
l = [1, 2, 3, 9, 9, 9]
m = [1, 2, 3, 9, 9, 9]
myseq is a local variable of the append_to_sequence function, but when this function gets
called, myseq will nevertheless point to the same object as the variable that we pass in (t
or l in our example). If that object is immutable (like a tuple), there is no problem. The
+= operator will cause the creation of a new tuple, and myseq will be set to point to it.
However, if we pass in a reference to a mutable object, that object will be manipulated in
place (so myseq and l , in our case, end up pointing to the same list object).
Links:
• 3.1. Objects, values and types3 , The Python Language Reference, [Link]
• 5.6.4. Mutable Sequence Types4 , The Python Standard Library, [Link]

Creating Objects of Defined Types

Literal integers can be entered in three ways:
• decimal numbers can be entered directly
• hexadecimal numbers can be entered by prepending a 0x or 0X (0xff is hex FF, or 255 in
decimal)

3 [Link]
4 [Link]

23
Data types

• the format of octal literals depends on the version of Python:

• Python 2.x: octals can be entered by prepending a 0 (0732 is octal 732, or 474 in decimal)
• Python 3.x: octals can be entered by prepending a 0o or 0O (0o732 is octal 732, or 474
in decimal)
Floating point numbers can be entered directly.
Long integers are entered either directly (1234567891011121314151617181920 is a long in-
teger) or by appending an L (0L is a long integer). Computations involving short integers
that overflow are automatically turned into long integers.
Complex numbers are entered by adding a real number and an imaginary one, which is
entered by appending a j (i.e. 10+5j is a complex number. So is 10j). Note that j by itself
does not constitute a number. If this is desired, use 1j.
Strings can be either single or triple quoted strings. The difference is in the starting
and ending delimiters, and in that single quoted strings cannot span more than one line.
Single quoted strings are entered by entering either a single quote (’) or a double quote (”)
followed by its match. So therefore

'foo' works, and

"moo" works as well,
but
'bar" does not work, and
"baz' does not work either.
"quux'' is right out.

Triple quoted strings are like single quoted strings, but can span more than one line. Their
starting and ending delimiters must also match. They are entered with three consecutive
single or double quotes, so

'''foo''' works, and

"""moo""" works as well,
but
'"'bar'"' does not work, and
"""baz''' does not work either.
'"'quux"'" is right out.

Tuples are entered in parentheses, with commas between the entries:

(10, 'Mary had a little lamb')

Also, the parenthesis can be left out when it’s not ambiguous to do so:

10, 'whose fleece was as white as snow'

Note that one-element tuples can be entered by surrounding the entry with parentheses and
adding a comma like so:

('this is a stupid tuple',)

Lists are similar, but with brackets:

24
 Null object

['abc', 1,2,3]

Dicts are created by surrounding with curly braces a list of key/value pairs separated from
each other by a colon and from the other entries with commas:

{ 'hello': 'world', 'weight': 'African or European?' }

Any of these composite types can contain any other, to any depth:

((((((((('bob',),['Mary', 'had', 'a', 'little', 'lamb']), { 'hello' : 'world' }

),),),),),),)

6.1 Null object

The Python analogue of null pointer known from other programming languages is None .
None is not a null pointer or a null reference but an actual object of which there is only one
instance. One of the uses of None is in default argument values of functions, for which see
../Functions#Default_Argument_Values5 . Comparisons to None are usually made using
is rather than ==.
Testing for None and assignment:

if item is None:
...
another = None

if not item is None:

...

if item is not None: # Also possible

...

Using None in a default argument value:

def log(message, type = None):

...

Links:
• 4. Built-in Constants6 , [Link]
• 3.11.7 The Null Object7 , [Link]

6.2 Exercises

1. Write a program that instantiates a single object, adds [1,2] to the object, and returns
the result.
a) Find an object that returns an output of the same length (if one exists?).

5 Chapter 14.1.1 on page 74

6 [Link]
7 [Link]

25
Data types

b) Find an object that returns an output length 2 greater than it started.

c) Find an object that causes an error.
2. Find two data types X and Y such that X = X + Y will cause an error, but X += Y
will not.

26
7 Numbers

Python 2.x supports 4 numeric types - int, long, float and complex. Of these, the long type
has been dropped in Python 3.x - the int type is now of unlimited length by default. You
don’t have to specify what type of variable you want; Python does that automatically.
• Int: The basic integer type in python, equivalent to the hardware ’c long’ for the platform
you are using in Python 2.x, unlimited in length in Python 3.x.
• Long: Integer type with unlimited length. In python 2.2 and later, Ints are automatically
turned into long ints when they overflow. Dropped since Python 3.0, use int type instead.
• Float: This is a binary floating point number. Longs and Ints are automatically converted
to floats when a float is used in an expression, and with the true-division / operator.
• Complex: This is a complex number consisting of two floats. Complex literals are written
as a + bj where a and b are floating-point numbers denoting the real and imaginary parts
respectively.
In general, the number types are automatically ’up cast’ in this order:
Int → Long → Float → Complex. The farther to the right you go, the higher the precedence.

>>> x = 5
>>> type(x)
<type 'int'>
>>> x = 187687654564658970978909869576453
>>> type(x)
<type 'long'>
>>> x = 1.34763
>>> type(x)
<type 'float'>
>>> x = 5 + 2j
>>> type(x)
<type 'complex'>

The result of divisions is somewhat confusing. In Python 2.x, using the / operator on two
integers will return another integer, using floor division. For example, 5/2 will give you 2.
You have to specify one of the operands as a float to get true division, e.g. 5/2. or 5./2
(the dot specifies you want to work with float) will yield 2.5. Starting with Python 2.2 this
behavior can be changed to true division by the future division statement from __future__
import division . In Python 3.x, the result of using the / operator is always true division
(you can ask for floor division explicitly by using the // operator since Python 2.2).
This illustrates the behavior of the / operator in Python 2.2+:

>>> 5/2
2
>>> 5/2.
2.5
>>> 5./2
2.5
>>> from __future__ import division

27
Numbers

>>> 5/2
2.5
>>> 5//2
2

28
8 Strings

8.1 String operations

8.1.1 Equality

Two strings are equal if they have exactly the same contents, meaning that they are both
the same length and each character has a one-to-one positional correspondence. Many other
languages compare strings by identity instead; that is, two strings are considered equal only
if they occupy the same space in memory. Python uses the is operator1 to test the identity
of strings and any two objects in general.
Examples:

>>> a = 'hello'; b = 'hello' # Assign 'hello' to a and b.

>>> a == b # check for equality
True
>>> a == 'hello' #
True
>>> a == "hello" # (choice of delimiter is unimportant)
True
>>> a == 'hello ' # (extra space)
False
>>> a == 'Hello' # (wrong case)
False

8.1.2 Numerical

There are two quasi-numerical operations which can be done on strings -- addition and
multiplication. String addition is just another name for concatenation. String multiplication
is repetitive addition, or concatenation. So:

>>> c = 'a'
>>> c + 'b'
'ab'
>>> c * 5
'aaaaa'

8.1.3 Containment

There is a simple operator ’in’ that returns True if the first operand is contained in the
second. This also works on substrings

1 Chapter 12.7 on page 63

29
Strings

>>> x = 'hello'
>>> y = 'ell'
>>> x in y
False
>>> y in x
True

Note that ’print x in y’ would have also returned the same value.

8.1.4 Indexing and Slicing

Much like arrays in other languages, the individual characters in a string can be accessed
by an integer representing its position in the string. The first character in string s would
be s[0] and the nth character would be at s[n-1].

>>> s = "Xanadu"
>>> s[1]
'a'

Unlike arrays in other languages, Python also indexes the arrays backwards, using negative
numbers. The last character has index -1, the second to last character has index -2, and so
on.

>>> s[-4]
'n'

We can also use ”slices” to access a substring of s. s[a:b] will give us a string starting with
s[a] and ending with s[b-1].

>>> s[1:4]
'ana'

None of these are assignable.

>>> print s
>>> s[0] = 'J'
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<stdin>", line 1, in ?
TypeError: object does not support item assignment
>>> s[1:3] = "up"
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<stdin>", line 1, in ?
TypeError: object does not support slice assignment
>>> print s

Outputs (assuming the errors were suppressed):

Xanadu
Xanadu

Another feature of slices is that if the beginning or end is left empty, it will default to the
first or last index, depending on context:

>>> s[2:]
'nadu'

30
 String constants

>>> s[:3]
'Xan'
>>> s[:]
'Xanadu'

You can also use negative numbers in slices:

>>> print s[-2:]

'du'

To understand slices, it’s easiest not to count the elements themselves. It is a bit like
counting not on your fingers, but in the spaces between them. The list is indexed like this:

Element: 1 2 3 4
Index: 0 1 2 3 4
-4 -3 -2 -1

So, when we ask for the [1:3] slice, that means we start at index 1, and end at index 3, and
take everything in between them. If you are used to indexes in C or Java, this can be a bit
disconcerting until you get used to it.

8.2 String constants

String constants can be found in the standard string module such as; either single or double
quotes may be used to delimit string constants.

8.3 String methods

There are a number of methods or built-in string functions:

• capitalize
• center
• count
• decode
• encode
• endswith
• expandtabs
• find
• index
• isalnum
• isalpha
• isdigit
• islower
• isspace
• istitle
• isupper
• join
• ljust

31
Strings

• lower
• lstrip
• replace
• rfind
• rindex
• rjust
• rstrip
• split
• splitlines
• startswith
• strip
• swapcase
• title
• translate
• upper
• zfill
Only emphasized items will be covered.

8.3.1 is*

isalnum(), isalpha(), isdigit(), islower(), isupper(), isspace(), and istitle() fit into this cate-
gory.
The length of the string object being compared must be at least 1, or the is* methods will
return False. In other words, a string object of len(string) == 0, is considered ”empty”, or
False.
• isalnum returns True if the string is entirely composed of alphabetic and/or numeric
characters (i.e. no punctuation).
• isalpha and isdigit work similarly for alphabetic characters or numeric characters only.
• isspace returns True if the string is composed entirely of whitespace.
• islower , isupper , and istitle return True if the string is in lowercase, uppercase, or
titlecase respectively. Uncased characters are ”allowed”, such as digits, but there must
be at least one cased character in the string object in order to return True. Titlecase
means the first cased character of each word is uppercase, and any immediately following
cased characters are lowercase. Curiously, ’Y2K’.istitle() returns True. That is because
uppercase characters can only follow uncased characters. Likewise, lowercase characters
can only follow uppercase or lowercase characters. Hint: whitespace is uncased.
Example:

>>> '2YK'.istitle()
False
>>> 'Y2K'.istitle()
True
>>> '2Y K'.istitle()
True

32
 String methods

8.3.2 Title, Upper, Lower, Swapcase, Capitalize

Returns the string converted to title case, upper case, lower case, inverts case, or capitalizes,
respectively.
The title method capitalizes the first letter of each word in the string (and makes the rest
lower case). Words are identified as substrings of alphabetic characters that are separated by
non-alphabetic characters, such as digits, or whitespace. This can lead to some unexpected
behavior. For example, the string ”x1x” will be converted to ”X1X” instead of ”X1x”.
The swapcase method makes all uppercase letters lowercase and vice versa.
The capitalize method is like title except that it considers the entire string to be a word.
(i.e. it makes the first character upper case and the rest lower case)
Example:

s = 'Hello, wOrLD'
print s # 'Hello, wOrLD'
print [Link]() # 'Hello, World'
print [Link]() # 'hELLO, WoRld'
print [Link]() # 'HELLO, WORLD'
print [Link]() # 'hello, world'
print [Link]() # 'Hello, world'

Keywords: to lower case, to upper case, lcase, ucase, downcase, upcase.

8.3.3 count

Returns the number of the specified substrings in the string. i.e.

>>> s = 'Hello, world'

>>> [Link]('o') # print the number of 'o's in 'Hello, World' (2)
2

Hint: .count() is case-sensitive, so this example will only count the number of lowercase
letter ’o’s. For example, if you ran:

>>> s = 'HELLO, WORLD'

>>> [Link]('o') # print the number of lowercase 'o's in 'HELLO, WORLD' (0)
0

8.3.4 strip, rstrip, lstrip

Returns a copy of the string with the leading (lstrip) and trailing (rstrip) whitespace re-
moved. strip removes both.

>>> s = '\t Hello, world\n\t '

>>> print s
Hello, world

>>> print [Link]()

Hello, world
>>> print [Link]()
Hello, world

33
Strings

# ends here
>>> print [Link]()
Hello, world

Note the leading and trailing tabs and newlines.

Strip methods can also be used to remove other types of characters.

import string
s = '[Link]'
print s
print [Link]('w') # Removes all w's from outside
print [Link]([Link]) # Removes all lowercase letters from outside
print [Link]([Link]) # Removes all printable characters

Outputs:

[Link]
.[Link]
.wikibooks.

Note that [Link] and [Link] require an import string statement

8.3.5 ljust, rjust, center

left, right or center justifies a string into a given field size (the rest is padded with spaces).

>>> s = 'foo'
>>> s
'foo'
>>> [Link](7)
'foo '
>>> [Link](7)
' foo'
>>> [Link](7)
' foo '

8.3.6 join

Joins together the given sequence with the string as separator:

>>> seq = ['1', '2', '3', '4', '5']

>>> ' '.join(seq)
'1 2 3 4 5'
>>> '+'.join(seq)
'1+2+3+4+5'

map may be helpful here: (it converts numbers in seq into strings)

>>> seq = [1,2,3,4,5]

>>> ' '.join(map(str, seq))
'1 2 3 4 5'

now arbitrary objects may be in seq instead of just strings.

34
 String methods

8.3.7 find, index, rfind, rindex

The find and index methods return the index of the first found occurrence of the given
subsequence. If it is not found, find returns -1 but index raises a ValueError. rfind and
rindex are the same as find and index except that they search through the string from right
to left (i.e. they find the last occurrence)

>>> s = 'Hello, world'

>>> [Link]('l')
2
>>> s[[Link]('l'):]
'llo, world'
>>> [Link]('l')
10
>>> s[:[Link]('l')]
'Hello, wor'
>>> s[[Link]('l'):[Link]('l')]
'llo, wor'

Because Python strings accept negative subscripts, index is probably better used in situa-
tions like the one shown because using find instead would yield an unintended value.

8.3.8 replace

Replace works just like it sounds. It returns a copy of the string with all occurrences of the
first parameter replaced with the second parameter.

>>> 'Hello, world'.replace('o', 'X')

'HellX, wXrld'

Or, using variable assignment:

string = 'Hello, world'

newString = [Link]('o', 'X')
print string
print newString

Outputs:

Hello, world
HellX, wXrld

Notice, the original variable (string ) remains unchanged after the call to replace .

8.3.9 expandtabs

Replaces tabs with the appropriate number of spaces (default number of spaces per tab =
8; this can be changed by passing the tab size as an argument).

s = 'abcdefg\tabc\ta'
print s
print len(s)
t = [Link]()

35
Strings

print t
print len(t)

Outputs:

abcdefg abc a
13
abcdefg abc a
17

Notice how (although these both look the same) the second string (t) has a different length
because each tab is represented by spaces not tab characters.
To use a tab size of 4 instead of 8:

v = [Link](4)
print v
print len(v)

Outputs:

abcdefg abc a
13

Please note each tab is not always counted as eight spaces. Rather a tab ”pushes” the count
to the next multiple of eight. For example:

s = '\t\t'
print [Link]().replace(' ', '*')
print len([Link]())

Output:

****************
16

s = 'abc\tabc\tabc'
print [Link]().replace(' ', '*')
print len([Link]())

Outputs:

abc*****abc*****abc
19

8.3.10 split, splitlines

The split method returns a list of the words in the string. It can take a separator argument
to use instead of whitespace.

>>> s = 'Hello, world'

36
 Exercises

>>> [Link]()
['Hello,', 'world']
>>> [Link]('l')
['He', '', 'o, wor', 'd']

Note that in neither case is the separator included in the split strings, but empty strings
are allowed.
The splitlines method breaks a multiline string into many single line strings. It is analogous
to split(’\n’) (but accepts ’\r’ and ’\r\n’ as delimiters as well) except that if the string ends
in a newline character, splitlines ignores that final character (see example).

>>> s = """
... One line
... Two lines
... Red lines
... Blue lines
... Green lines
... """
>>> [Link]('\n')
['', 'One line', 'Two lines', 'Red lines', 'Blue lines', 'Green lines', '']
>>> [Link]()
['', 'One line', 'Two lines', 'Red lines', 'Blue lines', 'Green lines']

8.4 Exercises

1. Write a program that takes a string, (1) capitalizes the first letter, (2) creates a list
containing each word, and (3) searches for the last occurrence of ”a” in the first word.
2. Run the program on the string ”Bananas are yellow.”
3. Write a program that replaces all instances of ”one” with ”one (1)”. For this exercise
capitalization does not matter, so it should treat ”one”, ”One”, and ”oNE” identically.
4. Run the program on the string ”One banana was brown, but one was green.”

8.5 External links

• ”String Methods” chapter2 -- [Link]

• Python documentation of ”string” module3 -- [Link]

2 [Link]
3 [Link]

37
9 Lists

A list in Python is an ordered group of items (or elements ). It is a very general structure,
and list elements don’t have to be of the same type: you can put numbers, letters, strings
and nested lists all on the same list.

9.1 Overview

Lists in Python at a glance:

list1 = [] # A new empty list

list2 = [1, 2, 3, "cat"] # A new non-empty list with mixed item types
[Link]("cat") # Add a single member, at the end of the list
[Link](["dog", "mouse"]) # Add several members
if "cat" in list1: # Membership test
[Link]("cat") # Remove AKA delete
#[Link]("elephant") - throws an error
for item in list1: # Iteration AKA for each item
print item
print "Item count:", len(list1) # Length AKA size AKA item count
list3 = [6, 7, 8, 9]
for i in range(0, len(list3)): # Read-write iteration AKA for each item
list3[i] += 1 # Item access AKA element access by index
isempty = len(list3) == 0 # Test for emptiness
set1 = set(["cat", "dog"]) # Initialize set from a list
list4 = list(set1) # Get a list from a set
list5 = list4[:] # A shallow list copy
list4equal5 = list4==list5 # True: same by value
list4refEqual5 = list4 is list5 # False: not same by reference
list6 = list4[:]
del list6[:] # Clear AKA empty AKA erase
print list1, list2, list3, list4, list5, list6, list4equal5, list4refEqual5
print list3[1:3], list3[1:], list3[:2] # Slices
print max(list3 ), min(list3 ), sum(list3) # Aggregates

9.2 List creation

There are two different ways to make a list in Python. The first is through assignment
(”statically”), the second is using list comprehensions (”actively”).

9.2.1 Plain creation

To make a static list of items, write them between square brackets. For example:

[ 1,2,3,"This is a list",'c',Donkey("kong") ]

39
Lists

Observations:
1. The list contains items of different data types: integer, string, and Donkey class.
2. Objects can be created ’on the fly’ and added to lists. The last item is a new instance
of Donkey class.
Creation of a new list whose members are constructed from non-literal expressions:

a = 2
b = 3
myList = [a+b, b+a, len(["a","b"])]

9.2.2 List comprehensions

See also Tips and Tricks1

Using list comprehension, you describe the process using which the list should be created.
To do that, the list is broken into two pieces. The first is a picture of what each element
will look like, and the second is what you do to get it.
For instance, let’s say we have a list of words:

listOfWords = ["this","is","a","list","of","words"]

To take the first letter of each word and make a list out of it using list comprehension, we
can do this:

>>> listOfWords = ["this","is","a","list","of","words"]

>>> items = [ word[0] for word in listOfWords ]
>>> print items
['t', 'i', 'a', 'l', 'o', 'w']

List comprehension supports more than one for statement. It will evaluate the items in all
of the objects sequentially and will loop over the shorter objects if one object is longer than
the rest.

>>> item = [x+y for x in 'cat' for y in 'pot']

>>> print item
['cp', 'co', 'ct', 'ap', 'ao', 'at', 'tp', 'to', 'tt']

List comprehension supports an if statement, to only include members into the list that
fulfill a certain condition:

>>> print [x+y for x in 'cat' for y in 'pot']

['cp', 'co', 'ct', 'ap', 'ao', 'at', 'tp', 'to', 'tt']
>>> print [x+y for x in 'cat' for y in 'pot' if x != 't' and y != 'o' ]
['cp', 'ct', 'ap', 'at']
>>> print [x+y for x in 'cat' for y in 'pot' if x != 't' or y != 'o' ]
['cp', 'co', 'ct', 'ap', 'ao', 'at', 'tp', 'tt']

In version 2.x, Python’s list comprehension does not define a scope. Any variables that
are bound in an evaluation remain bound to whatever they were last bound to when the
evaluation was completed. In version 3.x Python’s list comprehension uses local variables:

1 [Link]

40
 List creation

>>> print x, y #Input to python version 2

r t #Output using python 2

>>> print x, y #Input to python version 3

NameError: name 'x' is not defined #Python 3 returns an error because x and
y were not leaked

This is exactly the same as if the comprehension had been expanded into an explicitly-nested
group of one or more ’for’ statements and 0 or more ’if’ statements.

9.2.3 List creation shortcuts

You can initialize a list to a size, with an initial value for each element:

>>> zeros=[0]*5
>>> print zeros
[0, 0, 0, 0, 0]

This works for any data type:

>>> foos=['foo']*3
>>> print foos
['foo', 'foo', 'foo']

But there is a caveat. When building a new list by multiplying, Python copies each item
by reference. This poses a problem for mutable items, for instance in a multidimensional
array where each element is itself a list. You’d guess that the easy way to generate a two
dimensional array would be:

listoflists=[ [0]*4 ] *5

and this works, but probably doesn’t do what you expect:

>>> listoflists=[ [0]*4 ] *5

>>> print listoflists
[[0, 0, 0, 0], [0, 0, 0, 0], [0, 0, 0, 0], [0, 0, 0, 0], [0, 0, 0, 0]]
>>> listoflists[0][2]=1
>>> print listoflists
[[0, 0, 1, 0], [0, 0, 1, 0], [0, 0, 1, 0], [0, 0, 1, 0], [0, 0, 1, 0]]

What’s happening here is that Python is using the same reference to the inner list as the
elements of the outer list. Another way of looking at this issue is to examine how Python
sees the above definition:

>>> innerlist=[0]*4
>>> listoflists=[innerlist]*5
>>> print listoflists
[[0, 0, 0, 0], [0, 0, 0, 0], [0, 0, 0, 0], [0, 0, 0, 0], [0, 0, 0, 0]]
>>> innerlist[2]=1
>>> print listoflists
[[0, 0, 1, 0], [0, 0, 1, 0], [0, 0, 1, 0], [0, 0, 1, 0], [0, 0, 1, 0]]

Assuming the above effect is not what you intend, one way around this issue is to use list
comprehensions:

>>> listoflists=[[0]*4 for i in range(5)]

41
Lists

>>> print listoflists

[[0, 0, 0, 0], [0, 0, 0, 0], [0, 0, 0, 0], [0, 0, 0, 0], [0, 0, 0, 0]]
>>> listoflists[0][2]=1
>>> print listoflists
[[0, 0, 1, 0], [0, 0, 0, 0], [0, 0, 0, 0], [0, 0, 0, 0], [0, 0, 0, 0]]

9.3 List Attributes

To find the length of a list use the built in len() method.

>>> len([1,2,3])
3
>>> a = [1,2,3,4]
>>> len( a )
4

9.4 Combining lists

Lists can be combined in several ways. The easiest is just to ’add’ them. For instance:

>>> [1,2] + [3,4]

[1, 2, 3, 4]

Another way to combine lists is with extend . If you need to combine lists inside of a
lambda, extend is the way to go.

>>> a = [1,2,3]
>>> b = [4,5,6]
>>> [Link](b)
>>> print a
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]

The other way to append a value to a list is to use append . For example:

>>> p=[1,2]
>>> [Link]([3,4])
>>> p
[1, 2, [3, 4]]
>>> # or
>>> print p
[1, 2, [3, 4]]

However, [3,4] is an element of the list, and not part of the list. append always adds one
element only to the end of a list. So if the intention was to concatenate two lists, always
use extend .

42
 Getting pieces of lists (slices)

9.5 Getting pieces of lists (slices)

9.5.1 Continuous slices

Like strings2 , lists can be indexed and sliced.

>>> list = [2, 4, "usurp", 9.0,"n"]

>>> list[2]
'usurp'
>>> list[3:]
[9.0, 'n']

Much like the slice of a string is a substring, the slice of a list is a list. However, lists differ
from strings in that we can assign new values to the items in a list.

>>> list[1] = 17
>>> list
[2, 17, 'usurp', 9.0,'n']

We can even assign new values to slices of the lists, which don’t even have to be the same
length

>>> list[1:4] = ["opportunistic", "elk"]

>>> list
[2, 'opportunistic', 'elk', 'n']

It’s even possible to append things onto the end of lists by assigning to an empty slice:

>>> list[:0] = [3.14,2.71]

>>> list
[3.14, 2.71, 2, 'opportunistic', 'elk', 'n']

You can also completely change contents of a list:

>>> list[:] = ['new', 'list', 'contents']

>>> list
['new', 'list', 'contents']

On the right-hand side of assignment statement can be any iterable type:

>>> list[:2] = ('element',('t',),[])

>>> list
['element', ('t',), [], 'contents']

With slicing you can create copy of list because slice returns a new list:

>>> original = [1, 'element', []]

>>> list_copy = original[:]
>>> list_copy
[1, 'element', []]
>>> list_copy.append('new element')
>>> list_copy
[1, 'element', [], 'new element']
>>> original
[1, 'element', []]

2 Chapter 8 on page 29

43
Lists

but this is shallow copy and contains references to elements from original list, so be careful
with mutable types:

>>> list_copy[2].append('something')
>>> original
[1, 'element', ['something']]

9.5.2 Non-Continuous slices

It is also possible to get non-continuous parts of an array. If one wanted to get every n-th
occurrence of a list, one would use the :: operator. The syntax is a:b:n where a and b are
the start and end of the slice to be operated upon.

>>> list = [i for i in range(10) ]

>>> list
[0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]
>>> list[::2]
[0, 2, 4, 6, 8]
>>> list[1:7:2]
[1, 3, 5]

9.6 Comparing lists

Lists can be compared for equality.

>>> [1,2] == [1,2]

True
>>> [1,2] == [3,4]
False

Lists can be compared using a less-than operator, which uses lexicographical order:

>>> [1,2] < [2,1]

True
>>> [2,2] < [2,1]
False
>>> ["a","b"] < ["b","a"]
True

9.7 Sorting lists

Sorting lists is easy with a sort method.

>>> list = [2, 3, 1, 'a', 'b']

>>> [Link]()
>>> list
[1, 2, 3, 'a', 'b']

Note that the list is sorted in place, and the sort() method returns None to emphasize this
side effect.
If you use Python 2.4 or higher there are some more sort parameters:

44
 Iteration

sort(cmp,key,reverse)
cmp : method to be used for sorting key : function to be executed with key element. List is
sorted by return-value of the function reverse : sort(reverse=True) or sort(reverse=False)
Python also includes a sorted() function.

>>> list = [5, 2, 3, 'q', 'p']

>>> sorted(list)
[2, 3, 5, 'p', 'q']
>>> list
[5, 2, 3, 'q', 'p']

Note that unlike the sort() method, sorted(list) does not sort the list in place, but instead
returns the sorted list. The sorted() function, like the sort() method also accepts the reverse
parameter.

9.8 Iteration

Iteration over lists:

Read-only iteration over a list, AKA for each element of the list:

list1 = [1, 2, 3, 4]
for item in list1:
print item

Writable iteration over a list:

list1 = [1, 2, 3, 4]
for i in range(0, len(list1)):
list1[i]+=1 # Modify the item at an index as you see fit
print list

From a number to a number with a step:

for i in range(1, 13+1, 3): # For i=1 to 13 step 3

print i
for i in range(10, 5-1, -1): # For i=10 to 5 step -1
print i

For each element of a list satisfying a condition (filtering):

for item in list:

if not condition(item):
continue
print item

See also ../Loops#For_Loops3 .

3 [Link]

45
Lists

9.9 Removing

Removing aka deleting an item at an index (see also #pop(i)4 ):

list = [1, 2, 3, 4]
[Link]() # Remove the last item
[Link](0) # Remove the first item , which is the item at index 0
print list

list = [1, 2, 3, 4]
del list[1] # Remove the 2nd element; an alternative to [Link](1)
print list

Removing an element by value:

list = ["a", "a", "b"]

[Link]("a") # Removes only the 1st occurrence of "a"
print list

Keeping only items in a list satisfying a condition, and thus removing the items that do not
satisfy it:

list = [1, 2, 3, 4]
newlist = [item for item in list if item >2]
print newlist

This uses a list comprehension5 .

9.10 Aggregates

There are some built-in functions for arithmetic aggregates over lists. These include mini-
mum, maximum, and sum:

list = [1, 2, 3, 4]
print max(list), min(list), sum(list)
average = sum(list) / float(len(list)) # Provided the list is non-empty
# The float above ensures the division is a float one rather than integer one.
print average

The max and min functions also apply to lists of strings, returning maximum and minimum
with respect to alphabetical order:

list = ["aa", "ab"]

print max(list), min(list) # Prints "ab aa"

9.11 Copying

Copying AKA cloning of lists:

Making a shallow copy:

4 Chapter 9.13.2 on page 48

5 Chapter 9.2.2 on page 40

46
 Clearing

list1= [1, 'element']

list2 = list1[:] # Copy using "[:]"
list2[0] = 2 # Only affects list2, not list1
print list1[0] # Displays 1

# By contrast
list1 = [1, 'element']
list2 = list1
list2[0] = 2 # Modifies the original list
print list1[0] # Displays 2

The above does not make a deep copy, which has the following consequence:

list1 = [1, [2, 3]] # Notice the second item being a nested list
list2 = list1[:] # A shallow copy
list2[1][0] = 4 # Modifies the 2nd item of list1 as well
print list1[1][0] # Displays 4 rather than 2

Making a deep copy:

import copy
list1 = [1, [2, 3]] # Notice the second item being a nested list
list2 = [Link](list1) # A deep copy
list2[1][0] = 4 # Leaves the 2nd item of list1 unmodified
print list1[1][0] # Displays 2

See also #Continuous slices6 .

Links:
• 8.17. copy — Shallow and deep copy operations7 at [Link]

9.12 Clearing

Clearing a list:

del list1[:] # Clear a list

list1 = [] # Not really clear but rather assign to a new empty list

Clearing using a proper approach makes a difference when the list is passed as an argument:

def workingClear(ilist):
del ilist[:]
def brokenClear(ilist):
ilist = [] # Lets ilist point to a new list, losing the reference to the
argument list
list1=[1, 2]; workingClear(list1); print list1
list1=[1, 2]; brokenClear(list1); print list1

Keywords: emptying a list, erasing a list, clear a list, empty a list, erase a list.

6 Chapter 9.5.1 on page 43

7 [Link]

47
Lists

9.13 List methods

9.13.1 append(x)

Add item x onto the end of the list.

>>> list = [1, 2, 3]

>>> [Link](4)
>>> list
[1, 2, 3, 4]

See pop(i)8

9.13.2 pop(i)

Remove the item in the list at the index i and return it. If i is not given, remove the the
last item in the list and return it.

>>> list = [1, 2, 3, 4]

>>> a = [Link](0)
>>> list
[2, 3, 4]
>>> a
1
>>> b = [Link]()
>>>list
[2, 3]
>>> b
4

9.14 operators

9.14.1 in

The operator ’in’ is used for two purposes; either to iterate over every item in a list in a for
loop, or to check if a value is in a list returning true or false.

>>> list = [1, 2, 3, 4]

>>> if 3 in list:
>>> ....
>>> l = [0, 1, 2, 3, 4]
>>> 3 in l
True
>>> 18 in l
False
>>>for x in l:
>>> print x
0
1
2
3

8 Chapter 9.13.2 on page 48

48
 Subclassing

9.15 Subclassing

In a modern version of Python [which one?], there is a class called ’list’. You can make
your own subclass of it, and determine list behaviour which is different from the default
standard.

9.16 Exercises

1. Use a list comprehension to construct the list [’ab’, ’ac’, ’ad’, ’bb’, ’bc’, ’bd’].
2. Use a slice on the above list to construct the list [’ab’, ’ad’, ’bc’].
3. Use a list comprehension to construct the list [’1a’, ’2a’, ’3a’, ’4a’].
4. Simultaneously remove the element ’2a’ from the above list and print it.
5. Copy the above list and add ’2a’ back into the list such that the original is still missing
it.
6. Use a list comprehension to construct the list [’abe’, ’abf’, ’ace’, ’acf’, ’ade’, ’adf’,
’bbe’, ’bbf’, ’bce’, ’bcf’, ’bde’, ’bdf’]

9.17 External links

• Python documentation, chapter ”Sequence Types”9 -- [Link]

• Python Tutorial, chapter ”Lists”10 -- [Link]
}}

9 [Link]
10 [Link]

49
10 Dictionaries

A dictionary in Python is a collection of unordered values accessed by key rather than by

index. The keys have to be hashable: integers, floating point numbers, strings, tuples, and
frozensets are hashable, while lists, dictionaries, and sets other than frozensets are not.
Dictionaries were available as early as in Python 1.4.

10.1 Overview

Dictionaries in Python at a glance:

dict1 = {} # Create an empty dictionary

dict2 = dict() # Create an empty dictionary 2
dict2 = {"r": 34, "i": 56} # Initialize to non-empty value
dict3 = dict([("r", 34), ("i", 56)]) # Init from a list of tuples
dict4 = dict(r=34, i=56) # Initialize to non-empty value 3
dict1["temperature"] = 32 # Assign value to a key
if "temperature" in dict1: # Membership test of a key AKA key exists
del dict1["temperature"] # Delete AKA remove
equalbyvalue = dict2 == dict3
itemcount2 = len(dict2) # Length AKA size AKA item count
isempty2 = len(dict2) == 0 # Emptiness test
for key in dict2: # Iterate via keys
print key, dict2[key] # Print key and the associated value
dict2[key] += 10 # Modify-access to the key-value pair
for value in [Link](): # Iterate via values
print value
dict5 = {} # {x: dict2[x] + 1 for x in dict2 } # Dictionary comprehension in
Python 2.7 or later
dict6 = [Link]() # A shallow copy
[Link]({"i": 60, "j": 30}) # Add or overwrite
dict7 = [Link]()
[Link]() # Clear AKA empty AKA erase
print dict1, dict2, dict3, dict4, dict5, dict6, dict7, equalbyvalue, itemcount2

10.2 Dictionary notation

Dictionaries may be created directly or converted from sequences. Dictionaries are enclosed
in curly braces, {}

>>> d = {'city':'Paris', 'age':38, (102,1650,1601):'A matrix coordinate'}

>>> seq = [('city','Paris'), ('age', 38), ((102,1650,1601),'A matrix
coordinate')]
>>> d
{'city': 'Paris', 'age': 38, (102, 1650, 1601): 'A matrix coordinate'}
>>> dict(seq)
{'city': 'Paris', 'age': 38, (102, 1650, 1601): 'A matrix coordinate'}
>>> d == dict(seq)
True

51
Dictionaries

Also, dictionaries can be easily created by zipping two sequences.

>>> seq1 = ('a','b','c','d')

>>> seq2 = [1,2,3,4]
>>> d = dict(zip(seq1,seq2))
>>> d
{'a': 1, 'c': 3, 'b': 2, 'd': 4}

10.3 Operations on Dictionaries

The operations on dictionaries are somewhat unique. Slicing is not supported, since the
items have no intrinsic order.

>>> d = {'a':1,'b':2, 'cat':'Fluffers'}

>>> [Link]()
['a', 'b', 'cat']
>>> [Link]()
[1, 2, 'Fluffers']
>>> d['a']
1
>>> d['cat'] = 'Mr. Whiskers'
>>> d['cat']
'Mr. Whiskers'
>>> 'cat' in d
True
>>> 'dog' in d
False

10.4 Combining two Dictionaries

You can combine two dictionaries by using the update method of the primary dictionary.
Note that the update method will merge existing elements if they conflict.

>>> d = {'apples': 1, 'oranges': 3, 'pears': 2}

>>> ud = {'pears': 4, 'grapes': 5, 'lemons': 6}
>>> [Link](ud)
>>> d
{'grapes': 5, 'pears': 4, 'lemons': 6, 'apples': 1, 'oranges': 3}
>>>

10.5 Deleting from dictionary

del dictionaryName[membername]

10.6 Exercises

Write a program that:

52
 External links

1. Asks the user for a string, then creates the following dictionary. The values are the
letters in the string, with the corresponding key being the place in the string.
2. Replaces the entry whose key is the integer 3, with the value ”Pie”.
3. Asks the user for a string of digits, then prints out the values corresponding to those
digits.

10.7 External links

• Python documentation, chapter ”Dictionaries”1 -- [Link]

• Python documentation, The Python Standard Library, 5.8. Mapping Types2 --
[Link]

1 [Link]
2 [Link]

53
11 Sets

Starting with version 2.3, Python comes with an implementation of the mathematical set.
Initially this implementation had to be imported from the standard module set , but with
Python 2.6 the types set and frozenset1 became built-in types. A set is an unordered
collection of objects, unlike sequence objects such as lists and tuples, in which each element
is indexed. Sets cannot have duplicate members - a given object appears in a set 0 or 1
times. All members of a set have to be hashable, just like dictionary keys. Integers, floating
point numbers, tuples, and strings are hashable; dictionaries, lists, and other sets (except
frozensets) are not.

11.0.1 Overview

Sets in Python at a glance:

set1 = set() # A new empty set

[Link]("cat") # Add a single member
[Link](["dog", "mouse"]) # Add several members
if "cat" in set1: # Membership test
[Link]("cat")
#[Link]("elephant") - throws an error
print set1
for item in set1: # Iteration AKA for each element
print item
print "Item count:", len(set1) # Length AKA size AKA item count
isempty = len(set1) == 0 # Test for emptiness
set1 = set(["cat", "dog"]) # Initialize set from a list
set2 = set(["dog", "mouse"])
set3 = set1 & set2 # Intersection
set4 = set1 | set2 # Union
set5 = set1 - set3 # Set difference
set6 = set1 ^ set2 # Symmetric difference
issubset = set1 <= set2 # Subset test
issuperset = set1 >= set2 # Superset test
set7 = [Link]() # A shallow copy
[Link]("cat")
set8 = [Link]()
[Link]() # Clear AKA empty AKA erase
print set1, set2, set3, set4, set5, set6, set7, set8, issubset, issuperset

11.0.2 Constructing Sets

One way to construct sets is by passing any sequential object to the ”set” constructor.

>>> set([0, 1, 2, 3])

set([0, 1, 2, 3])

1 Chapter 11.0.8 on page 59

55
Sets

>>> set("obtuse")
set(['b', 'e', 'o', 's', 'u', 't'])

We can also add elements to sets one by one, using the ”add” function.

>>> s = set([12, 26, 54])

>>> [Link](32)
>>> s
set([32, 26, 12, 54])

Note that since a set does not contain duplicate elements, if we add one of the members of
s to s again, the add function will have no effect. This same behavior occurs in the ”update”
function, which adds a group of elements to a set.

>>> [Link]([26, 12, 9, 14])

>>> s
set([32, 9, 12, 14, 54, 26])

Note that you can give any type of sequential structure, or even another set, to the update
function, regardless of what structure was used to initialize the set.
The set function also provides a copy constructor. However, remember that the copy con-
structor will copy the set, but not the individual elements.

>>> s2 = [Link]()
>>> s2
set([32, 9, 12, 14, 54, 26])

11.0.3 Membership Testing

We can check if an object is in the set using the same ”in” operator as with sequential data
types.

>>> 32 in s
True
>>> 6 in s
False
>>> 6 not in s
True

We can also test the membership of entire sets. Given two sets S1 and S2 , we check if S1 is
a subset2 or a superset of S2 .

>>> [Link](set([32, 8, 9, 12, 14, -4, 54, 26, 19]))

True
>>> [Link](set([9, 12]))
True

Note that ”issubset” and ”issuperset” can also accept sequential data types as arguments

>>> [Link]([32, 9])

True

2 [Link]

56
 External links

Note that the <= and >= operators also express the issubset and issuperset functions
respectively.

>>> set([4, 5, 7]) <= set([4, 5, 7, 9])

True
>>> set([9, 12, 15]) >= set([9, 12])
True

Like lists, tuples, and string, we can use the ”len” function to find the number of items in a
set.

11.0.4 Removing Items

There are three functions which remove individual items from a set, called pop, remove,
and discard. The first, pop, simply removes an item from the set. Note that there is no
defined behavior as to which element it chooses to remove.

>>> s = set([1,2,3,4,5,6])
>>> [Link]()
1
>>> s
set([2,3,4,5,6])

We also have the ”remove” function to remove a specified element.

>>> [Link](3)
>>> s
set([2,4,5,6])

However, removing a item which isn’t in the set causes an error.

>>> [Link](9)
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<stdin>", line 1, in ?
KeyError: 9

If you wish to avoid this error, use ”discard.” It has the same functionality as remove, but
will simply do nothing if the element isn’t in the set
We also have another operation for removing elements from a set, clear, which simply
removes all elements from the set.

>>> [Link]()
>>> s
set([])

11.0.5 Iteration Over Sets

We can also have a loop move over each of the items in a set. However, since sets are
unordered, it is undefined which order the iteration will follow.

>>> s = set("blerg")
>>> for n in s:
... print n,

57
Sets

...
r b e l g

11.0.6 Set Operations

Python allows us to perform all the standard mathematical set operations, using members
of set. Note that each of these set operations has several forms. One of these forms,
[Link](s2) will return another set which is created by ”function” applied to S1 and S2 .
The other form, s1.function_update(s2), will change S1 to be the set created by ”function”
of S1 and S2 . Finally, some functions have equivalent special operators. For example, s1 &
s2 is equivalent to [Link](s2)

Intersection

Any element which is in both S1 and S2 will appear in their intersection3 .

>>> s1 = set([4, 6, 9])

>>> s2 = set([1, 6, 8])
>>> [Link](s2)
set([6])
>>> s1 & s2
set([6])
>>> s1.intersection_update(s2)
>>> s1
set([6])

Union

The union4 is the merger of two sets. Any element in S1 or S2 will appear in their union.

>>> s1 = set([4, 6, 9])

>>> s2 = set([1, 6, 8])
>>> [Link](s2)
set([1, 4, 6, 8, 9])
>>> s1 | s2
set([1, 4, 6, 8, 9])

Note that union’s update function is simply ”update” above5 .

Symmetric Difference

The symmetric difference6 of two sets is the set of elements which are in one of either set,
but not in both.

3 [Link]
4 [Link]
5 Chapter 11.0.2 on page 55
6 [Link]

58
 External links

>>> s1 = set([4, 6, 9])

>>> s2 = set([1, 6, 8])
>>> s1.symmetric_difference(s2)
set([8, 1, 4, 9])
>>> s1 ^ s2
set([8, 1, 4, 9])
>>> s1.symmetric_difference_update(s2)
>>> s1
set([8, 1, 4, 9])

Set Difference

Python can also find the set difference7 of S1 and S2 , which is the elements that are in S1
but not in S2 .

>>> s1 = set([4, 6, 9])

>>> s2 = set([1, 6, 8])
>>> [Link](s2)
set([9, 4])
>>> s1 - s2
set([9, 4])
>>> s1.difference_update(s2)
>>> s1
set([9, 4])

11.0.7 Multiple sets

Starting with Python 2.6, ”union”, ”intersection”, and ”difference” can work with multiple
input by using the set constructor. For example, using ”[Link]()”:

>>> s1 = set([3, 6, 7, 9])

>>> s2 = set([6, 7, 9, 10])
>>> s3 = set([7, 9, 10, 11])
>>> [Link](s1, s2, s3)
set([9, 7])

11.0.8 frozenset

A frozenset is basically the same as a set, except that it is immutable - once it is created, its
members cannot be changed. Since they are immutable, they are also hashable, which means
that frozensets can be used as members in other sets and as dictionary keys. frozensets have
the same functions as normal sets, except none of the functions that change the contents
(update, remove, pop, etc.) are available.

>>> fs = frozenset([2, 3, 4])

>>> s1 = set([fs, 4, 5, 6])
>>> s1
set([4, frozenset([2, 3, 4]), 6, 5])
>>> [Link](s1)
frozenset([4])
>>> [Link](6)

7 [Link]

59
Sets

Traceback (most recent call last):

File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
AttributeError: 'frozenset' object has no attribute 'add'

11.0.9 Exercises

1. Create the set {’cat’, 1, 2, 3}, call it s.

2. Create the set {’c’, ’a’, ’t’, ’1’, ’2’, ’3’}.
3. Create the frozen set {’cat’, 1, 2, 3}, call it fs.
4. Create a set containing the frozenset fs, it should look like {frozenset({’cat’, 2, 3, 1})}.

11.0.10 Reference

• Python Tutorial, section ”Data Structures”, subsection ”Sets”8 -- [Link]

• Python Library Reference on Set Types9 -- [Link]

8 [Link]
9 [Link]

60
12 Operators

12.1 Basics

Python math works like you would expect.

>>> x = 2
>>> y = 3
>>> z = 5
>>> x * y
6
>>> x + y
5
>>> x * y + z
11
>>> (x + y) * z
25

Note that Python adheres to the PEMDAS order of operations1 .

12.2 Powers

There is a built in exponentiation operator **, which can take either integers, floating point
or complex numbers. This occupies its proper place in the order of operations.

>>> 2**8
256

12.3 Division and Type Conversion

For Python 2.x, dividing two integers or longs uses integer division, also known as ”floor
division” (applying the floor function2 after division. So, for example, 5 / 2 is 2. Using
”/” to do division this way is deprecated; if you want floor division, use ”//” (available in
Python 2.2 and later).
”/” does ”true division” for floats and complex numbers; for example, 5.0/2.0 is 2.5.
For Python 3.x, ”/” does ”true division” for all types.34

1 [Link]
2 [Link]
3 [[Link] What’s New in Python 2.2
4 PEP 238 -- Changing the Division Operator ˆ{[Link]

61
Operators

Dividing by or into a floating point number (there are no fractional types in Python) will
cause Python to use true division. To coerce an integer to become a float, ’float()’ with the
integer as a parameter

>>> x = 5
>>> float(x)
5.0

This can be generalized for other numeric types: int(), complex(), long().
Beware that due to the limitations of floating point arithmetic5 , rounding errors can cause
unexpected results. For example:

>>> print 0.6/0.2

3.0
>>> print 0.6//0.2
2.0

12.4 Modulo

The modulus (remainder of the division of the two operands, rather than the quotient) can
be found using the % operator, or by the divmod builtin function. The divmod function
returns a tuple containing the quotient and remainder.

>>> 10%7
3

12.5 Negation

Unlike some other languages, variables can be negated directly:

>>> x = 5
>>> -x
-5

12.6 Comparison

Numbers, strings and other types can be compared for equality/inequality and ordering:

>>> 2 == 3
False
>>> 3 == 3
True
>>> 2 < 3
True

5 [Link]

62
 Identity

>>> "a" < "aa"

True

12.7 Identity

The operators is and is not test for object identity: x is y is true if and only if x and
y are references to the same object in memory. x is not y yields the inverse truth value.
Note that an identity test is more stringent than an equality test since two distinct objects
may have the same value.

>>> [1,2,3] == [1,2,3]

True
>>> [1,2,3] is [1,2,3]
False

For the built-in immutable data types6 (like int, str and tuple) Python uses caching mech-
anisms to improve performance, i.e., the interpreter may decide to reuse an existing im-
mutable object instead of generating a new one with the same value. The details of object
caching are subject to changes between different Python versions and are not guaranteed to
be system-independent, so identity checks on immutable objects like 'hello' is 'hello'
, (1,2,3) is (1,2,3) , 4 is 2**2 may give different results on different machines.

12.8 Augmented Assignment

There is shorthand for assigning the output of an operation to one of the inputs:

>>> x = 2
>>> x # 2
2
>>> x *= 3
>>> x # 2 * 3
6
>>> x += 4
>>> x # 2 * 3 + 4
10
>>> x /= 5
>>> x # (2 * 3 + 4) / 5
2
>>> x **= 2
>>> x # ((2 * 3 + 4) / 5) ** 2
4
>>> x %= 3
>>> x # ((2 * 3 + 4) / 5) ** 2 % 3
1

>>> x = 'repeat this '

>>> x # repeat this
repeat this
>>> x *= 3 # fill with x repeated three times
>>> x
repeat this repeat this repeat this

6 Chapter 6 on page 22

63
Operators

12.9 Boolean

or:

if a or b:
do_this
else:
do_this

and:

if a and b:
do_this
else:
do_this

not:

if not a:
do_this
else:
do_this

The order of operations here is: ”not” first, ”and” second, ”or” third. In particular, ”True or
True and False or False” becomes ”True or False or False” which is True.
Caution, Boolean operators are valid on things other than Booleans; for instance ”1 and 6”
will return 6. Specifically, ”and” returns either the first value considered to be false, or the
last value if all are considered true. ”or” returns the first true value, or the last value if all
are considered false.

12.10 Exercises
22
1. Use Python to calculate 22 = 65536.
4
2. Use Python to calculate (3+2)
7 ≈ 89.285.
3. Use Python to calculate 11111111111111111111+22222222222222222222, but in one
line of code with at most 15 characters. (Hint: each of those numbers is 20 digits
long, so you have to find some other way to input those numbers)
4. Exactly one of the following expressions evaluates to ”cat”; the other evaluates to
”dog”. Trace the logic to determine which one is which, then check your answer using
Python.

1 and "cat" or "dog"

0 and "cat" or "dog"

12.11 References

64
13 Flow control

As with most imperative languages, there are three main categories of program control flow:
• loops
• branches
• function calls
Function calls are covered in the next section1 .
Generators and list comprehensions are advanced forms of program control flow, but they
are not covered here.

13.0.1 Overview

Control flow in Python at a glance:

x = -6 # Branching
if x > 0: # If
print "Positive"
elif x == 0: # Else if AKA elseif
print "Zero"
else: # Else
print "Negative"
list1 = [100, 200, 300]
for i in list1: print i # A for loop
for i in range(0, 5): print i # A for loop from 0 to 4
for i in range(5, 0, -1): print i # A for loop from 5 to 1
for i in range(0, 5, 2): print i # A for loop from 0 to 4, step 2
list2 = [(1, 1), (2, 4), (3, 9)]
for x, xsq in list2: print x, xsq # A for loop with a two-tuple as its
iterator
l1 = [1, 2]; l2 = ['a', 'b']
for i1, i2 in zip(l1, l2): print i1, i2 # A for loop iterating two lists at
once.
i = 5
while i > 0: # A while loop
i -= 1
list1 = ["cat", "dog", "mouse"]
i = -1 # -1 if not found
for item in list1:
i += 1
if item=="dog":
break # Break; also usable with while loop
print "Index of dog:",i
for i in range(1,6):
if i <= 4:
continue # Continue; also usable with while loop
print "Greater than 4:", i

1 Chapter 14 on page 73

65
Flow control

13.0.2 Loops

In Python, there are two kinds of loops, ’for’ loops and ’while’ loops.

For loops

A for loop iterates over elements of a sequence (tuple or list). A variable is created to
represent the object in the sequence. For example,

x = [100,200,300]
for i in x:
print i

This will output

100
200
300

The for loop loops over each of the elements of a list or iterator, assigning the current
element to the variable name given. In the example above, each of the elements in x is
assigned to i .
A built-in function called range exists to make creating sequential lists such as the one
above easier. The loop above is equivalent to:

l = range(100, 301,100)
for i in l:
print i

The next example uses a negative step (the third argument for the built-in range function):

for i in range(5, 0, -1):

print i

This will output

5
4
3
2
1

The negative step can be -2:

for i in range(10, 0, -2):

print i

This will output

66
 References

10
8
6
4
2

For loops can have names for each element of a tuple, if it loops over a sequence of tuples:

l = [(1, 1), (2, 4), (3, 9), (4, 16), (5, 25)]
for x, xsquared in l:
print x, ':', xsquared

This will output

1 : 1
2 : 4
3 : 9
4 : 16
5 : 25

Links:
• 4.2. for Statements2 , The Python Tutorial, [Link]
• 4.3. The range() Function3 , The Python Tutorial, [Link]

While loops

A while loop repeats a sequence of statements until some condition becomes false. For
example:

x = 5
while x > 0:
print x
x = x - 1

Will output:

5
4
3
2
1

Python’s while loops can also have an ’else’ clause, which is a block of statements that is
executed (once) when the while statement evaluates to false. The break statement inside
the while loop will not direct the program flow to the else clause. For example:

x = 5
y = x
while y > 0:

2 [Link]
3 [Link]

67
Flow control

print y
y = y - 1
else:
print x

This will output:

5
4
3
2
1
5

Unlike some languages, there is no post-condition loop.

Links:
• 3.2. First Steps Towards Programming4 , The Python Tutorial, [Link]

Breaking and continuing

Python includes statements to exit a loop (either a for loop or a while loop) prematurely.
To exit a loop, use the break statement:

x = 5
while x > 0:
print x
break
x -= 1
print x

This will output

The statement to begin the next iteration of the loop without waiting for the end of the
current loop is ’continue’.

l = [5,6,7]
for x in l:
continue
print x

This will not produce any output.

Else clause of loops

The else clause of loops will be executed if no break statements are met in the loop.

4 [Link]

68
 References

l = range(1,100)
for x in l:
if x == 100:
print x
break
else:
print x," is not 100"
else:
print "100 not found in range"

Another example of a while loop using the break statement and the else statement:

expected_str = "melon"
received_str = "apple"
basket = ["banana", "grapes", "strawberry", "melon", "orange"]
x = 0
step = int(raw_input("Input iteration step: "))

while(received_str != expected_str):
if(x >= len(basket)): print "No more fruits left on the basket."; break
received_str = basket[x]
x += step # Change this to 3 to make the while statement
# evaluate to false, avoiding the break statement, using the else
clause.
if(received_str==basket[2]): print "I hate",basket[2],"!"; break
if(received_str != expected_str): print "I am waiting for my
",expected_str,"."
else:
print "Finally got what I wanted! my precious ",expected_str,"!"
print "Going back home now !"

This will output:

Input iteration step: 2

I am waiting for my melon .
I hate strawberry !
Going back home now !

White Space

Python determines where a loop repeats itself by the indentation in the whitespace. Ev-
erything that is indented is part of the loop, the next entry that is not indented is not. For
example, the code below prints ”1 1 2 1 1 2”

for i in [0, 1]:

for j in ["a","b"]:
print("1")
print("2")

On the other hand, the code below prints ”1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2”

for i in [0, 1]:

for j in ["a","b"]:
print("1")
print("2")

69
Flow control

13.0.3 Branches

There is basically only one kind of branch in Python, the ’if’ statement. The simplest form
of the if statement simple executes a block of code only if a given predicate is true, and
skips over it if the predicate is false
For instance,

>>> x = 10
>>> if x > 0:
... print "Positive"
...
Positive
>>> if x < 0:
... print "Negative"
...

You can also add ”elif” (short for ”else if”) branches onto the if statement. If the predicate
on the first “if” is false, it will test the predicate on the first elif, and run that branch if
it’s true. If the first elif is false, it tries the second one, and so on. Note, however, that it
will stop checking branches as soon as it finds a true predicate, and skip the rest of the if
statement. You can also end your if statements with an ”else” branch. If none of the other
branches are executed, then python will run this branch.

>>> x = -6
>>> if x > 0:
... print "Positive"
... elif x == 0:
... print "Zero"
... else:
... print "Negative"
...
'Negative'

Links:
• 4.1. if Statements5 , The Python Tutorial, [Link]

13.0.4 Conclusion

Any of these loops, branches, and function calls can be nested in any way desired. A loop
can loop over a loop, a branch can branch again, and a function can call other functions,
or even call itself.

13.1 Exercises

1. Print the numbers from 0 to 1000 (including both 0 and 1000).

2. Print the numbers from 0 to 1000 that are multiples of 5.
3. Print the numbers from 1 to 1000 that are multiples of 5.
4. Use a nested for-loop to prints the 3x3 multiplication table below

5 [Link]

70
 External links

1 2 3
2 4 6
3 6 9

1. Print the 3x3 multiplication table below.

1 2 3
------
1|1 2 3
2|2 4 6
3|3 6 9

13.2 External links

• 4. More Control Flow Tools6 , The Python Tutorial, [Link]

6 [Link]

71
14 Functions

14.1 Function Calls

A callable object is an object that can accept some arguments (also called parameters) and
possibly return an object (often a tuple containing multiple objects).
A function is the simplest callable object in Python, but there are others, such as classes1
or certain class instances.

Defining Functions

A function is defined in Python by the following format:

def functionname(arg1, arg2, ...):

statement1
statement2
...

>>> def functionname(arg1,arg2):

... return arg1+arg2
...
>>> t = functionname(24,24) # Result: 48

If a function takes no arguments, it must still include the parentheses, but without anything
in them:

def functionname():
statement1
statement2
...

The arguments in the function definition bind the arguments passed at function invocation
(i.e. when the function is called), which are called actual parameters, to the names given
when the function is defined, which are called formal parameters. The interior of the
function has no knowledge of the names given to the actual parameters; the names of the
actual parameters may not even be accessible (they could be inside another function).
A function can ’return’ a value, for example:

def square(x):
return x*x

1 Chapter 19 on page 99

73
Functions

A function can define variables within the function body, which are considered ’local’ to the
function. The locals together with the arguments comprise all the variables within the scope
of the function. Any names within the function are unbound when the function returns or
reaches the end of the function body.
You can return multiple values as follows:

def first2items(list1):
return list1[0], list1[1]
a, b = first2items(["Hello", "world", "hi", "universe"])
print a + " " + b

Keywords: returning multiple values, multiple return values.

14.1.1 Declaring Arguments

When calling a function that takes some values for further processing, we need to send some
values as Function Arguments . For example:

>>> def find_max(a,b):

if(a>b):
print "a is greater than b"
else:
print "b is greater than a"
>>> find_max(30,45) #Here (30,45) are the arguments passing for finding max
between this two numbers
The ouput will be: 45 is greater than 30

Default Argument Values

If any of the formal parameters in the function definition are declared with the format ”arg
= value,” then you will have the option of not specifying a value for those arguments when
calling the function. If you do not specify a value, then that parameter will have the default
value given when the function executes.

>>> def display_message(message, truncate_after=4):

... print message[:truncate_after]
...
>>> display_message("message")
mess
>>> display_message("message", 6)
messag

Links:
• 4.7.1. Default Argument Values2 , The Python Tutorial, [Link]

2 [Link]

74
 Function Calls

Variable-Length Argument Lists

Python allows you to declare two special arguments which allow you to create arbitrary-
length argument lists. This means that each time you call the function, you can specify any
number of arguments above a certain number.

def function(first,second,*remaining):
statement1
statement2
...

When calling the above function, you must provide value for each of the first two arguments.
However, since the third parameter is marked with an asterisk, any actual parameters after
the first two will be packed into a tuple and bound to ”remaining.”

>>> def print_tail(first,*tail):

... print tail
...
>>> print_tail(1, 5, 2, "omega")
(5, 2, 'omega')

If we declare a formal parameter prefixed with two asterisks, then it will be bound to
a dictionary containing any keyword arguments in the actual parameters which do not
correspond to any formal parameters. For example, consider the function:

def make_dictionary(max_length=10, **entries):

return dict([(key, entries[key]) for i, key in enumerate([Link]()) if
i < max_length])

If we call this function with any keyword arguments other than max_length, they will be
placed in the dictionary ”entries.” If we include the keyword argument of max_length, it
will be bound to the formal parameter max_length, as usual.

>>> make_dictionary(max_length=2, key1=5, key2=7, key3=9)

{'key3': 9, 'key2': 7}

Links:
• 4.7.3. Arbitrary Argument Lists3 , The Python Tutorial, [Link]

By Value and by Reference

Objects passed as arguments to functions are passed by reference ; they are not being copied
around. Thus, passing a large list as an argument does not involve copying all its members
to a new location in memory. Note that even integers are objects. However, the distinction
of by value and by reference present in some other programming languages often serves to
distinguish whether the passed arguments can be actually changed by the called function
and whether the calling function can see the changes .
Passed objects of mutable types such as lists and dictionaries can be changed by the called
function and the changes are visible to the calling function. Passed objects of immutable

3 [Link]

75
Functions

types such as integers and strings cannot be changed by the called function; the calling
function can be certain that the called function will not change them. For mutability, see
also Data Types4 chapter.
An example:

def appendItem(ilist, item):

[Link](item) # Modifies ilist in a way visible to the caller

def replaceItems(ilist, newcontentlist):

del ilist[:] # Modification visible to the caller
[Link](newcontentlist) # Modification visible to the caller
ilist = [5, 6] # No outside effect; lets the local ilist point to a new list
object,
# losing the reference to the list object passed as an argument
def clearSet(iset):
[Link]()

def tryToTouchAnInteger(iint):
iint += 1 # No outside effect; lets the local iint to point to a new int
object,
# losing the reference to the int object passed as an argument
print "iint inside:",iint # 4 if iint was 3 on function entry

list1 = [1, 2]
appendItem(list1, 3)
print list1 # [1, 2, 3]
replaceItems(list1, [3, 4])
print list1 # [3, 4]
set1 = set([1, 2])
clearSet(set1 )
print set1 # set([])
int1 = 3
tryToTouchAnInteger(int1)
print int1 # 3

14.1.2 Preventing Argument Change

An argument cannot be declared to be constant, not to be changed by the called function.

If an argument is of an immutable type, it cannot be changed anyway, but if it is of a
mutable type such as list, the calling function is at the mercy of the called function. Thus,
if the calling function wants to make sure a passed list does not get changed, it has to pass
a copy of the list.
An example:

def evilGetLength(ilist):
length = len(ilist)
del ilist[:] # Muhaha: clear the list
return length

list1 = [1, 2]
print evilGetLength(list1) # list1 gets cleared
print list1
list1 = [1, 2]
print evilGetLength(list1[:]) # Pass a copy of list1
print list1

4 Chapter 6 on page 22

76
 Closures

14.1.3 Calling Functions

A function can be called by appending the arguments in parentheses to the function name,
or an empty matched set of parentheses if the function takes no arguments.

foo()
square(3)
bar(5, x)

A function’s return value can be used by assigning it to a variable, like so:

x = foo()
y = bar(5,x)

As shown above, when calling a function you can specify the parameters by name and you
can do so in any order

def display_message(message, start=0, end=4):

print message[start:end]

display_message("message", end=3)

This above is valid and start will have the default value of 0. A restriction placed on this
is after the first named argument then all arguments after it must also be named. The
following is not valid

display_message(end=5, start=1, "my message")

because the third argument (”my message”) is an unnamed argument.

14.2 Closures

A closure is a nested function with an after-return access to the data of the outer function,
where the nested function is returned by the outer function as a function object. Thus, even
when the outer function has finished its execution after being called, the closure function
returned by it can refer to the values of the variables that the outer function had when it
defined the closure function.
An example:

def adder(outer_argument): # outer function

def adder_inner(inner_argument): # inner function, nested function
return outer_argument + inner_argument # Notice outer_argument
return adder_inner
add5 = adder(5) # a function that adds 5 to its argument
add7 = adder(7) # a function that adds 7 to its argument
print add5(3) # prints 8
print add7(3) # prints 10

Closures are possible in Python because functions are first-class objects . A function is
merely an object of type function. Being an object means it is possible to pass a function
object (an uncalled function) around as argument or as return value or to assign another
name to the function object. A unique feature that makes closure useful is that the enclosed
function may use the names defined in the parent function’s scope.

77
Functions

14.3 Lambda Expressions

A lambda is an anonymous (unnamed) function. It is used primarily to write very short

functions that are a hassle to define in the normal way. A function like this:

>>> def add(a, b):

... return a + b
...
>>> add(4, 3)
7

may also be defined using lambda

>>> print (lambda a, b: a + b)(4, 3)

7

Lambda is often used as an argument to other functions that expects a function object,
such as sorted()’s ’key’ argument.

>>> sorted([[3, 4], [3, 5], [1, 2], [7, 3]], key=lambda x: x[1])
[[1, 2], [7, 3], [3, 4], [3, 5]]

The lambda form is often useful as a closure, such as illustrated in the following example:

>>> def attribution(name):

... return lambda x: x + ' -- ' + name
...
>>> pp = attribution('John')
>>> pp('Dinner is in the fridge')
'Dinner is in the fridge -- John'

Note that the lambda function can use the values of variables from the scope5 in which it
was created (like pre and post). This is the essence of closure.
Links:
• 4.7.5. Lambda Expressions6 , The Python Tutorial, [Link]

14.3.1 Generator Functions

When discussing loops, you can across the concept of an iterator . This yields in turn each
element of some sequence, rather than the entire sequence at once, allowing you to deal
with sequences much larger than might be able to fit in memory at once.
You can create your own iterators, by defining what is known as a generator function . To
illustrate the usefulness of this, let us start by considering a simple function to return the
concatenation of two lists:

def concat(a, b) :
return a + b
#end concat

5 Chapter 15 on page 81
6 [Link]

78
 Lambda Expressions

print concat([5, 4, 3], ["a", "b", "c"])

# prints [5, 4, 3, 'a', 'b', 'c']

Imagine wanting to do something like concat(range(0, 1000000), range(1000000,

2000000))
That would work, but it would consume a lot of memory.
Consider an alternative definition, which takes two iterators as arguments:

def concat(a, b) :
for i in a :
yield i
#end for
for i in b :
yield i
#end b
#end concat

Notice the use of the yield statement, instead of return . We can now use this something
like

for i in concat(xrange(0, 1000000), xrange(1000000, 2000000))

print i
#end for

and print out an awful lot of numbers, without using a lot of memory at all.

Note:
You can still pass a list or other sequence type wherever Python expects an iterator (like
to an argument of your concat function); this will still work, and makes it easy not to
have to worry about the difference where you don’t need to.

14.3.2 External Links

• 4.6. Defining Functions7 , The Python Tutorial, [Link]

de:Python unter Linux: Funktionen8 es:Inmersión en Python/Su primer pro-
grama en Python/Declaración de funciones9 fr:Programmation_Python/Fonction10
pt:Python/Conceitos básicos/Funções11

7 [Link]
8 [Link]
9 [Link]
10 [Link]
11 [Link]

79
15 Scoping

15.0.1 Variables

Variables in Python are automatically declared by assignment. Variables are always refer-
ences to objects, and are never typed. Variables exist only in the current scope or global
scope. When they go out of scope, the variables are destroyed, but the objects to which
they refer are not (unless the number of references to the object drops to zero).
Scope is delineated by function and class blocks. Both functions and their scopes can be
nested. So therefore

def foo():
def bar():
x = 5 # x is now in scope
return x + y # y is defined in the enclosing scope later
y = 10
return bar() # now that y is defined, bar's scope includes y

Now when this code is tested,

>>> foo()
15
>>> bar()
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<pyshell#26>", line 1, in -toplevel-
bar()
NameError: name 'bar' is not defined

The name ’bar’ is not found because a higher scope does not have access to the names lower
in the hierarchy.
It is a common pitfall to fail to lookup an attribute (such as a method) of an object (such
as a container) referenced by a variable before the variable is assigned the object. In its
most common form:

>>> for x in range(10):

[Link](x) # append is an attribute of lists

Traceback (most recent call last):

File "<pyshell#46>", line 2, in -toplevel-
[Link](x)
NameError: name 'y' is not defined

Here, to correct this problem, one must add y = [] before the for loop.

81
16 Exceptions

Python handles all errors with exceptions.

An exception is a signal that an error or other unusual condition has occurred. There are a
number of built-in exceptions, which indicate conditions like reading past the end of a file,
or dividing by zero. You can also define your own exceptions.

16.0.1 Raising exceptions

Whenever your program attempts to do something erroneous or meaningless, Python raises

exception to such conduct:

>>> 1 / 0
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<stdin>", line 1, in ?
ZeroDivisionError: integer division or modulo by zero

This traceback indicates that the ZeroDivisionError exception is being raised. This is a
built-in exception -- see below for a list of all the other ones.

16.0.2 Catching exceptions

In order to handle errors, you can set up exception handling blocks in your code. The
keywords try and except are used to catch exceptions. When an error occurs within the
try block, Python looks for a matching except block to handle it. If there is one, execution
jumps there.
If you execute this code:

try:
print 1/0
except ZeroDivisionError:
print "You can't divide by zero, you're silly."

Then Python will print this:

You can’t divide by zero, you’re silly.
If you don’t specify an exception type on the except line, it will cheerfully catch all excep-
tions. This is generally a bad idea in production code, since it means your program will
blissfully ignore unexpected errors as well as ones which the except block is actually prepared
to handle.
Exceptions can propagate up the call stack:

83
Exceptions

def f(x):
return g(x) + 1

def g(x):
if x < 0: raise ValueError, "I can't cope with a negative number here."
else: return 5

try:
print f(-6)
except ValueError:
print "That value was invalid."

In this code, the print statement calls the function f. That function calls the function g,
which will raise an exception of type ValueError. Neither f nor g has a try/except block to
handle ValueError. So the exception raised propagates out to the main code, where there
is an exception-handling block waiting for it. This code prints:
That value was invalid.
Sometimes it is useful to find out exactly what went wrong, or to print the python error
text yourself. For example:

try:
the_file = open("the_parrot")
except IOError, (ErrorNumber, ErrorMessage):
if ErrorNumber == 2: # file not found
print "Sorry, 'the_parrot' has apparently joined the choir invisible."
else:
print "Congratulation! you have managed to trip a #%d error" %
ErrorNumber
print ErrorMessage

Which of course will print:

Sorry, ’the_parrot’ has apparently joined the choir invisible.

Custom Exceptions

Code similar to that seen above can be used to create custom exceptions and pass infor-
mation along with them. This can be extremely useful when trying to debug complicated
projects. Here is how that code would look; first creating the custom exception class:

class CustomException(Exception):
def __init__(self, value):
[Link] = value
def __str__(self):
return repr([Link])

And then using that exception:

try:
raise CustomException("My Useful Error Message")
except CustomException, (instance):
print "Caught: " + [Link]

84
 Lambda Expressions

Trying over and over again

16.0.3 Recovering and continuing with finally

Exceptions could lead to a situation where, after raising an exception, the code block where
the exception occurred might not be revisited. In some cases this might leave external
resources used by the program in an unknown state.
finally clause allows programmers to close such resources in case of an exception. Between
2.4 and 2.5 version of python there is change of syntax for finally clause.
• Python 2.4

try:
result = None
try:
result = x/y
except ZeroDivisionError:
print "division by zero!"
print "result is ", result
finally:
print "executing finally clause"

• Python 2.5

try:
result = x / y
except ZeroDivisionError:
print "division by zero!"
else:
print "result is", result
finally:
print "executing finally clause"

16.0.4 Built-in exception classes

All built-in Python exceptions1

16.0.5 Exotic uses of exceptions

Exceptions are good for more than just error handling. If you have a complicated piece of
code to choose which of several courses of action to take, it can be useful to use exceptions
to jump out of the code as soon as the decision can be made. The Python-based mailing list
software Mailman does this in deciding how a message should be handled. Using exceptions
like this may seem like it’s a sort of GOTO -- and indeed it is, but a limited one called an
escape continuation . Continuations are a powerful functional-programming tool and it can
be useful to learn them.
Just as a simple example of how exceptions make programming easier, say you want to add
items to a list but you don’t want to use ”if” statements to initialize the list we could replace
this:

1 [Link]

85
Exceptions

if hasattr(self, 'items'):
[Link](new_items)
else:
[Link] = list(new_items)

Using exceptions, we can emphasize the normal program flow—that usually we just extend
the list—rather than emphasizing the unusual case:

try:
[Link](new_items)
except AttributeError:
[Link] = list(new_items)

86
17 Input and output

17.1 Input

Note on Python version: The following uses the syntax of Python 2.x. Some of the following
is not going to work with Python 3.x.
Python has two functions designed for accepting data directly from the user:
• input()
• raw_input()
There are also very simple ways of reading a file and, for stricter control over input, reading
from stdin if necessary.

17.1.1 raw_input()

raw_input() asks the user for a string of data (ended with a newline), and simply returns
the string. It can also take an argument, which is displayed as a prompt before the user
enters the data. E.g.

print (raw_input('What is your name? '))

prints out

What is your name? <user input data here>

Example: in order to assign the user’s name, i.e. string data, to a variable ”x” you would
type

x = raw_input('What is your name?')

Once the user inputs his name, e.g. Simon, you can call it as x

print ('Your name is ' + x)

prints out

Your name is Simon

87
Input and output

Note:
in 3.x ”...raw_input() was renamed to input(). That is, the new input() function reads
a line from [Link] and returns it with the trailing newline stripped. It raises EO-
FError if the input is terminated prematurely. To get the old behavior of input(), use
eval(input()).”

17.1.2 input()

input() uses raw_input to read a string of data, and then attempts to evaluate it as if it
were a Python program, and then returns the value that results. So entering

[1,2,3]

would return a list containing those numbers, just as if it were assigned directly in the
Python script.
More complicated expressions are possible. For example, if a script says:

x = input('What are the first 10 perfect squares? ')

it is possible for a user to input:

map(lambda x: x*x, range(10))

which yields the correct answer in list form. Note that no inputted statement can span
more than one line.
input() should not be used for anything but the most trivial program. Turning the strings
returned from raw_input() into python types using an idiom such as:

x = None
while not x:
try:
x = int(raw_input())
except ValueError:
print 'Invalid Number'

is preferable, as input() uses eval() to turn a literal into a python type. This will allow a
malicious person to run arbitrary code from inside your program trivially.

17.1.3 File Input

File Objects

Python includes a built-in file type. Files can be opened by using the file type’s constructor:

f = file('[Link]', 'r')

This means f is open for reading. The first argument is the filename and the second param-
eter is the mode, which can be ’r’, ’w’, or ’rw’, among some others.

88
 Input

The most common way to read from a file is simply to iterate over the lines of the file:

f = open('[Link]', 'r')
for line in f:
print line[0]
[Link]()

This will print the first character of each line. Note that a newline is attached to the end
of each line read this way.
The newer and better way to read from a file:

with open("[Link]", "r") as txt:

for line in txt:
print line

The advantage is, that the opened file will close itself after reading each line.
Because files are automatically closed when the file object goes out of scope, there is no real
need to close them explicitly. So, the loop in the previous code can also be written as:

for line in open('[Link]', 'r'):

print line[0]

You can read limited numbers of characters at a time like this:

c = [Link](1)
while len(c) > 0:
if len([Link]()) > 0: print c,
c = [Link](1)

This will read the characters from f one at a time, and then print them if they’re not
whitespace.
A file object implicitly contains a marker to represent the current position. If the file marker
should be moved back to the beginning, one can either close the file object and reopen it or
just move the marker back to the beginning with:

[Link](0)

Standard File Objects

Like many other languages, there are built-in file objects representing standard input, out-
put, and error. These are in the sys module and are called stdin, stdout, and stderr. There
are also immutable copies of these in __stdin__, __stdout__, and __stderr__. This
is for IDLE and other tools in which the standard files have been changed.
You must import the sys module to use the special stdin, stdout, stderr I/O handles.

import sys

For finer control over input, use [Link](). In order to implement the UNIX ’cat’
program in Python, you could do something like this:

89
Input and output

import sys
for line in [Link]:
print line,

Note that [Link]() will read from standard input till EOF. (which is usually Ctrl+D.)
Also important is the [Link] array. [Link] is an array that contains the command-line
arguments passed to the program.

python [Link] hello there programmer!

This array can be indexed,and the arguments evaluated. In the above example, [Link][2]
would contain the string ”there”, because the name of the program (”[Link]”) is stored
in argv[0]. For more complicated command-line argument processing, see the ”argparse”
module.

17.2 Output

Note on Python version: The following uses the syntax of Python 2.x. Much of the following
is not going to work with Python 3.x. In particular, Python 3.x requires round brackets
around arguments to ”print”.
The basic way to do output is the print statement.

print 'Hello, world'

To print multiple things on the same line separated by spaces, use commas between them,
like this:

print 'Hello,', 'World'

This will print out the following:

Hello, World

While neither string contained a space, a space was added by the print statement because
of the comma between the two objects. Arbitrary data types can be printed this way:

print 1,2,0xff,0777,(10+5j),-0.999,map,sys

This will output the following:

1 2 255 511 (10+5j) -0.999 <built-in function map> <module 'sys' (built-in)>

Objects can be printed on the same line without needing to be on the same line if one puts
a comma at the end of a print statement:

90
 Output

for i in range(10):
print i,

This will output the following:

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

To end the printed line with a newline, add a print statement without any objects.

for i in range(10):
print i,
print
for i in range(10,20):
print i,

This will output the following:

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

If the bare print statement were not present, the above output would look like:

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

You can use similar syntax when writing to a file instead of to standard output, like this:

print >> f, 'Hello, world'

This will print to any object that implements write(), which includes file objects.

17.2.1 Omitting newlines

To avoid adding spaces and newlines between objects’ output with subsequent print state-
ments, you can do one of the following:
Concatenation : Concatenate the string representations of each object, then later print the
whole thing at once.

print str(1)+str(2)+str(0xff)+str(0777)+str(10+5j)+str(-0.999)+str(map)+str(sys)

This will output the following:

12255511(10+5j)-0.999<built-in function map><module 'sys' (built-in)>

Write function : You can make a shorthand for [Link] and use that for output.

import sys
write = [Link]
write('20')
write('05\n')

91
Input and output

This will output the following:

2005

You may need [Link].flush() to get that text on the screen quickly.

17.2.2 Examples

Examples of output with Python 2.x :

• print ”Hello”
• print ”Hello”, ”world”
• Separates the two words with a space.
• print ”Hello”, 34
• Prints elements of various data types, separating them by a space.
• print ”Hello ” + 34
• Throws an error as a result of trying to concatenate a string and an integer.
• print ”Hello ” + str(34)
• Uses ”+” to concatenate strings, after converting a number to a string.
• print ”Hello”,
• Prints ”Hello ” without a newline, with a space at the end.
• [Link](”Hello”)
• Prints ”Hello” without a newline. Doing ”import sys” is a prerequisite. Needs a subse-
quent ”[Link].flush()” in order to display immediately on the user’s screen.
• [Link](”Hello\n”)
• Prints ”Hello” with a newline.
• print >> [Link], ”An error occurred.”
• Prints to standard error stream.
• [Link](”Hello\n”)
• Prints to standard error stream.
• sum=2+2; print ”The sum: %i” % sum
• Prints a string that has been formatted with the use of an integer passed as an argu-
ment.
• formatted_string = ”The sum: %i” % (2+2); print formatted_string
• Like the previous, just that the formatting happens outside of the print statement.
• print ”Float: %6.3f” % 1.23456
• Outputs ”Float: 1.234”. The number 3 after the period specifies the number of decimal
digits after the period to be displayed, while 6 before the period specifies the total
number of characters the displayed number should take, to be padded with spaces if
needed.
• print ”%s is %i years old” % (”John”, 23)
• Passes two arguments to the formatter.
Examples of output with Python 3.x :
• from __future__ import print_function
• Ensures Python 2.6 and later Python 2.x can use Python 3.x print function.
• print (”Hello”, ”world”)

92
 External Links

• Prints the two words separated with a space. Notice the surrounding brackets, ununsed
in Python 2.x.
• print (”Hello world”, end=” ”)
• Prints without the ending newline.
• print (”Hello”, ”world”, sep=”-”)
• Prints the two words separated with a a dash.

17.2.3 File Output

Printing numbers from 1 to 10 to a file, one per line:

file1 = open("[Link]","w")
for i in range(1,10+1):
print >>file1, i
[Link]()

With ”w”, the file is opened for writing. With ”>>file”, print sends its output to a file rather
than standard output.
Printing numbers from 1 to 10 to a file, separated with a dash:

file1 = open("[Link]","w")
for i in range(1,10+1):
if i>1:
[Link]("-")
[Link](str(i))
[Link]()

Opening a file for appending rather than overwriting:

file1 = open("[Link]","a")

See also ../Files/1 chapter.

17.3 External Links

• 7. Input and Output2 in The Python Tutorial, [Link]

• 6.6. The print statement3 in The Python Language Reference, [Link]
• 2. Built-in Functions #open4 in The Python Standard Library at Python Documentation,
[Link]
• 5. Built-in Types #file.write5 in The Python Standard Library at Python Documentation,
[Link]
• 27.1. sys — System-specific parameters and functions6 in Python Documentation, python
org -- mentions [Link], and [Link]

1 Chapter 27 on page 149

2 [Link]
3 [Link]
4 [Link]
5 [Link]
6 [Link]

93
Input and output

• 2.3.8 File Objects7 in Python Library Reference, [Link], for ”flush”

• 5.6.2. String Formatting Operations8 in The Python Standard Library at Python Docu-
mentation, [Link] -- for ”%i”, ”%s” and similar string formatting
• 7.2.2. The string format operator9 , in Python 2.5 quick reference, [Link], for ”%i”, ”%s”
and similar string formatting

7 [Link]
8 [Link]
9 [Link]

94
18 Modules

Modules are a simple way to structure a program. Mostly, there are modules in the standard
library and there are other Python files, or directories containing Python files, in the current
directory (each of which constitute a module). You can also instruct Python to search other
directories for modules by placing their paths in the PYTHONPATH environment variable.

18.1 Importing a Module

Modules in Python are used by importing them. For example,

import math

This imports the math standard module. All of the functions in that module are namespaced
by the module name, i.e.

import math
print [Link](10)

This is often a nuisance, so other syntaxes are available to simplify this,

from string import whitespace

from math import *
from math import sin as SIN
from math import cos as COS
from ftplib import FTP as ftp_connection
print sqrt(10)

The first statement means whitespace is added to the current scope (but nothing else is).
The second statement means that all the elements in the math namespace is added to the
current scope.
Modules can be three different kinds of things:
• Python files
• Shared Objects (under Unix and Linux) with the .so suffix
• DLL’s (under Windows) with the .pyd suffix
• directories
Modules are loaded in the order they’re found, which is controlled by [Link]. The current
directory is always on the path.
Directories should include a file in them called __init__.py, which should probably include
the other files in the directory.
Creating a DLL that interfaces with Python is covered in another section.

95
Modules

18.2 Creating a Module

18.2.1 From a File

The easiest way to create a module is by having a file called [Link] either in a directory
recognized by the PYTHONPATH variable or (even easier) in the same directory where
you are working. If you have the following file [Link]

class Object1:
def __init__(self):
[Link] = 'object 1'

you can already import this ”module” and create instances of the object Object1 .

import mymod
myobject = mymod.Object1()
from mymod import *
myobject = Object1()

18.2.2 From a Directory

It is not feasible for larger projects to keep all classes in a single file. It is often easier to
store all files in directories and load all files with one command. Each directory needs to
have a __init__.py file which contains python commands that are executed upon loading
the directory.
Suppose we have two more objects called Object2 and Object3 and we want to load all
three objects with one command. We then create a directory called mymod and we store
three files called [Link] , [Link] and [Link] in it. These files would then
contain one object per file but this not required (although it adds clarity). We would then
write the following __init__.py file:

from Object1 import *

from Object2 import *
from Object3 import *

__all__ = ["Object1", "Object2", "Object3"]

The first three commands tell python what to do when somebody loads the module. The
last statement defining __all__ tells python what to do when somebody executes from
mymod import * . Usually we want to use parts of a module in other parts of a module,
e.g. we want to use Object1 in Object2. We can do this easily with an from . import *
command as the following file [Link] shows:

from . import *

class Object2:
def __init__(self):
[Link] = 'object 2'
[Link] = Object1()

We can now start python and import mymod as we have in the previous section.

96
 External links

18.3 External links

• Python Documentation1

1 [Link]

97
19 Classes

Classes are a way of aggregating similar data and functions. A class is basically a scope
inside which various code (especially function definitions) is executed, and the locals to this
scope become attributes of the class, and of any objects constructed by this class. An object
constructed by a class is called an instance of that class.

19.0.1 Defining a Class

To define a class, use the following format:

class ClassName:
"Here is an explanation about your class"
pass

The capitalization in this class definition is the convention, but is not required by the
language. It’s usually good to add at least a short explanation of what your class is supposed
to do. The pass statement in the code above is just to say to the python interpreter just go
on and do nothing. You can remove it as soon as you are adding your first statement.

19.0.2 Instance Construction

The class is a callable object that constructs an instance of the class when called. Let’s say
we create a class Foo.

class Foo:
"Foo is our new toy."
pass

To construct an instance of the class, Foo, ”call” the class object:

f = Foo()

This constructs an instance of class Foo and creates a reference to it in f.

19.0.3 Class Members

In order to access the member of an instance of a class, use the syntax <class in-
stance>.<member>. It is also possible to access the members of the class definition with
<class name>.<member>.

99
Classes

Methods

A method is a function within a class. The first argument (methods must always take at
least one argument) is always the instance of the class on which the function is invoked.
For example

>>> class Foo:

... def setx(self, x):
... self.x = x
... def bar(self):
... print self.x

If this code were executed, nothing would happen, at least until an instance of Foo were
constructed, and then bar were called on that instance.

Invoking Methods

Calling a method is much like calling a function, but instead of passing the instance as the
first parameter like the list of formal parameters suggests, use the function as an attribute
of the instance.

>>> f = Foo()
>>> [Link](5)
>>> [Link]()

This will output

It is possible to call the method on an arbitrary object, by using it as an attribute of the

defining class instead of an instance of that class, like so:

>>> [Link](f,5)
>>> [Link](f)

This will have the same output.

Dynamic Class Structure

As shown by the method setx above, the members of a Python class can change during
runtime, not just their values, unlike classes in languages like C or Java. We can even
delete f.x after running the code above.

>>> del f.x

>>> [Link]()

Traceback (most recent call last):

File "<stdin>", line 1, in ?
File "<stdin>", line 5, in bar
AttributeError: Foo instance has no attribute 'x'

100
 External links

Another effect of this is that we can change the definition of the Foo class during program
execution. In the code below, we create a member of the Foo class definition named y. If
we then create a new instance of Foo, it will now have this new member.

>>> Foo.y = 10
>>> g = Foo()
>>> g.y
10

Viewing Class Dictionaries

At the heart of all this is a dictionary1 that can be accessed by ”vars(ClassName)”

>>> vars(g)
{}

At first, this output makes no sense. We just saw that g had the member y, so why isn’t it
in the member dictionary? If you remember, though, we put y in the class definition, Foo,
not g.

>>> vars(Foo)
{'y': 10, 'bar': <function bar at 0x4d6a3c>, '__module__': '__main__',
'setx': <function setx at 0x4d6a04>, '__doc__': None}

And there we have all the members of the Foo class definition. When Python checks for
[Link], it first checks g’s vars dictionary for ”member,” then Foo. If we create a new
member of g, it will be added to g’s dictionary, but not Foo’s.

>>> [Link](5)
>>> vars(g)
{'x': 5}

Note that if we now assign a value to g.y, we are not assigning that value to Foo.y. Foo.y
will still be 10, but g.y will now override Foo.y

>>> g.y = 9
>>> vars(g)
{'y': 9, 'x': 5}
>>> vars(Foo)
{'y': 10, 'bar': <function bar at 0x4d6a3c>, '__module__': '__main__',
'setx': <function setx at 0x4d6a04>, '__doc__': None}

Sure enough, if we check the values:

>>> g.y
9
>>> Foo.y
10

Note that f.y will also be 10, as Python won’t find ’y’ in vars(f), so it will get the value of
’y’ from vars(Foo).

1 Chapter 10 on page 51

101
Classes

Some may have also noticed that the methods in Foo appear in the class dictionary along
with the x and y. If you remember from the section on lambda functions2 , we can treat
functions just like variables. This means that we can assign methods to a class during
runtime in the same way we assigned variables. If you do this, though, remember that if
we call a method of a class instance, the first parameter passed to the method will always
be the class instance itself.

Changing Class Dictionaries

We can also access the members dictionary of a class using the __dict__ member of the
class.

>>> g.__dict__
{'y': 9, 'x': 5}

If we add, remove, or change key-value pairs from g.__dict__, this has the same effect as
if we had made those changes to the members of g.

>>> g.__dict__['z'] = -4
>>> g.z
-4

19.0.4 New Style Classes

New style classes were introduced in python 2.2. A new-style class is a class that has a
built-in as its base, most commonly object. At a low level, a major difference between old
and new classes is their type. Old class instances were all of type instance . New style class
instances will return the same thing as x.__class__ for their type. This puts user defined
classes on a level playing field with built-ins. Old/Classic classes are slated to disappear
in Python 3. With this in mind all development should use new style classes. New Style
classes also add constructs like properties and static methods familiar to Java programmers.
Old/Classic Class

>>> class ClassicFoo:

... def __init__(self):
... pass

New Style Class

>>> class NewStyleFoo(object):

... def __init__(self):
... pass

Properties

Properties are attributes with getter and setter methods.

2 Chapter 14.3 on page 78

102
 External links

>>> class SpamWithProperties(object):

... def __init__(self):
... self.__egg = "MyEgg"
... def get_egg(self):
... return self.__egg
... def set_egg(self, egg):
... self.__egg = egg
... egg = property(get_egg, set_egg)

>>> sp = SpamWithProperties()
>>> [Link]
'MyEgg'
>>> [Link] = "Eggs With Spam"
>>> [Link]
'Eggs With Spam'
>>>

and since Python 2.6, with @property decorator

>>> class SpamWithProperties(object):

... def __init__(self):
... self.__egg = "MyEgg"
... @property
... def egg(self):
... return self.__egg
... @[Link]
... def egg(self, egg):
... self.__egg = egg

Static Methods

Static methods in Python are just like their counterparts in C++ or Java. Static methods
have no ”self” argument and don’t require you to instantiate the class before using them.
They can be defined using staticmethod()

>>> class StaticSpam(object):

... def StaticNoSpam():
... print "You can't have have the spam, spam, eggs and spam without any
spam... that's disgusting"
... NoSpam = staticmethod(StaticNoSpam)

>>> [Link]()
You can't have have the spam, spam, eggs and spam without any spam... that's
disgusting

They can also be defined using the function decorator @staticmethod.

>>> class StaticSpam(object):

... @staticmethod
... def StaticNoSpam():
... print "You can't have have the spam, spam, eggs and spam without any
spam... that's disgusting"

103
Classes

19.0.5 Inheritance

Like all object oriented languages, Python provides for inheritance. Inheritance is a simple
concept by which a class can extend the facilities of another class, or in Python’s case,
multiple other classes. Use the following format for this:

class ClassName(superclass1,superclass2,superclass3,...):
...

The subclass will then have all the members of its superclasses. If a method is defined in
the subclass and in the superclass, the member in the subclass will override the one in the
superclass. In order to use the method defined in the superclass, it is necessary to call the
method as an attribute on the defining class, as in [Link](f,5) above:

>>> class Foo:

... def bar(self):
... print "I'm doing [Link]()"
... x = 10
...
>>> class Bar(Foo):
... def bar(self):
... print "I'm doing [Link]()"
... [Link](self)
... y = 9
...
>>> g = Bar()
>>> [Link](g)
I'm doing [Link]()
I'm doing [Link]()
>>> g.y
9
>>> g.x
10

Once again, we can see what’s going on under the hood by looking at the class dictionaries.

>>> vars(g)
{}
>>> vars(Bar)
{'y': 9, '__module__': '__main__', 'bar': <function bar at 0x4d6a04>,
'__doc__': None}
>>> vars(Foo)
{'x': 10, '__module__': '__main__', 'bar': <function bar at 0x4d6994>,
'__doc__': None}

When we call g.x, it first looks in the vars(g) dictionary, as usual. Also as above, it checks
vars(Bar) next, since g is an instance of Bar. However, thanks to inheritance, Python will
check vars(Foo) if it doesn’t find x in vars(Bar).

19.0.6 Special Methods

There are a number of methods which have reserved names which are used for special
purposes like mimicking numerical or container operations, among other things. All of
these names begin and end with two underscores. It is convention that methods beginning
with a single underscore are ’private’ to the scope they are introduced within.

104
 External links

Initialization and Deletion

__init__
One of these purposes is constructing an instance, and the special name for this is
’__init__’. __init__() is called before an instance is returned (it is not necessary to
return the instance manually). As an example,

class A:
def __init__(self):
print 'A.__init__()'
a = A()

outputs

A.__init__()

__init__() can take arguments, in which case it is necessary to pass arguments to the
class in order to create an instance. For example,

class Foo:
def __init__ (self, printme):
print printme
foo = Foo('Hi!')

outputs

Hi!

Here is an example showing the difference between using __init__() and not using
__init__():

class Foo:
def __init__ (self, x):
print x
foo = Foo('Hi!')
class Foo2:
def setx(self, x):
print x
f = Foo2()
[Link](f,'Hi!')

outputs

Hi!
Hi!

__del__
Similarly, ’__del__’ is called when an instance is destroyed; e.g. when it is no longer
referenced.

105
 String Representation Override Functions
Function Operator
__str__Converting an object to a string, as with the print statement or with __str__ str(A)
the str() conversion function, can be overridden by overriding __str__. Usually, __repr__ repr(A)
__str__ returns a formatted version of the objects content. This will NOT usually __unicode__ unicode(x) (2.x only)
be something that can be [Link] example:

class Bar:
def __init__ (self, iamthis):
[Link] = iamthis
def __str__ (self):
return [Link]
bar = Bar('apple')
print bar

outputs apple__repr__ This function is much like __str__(). If __str__

is not present but this one is, this function’s output is used instead for print-
ing.__repr__ is used to return a representation of the object in string form. In gen-
eral, it can be executed to get back the original [Link] example:

class Bar:
def __init__ (self, iamthis):
[Link] = iamthis
def __repr__(self):
return "Bar('%s')" % [Link]
bar = Bar('apple')
bar

outputs (note the difference: now is not necessary to put it inside a print) Bar(’apple’)

107
External links
 Attribute Override Functions
Function Indirect form Direct Form
__setattr__This is the function which is in charge of setting attributes of __getattr__ getattr(A, B) A.B
a class. It is provided with the name and value of the variables being assigned. Each __setattr__ setattr(A, B, C) A.B = C
class, of course, comes with a default __setattr__ which simply sets the value of the __delattr__ delattr(A, B) del A.B
variable, but we can override it.

>>> class Unchangable:

... def __setattr__(self, name, value):
... print "Nice try"
...
>>> u = Unchangable()
>>> u.x = 9
Nice try
>>> u.x

Traceback (most recent call last): File ”<stdin>”, line 1, in ? AttributeError: Un-
changable instance has no attribute ’x’
__getattr___ Similar to __se-
tattr__, except this function is called when we try to access a class member, and the
default simply returns the value.

>>> class HiddenMembers:

... def __getattr__(self, name):
... return "You don't get to see " + name
...
>>> h = HiddenMembers()
>>> [Link]
"You don't get to see anything"

__delattr__This function is called to delete an attribute.

>>> class Permanent:
... def __delattr__(self, name):
... print name, "cannot be deleted"
...
>>> p = Permanent()
>>> p.x = 9
>>> del p.x
x cannot be deleted
>>> p.x
9

109
External links
Classes

Operator Overloading

Operator overloading allows us to use the built-in Python syntax and operators to call
functions which we define.

Binary Operators

110
 Binary Operator Override Functions

112
Function Operator
__add__ A+B
Classes

__sub__ A-B
__mul__ A*B
__truediv__ A/B
__floordiv__ A // B
__mod__ A%B
__pow__ A ** B
__and__ A&B
__or__ A|B
If a class has the __add__ function, we can use the ’+’ operator to add instances
__xor__ AˆB
of the class. This will call __add__ with the two instances of the class passed as
__eq__ A == B
parameters, and the return value will be the result of the addition. __ne__ A != B
__gt__ A>B
>>> class FakeNumber:
__lt__ A<B
... n = 5
__ge__ A >= B
... def __add__(A,B): __le__ A <= B
... return A.n + B.n __lshift__ A << B
... __rshift__ A >> B
>>> c = FakeNumber() __contains__ A in B
>>> d = FakeNumber() A not in B
>>> d.n = 7
>>> c + d
12

To override the augmented assignment3 operators, merely add ’i’ in front of the nor-
mal binary operator, i.e. for ’+=’ use ’__iadd__’ instead of ’__add__’. The func-
tion will be given one argument, which will be the object on the right side of the aug-
mented assignment operator. The returned value of the function will then be assigned
to the object on the left of the operator.

>>> c.__imul__ = lambda B: B.n - 6

>>> c *= d
>>> c
1

It is important to note that the augmented assignment4 operators will also use the
normal operator functions if the augmented operator function hasn’t been set directly.
This will work as expected, with ”__add__” being called for ”+=” and so on.

>>> c = FakeNumber()
>>> c += d
>>> c
12

3 Chapter 12.8 on page 63

4 Chapter 12.8 on page 63
 Unary Operator Override Functions
Function Operator
__pos__ +A
Unary operators will be passed simply the instance of the class that they are called __neg__ -A
on. __inv__ ˜A
__abs__ abs(A)
>>> FakeNumber.__neg__ = lambda A : A.n + 6 __len__ len(A)
>>> -d
13

115
External links
 Item Operator Override Functions

118
Function Operator
__getitem__ C[i]
Classes

__setitem__ C[i] = v
It is also possible in Python to override the indexing and slicing5 operators. This al-
__delitem__ del C[i]
lows us to use the class[i] and class[a:b] syntax on our own [Link] simplest form __getslice__ C[s:e]
of item operator is __getitem__. This takes as a parameter the instance of the class, __setslice__ C[s:e] = v
then the value of the index. __delslice__ del C[s:e]

>>> class FakeList:

... def __getitem__(self,index):
... return index * 2
...
>>> f = FakeList()
>>> f['a']
'aa'

We can also define a function for the syntax associated with assigning a value to an
item. The parameters for this function include the value being assigned, in addition to
the parameters from __getitem__

>>> class FakeList:

... def __setitem__(self,index,value):
... [Link] = index + " is now " + value
...
>>> f = FakeList()
>>> f['a'] = 'gone'
>>> [Link]
'a is now gone'

We can do the same thing with slices. Once again, each syntax has a different parame-
ter list associated with it.

>>> class FakeList:

... def __getslice___(self,start,end):
... return str(start) + " to " + str(end)
...
>>> f = FakeList()
>>> f[1:4]
'1 to 4'

Keep in mind that one or both of the start and end parameters can be blank in slice
syntax. Here, Python has default value for both the start and the end, as show be-
low.

>> f[:]
'0 to 2147483647'

Note that the default value for the end of the slice shown here is simply the largest
possible signed integer on a 32-bit system, and may vary depending on your system
and C compiler.
• __setslice__ has the parameters (self,start,end,value)
We also have operators for deleting items and slices.
• __delitem__ has the parameters (self,index)
 Other Override Functions

120
Function Operator
Classes

__cmp__ cmp(x, y)
__hash__ hash(x)
__nonzero__ bool(x)
__call__ f(x)
__iter__ iter(x)
__reversed__ reversed(x) (2.6+)
__divmod__ divmod(x, y)
__int__ int(x)
__long__ long(x)
__float__ float(x)
__complex__ complex(x)
__hex__ hex(x)
__oct__ oct(x)
__index__
__copy__ [Link](x)
__deepcopy__ [Link](x)
__sizeof__ [Link](x) (2.6+)
__trunc__ [Link](x) (2.6+)
__format__ format(x, ...) (2.6+)
 External links

19.0.7 Programming Practices

The flexibility of python classes means that classes can adopt a varied set of behaviors. For
the sake of understandability, however, it’s best to use many of Python’s tools sparingly.
Try to declare all methods in the class definition, and always use the <class>.<member>
syntax instead of __dict__ whenever possible. Look at classes in C++6 and Java7 to see
what most programmers will expect from a class.

Encapsulation

Since all python members of a python class are accessible by functions/methods outside the
class, there is no way to enforce encapsulation8 short of overriding __getattr__, __se-
tattr__ and __delattr__. General practice, however, is for the creator of a class or
module to simply trust that users will use only the intended interface and avoid limiting
access to the workings of the module for the sake of users who do need to access it. When
using parts of a class or module other than the intended interface, keep in mind that the
those parts may change in later versions of the module, and you may even cause errors or
undefined behaviors in the [Link] encapsulation is private.

Doc Strings

When defining a class, it is convention to document the class using a string literal at the
start of the class definition. This string will then be placed in the __doc__ attribute of
the class definition.

>>> class Documented:

... """This is a docstring"""
... def explode(self):
... """
... This method is documented, too! The coder is really serious about
... making this class usable by others who don't know the code as well
... as he does.
...
... """
... print "boom"
>>> d = Documented()
>>> d.__doc__
'This is a docstring'

Docstrings are a very useful way to document your code. Even if you never write a single
piece of separate documentation (and let’s admit it, doing so is the lowest priority for many
coders), including informative docstrings in your classes will go a long way toward making
them usable.
Several tools exist for turning the docstrings in Python code into readable API documen-
tation, e.g. , EpyDoc9 .

6 [Link]
7 [Link]
8 [Link]
9 [Link]

121
Classes

Don’t just stop at documenting the class definition, either. Each method in the class should
have its own docstring as well. Note that the docstring for the method explode in the
example class Documented above has a fairly lengthy docstring that spans several lines.
Its formatting is in accordance with the style suggestions of Python’s creator, Guido van
Rossum in PEP 810 .

Adding methods at runtime

To a class

It is fairly easy to add methods to a class at runtime. Lets assume that we have a class called
Spam and a function cook. We want to be able to use the function cook on all instances of
the class Spam:

class Spam:
def __init__(self):
[Link] = 5

def cook(self):
print "cooking %s eggs" % [Link]

[Link] = cook #add the function to the class Spam

eggs = Spam() #NOW create a new instance of Spam
[Link]() #and we are ready to cook!

This will output

cooking 5 eggs

To an instance of a class

It is a bit more tricky to add methods to an instance of a class that has already been
created. Lets assume again that we have a class called Spam and we have already created
eggs. But then we notice that we wanted to cook those eggs, but we do not want to create
a new instance but rather use the already created one:

class Spam:
def __init__(self):
[Link] = 5

eggs = Spam()

def cook(self):
print "cooking %s eggs" % [Link]

import types
f = [Link](cook, eggs, Spam)
[Link] = f

10 [Link]

122
 External links

[Link]()

Now we can cook our eggs and the last statement will output:

cooking 5 eggs

Using a function

We can also write a function that will make the process of adding methods to an instance
of a class easier.

def attach_method(fxn, instance, myclass):

f = [Link](fxn, instance, myclass)
setattr(instance, fxn.__name__, f)

All we now need to do is call the attach_method with the arguments of the function we
want to attach, the instance we want to attach it to and the class the instance is derived
from. Thus our function call might look like this:

attach_method(cook, eggs, Spam)

Note that in the function add_method we cannot write [Link] = f since this would
add a function called fxn to the instance.
fr:Programmation Python/Programmation orienté objet11 pt:Python/Conceitos bási-
cos/Classes12

11 [Link]
12 [Link]

123
20 Metaclasses

In Python, classes are themselves objects. Just as other objects are instances of a particular
class, classes themselves are instances of a metaclass.

20.0.1 Python3

The Pep 31151 defines the changes to python 3 metaclasses. In python3 you have a method
__prepare__ that is called in the metaclass to create a dictionary or other class to store
the class members.2 Then there is the __new__ method that is called to create new
instances of that class. 3

20.0.2 Class Factories

The simplest use of Python metaclasses is a class factory. This concept makes use of the
fact that class definitions in Python are first-class objects. Such a function can create or
modify a class definition, using the same syntax4 one would normally use in declaring a
class definition. Once again, it is useful to use the model of classes as dictionaries5 . First,
let’s look at a basic class factory:

>>> def StringContainer():

... # define a class
... class String:
... def __init__(self):
... self.content_string = ""
... def len(self):
... return len(self.content_string)
... # return the class definition
... return String
...
>>> # create the class definition
... container_class = StringContainer()
>>>
>>> # create an instance of the class
... wrapped_string = container_class()
>>>
>>> # take it for a test drive
... wrapped_string.content_string = 'emu emissary'
>>> wrapped_string.len()
12

1 [Link]
2 [Link]
3 [Link]
4 Chapter 19.0.1 on page 99
5 Chapter 19.0.3 on page 101

125
Metaclasses

Of course, just like any other data in Python, class definitions can also be modified. Any
modifications to attributes in a class definition will be seen in any instances of that definition,
so long as that instance hasn’t overridden the attribute that you’re modifying.

>>> def DeAbbreviate(sequence_container):

... sequence_container.length = sequence_container.len
... del sequence_container.len
...
>>> DeAbbreviate(container_class)
>>> wrapped_string.length()
12
>>> wrapped_string.len()
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<stdin>", line 1, in ?
AttributeError: String instance has no attribute 'len'

You can also delete class definitions, but that will not affect instances of the class.

>>> del container_class

>>> wrapped_string2 = container_class()
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<stdin>", line 1, in ?
NameError: name 'container_class' is not defined
>>> wrapped_string.length()
12

20.0.3 The type Metaclass

The metaclass for all standard Python types is the ”type” object.

>>> type(object)
<type 'type'>
>>> type(int)
<type 'type'>
>>> type(list)
<type 'type'>

Just like list, int and object, ”type” is itself a normal Python object, and is itself an instance
of a class. In this case, it is in fact an instance of itself.

>>> type(type)
<type 'type'>

It can be instantiated to create new class objects similarly to the class factory example above
by passing the name of the new class, the base classes to inherit from, and a dictionary
defining the namespace to use.
For instance, the code:

>>> class MyClass(BaseClass):

... attribute = 42

Could also be written as:

>>> MyClass = type("MyClass", (BaseClass,), {'attribute' : 42})

126
 External links

20.0.4 Metaclasses

It is possible to create a class with a different metaclass than type by setting its __meta-
class__ attribute when defining. When this is done, the class, and its subclass will be
created using your custom metaclass. For example

class CustomMetaclass(type):
def __init__(cls, name, bases, dct):
print "Creating class %s using CustomMetaclass" % name
super(CustomMetaclass, cls).__init__(name, bases, dct)

class BaseClass(object):
__metaclass__ = CustomMetaclass

class Subclass1(BaseClass):
pass

This will print

Creating class BaseClass using CustomMetaclass

Creating class Subclass1 using CustomMetaclass

By creating a custom metaclass in this way, it is possible to change how the class is con-
structed. This allows you to add or remove attributes and methods, register creation of
classes and subclasses creation and various other manipulations when the class is created.

20.0.5 More resources

• Wikipedia article on Aspect Oriented Programming6

• Unifying types and classes in Python 2.27
• O’Reilly Article on Python Metaclasses8

20.0.6 References

6 [Link]
7 [Link]
8 [Link]

127
21 Reflection

A Python script can find out about the type, class, attributes and methods of an object.
This is referred to as reflection or introspection . See also ../Metaclasses/1 .
Reflection-enabling functions include type(), isinstance(), callable(), dir() and getattr().

21.1 Type

The type method enables to find out about the type of an object. The following tests return
True:
• type(3) is int
• type(’Hello’) is str
• type([1, 2]) is list
• type([1, [2, ’Hello’]]) is list
• type({’city’: ’Paris’}) is dict

21.2 Isinstance

Determines whether an object is an instance of a class.

The following returns True:
• isinstance(3, int)
• isinstance([1, 2], list)
Note that isinstance provides a weaker condition than a comparison using #Type2 .

21.3 Duck typing

Duck typing provides an indirect means of reflection. It is a technique consisting in using

an object as if it was of the requested type, while catching exceptions resulting from the
object not supporting some of the features of the class or type.

1 Chapter 20 on page 125

2 Chapter 21.1 on page 129

129
Reflection

21.4 Callable

For an object, determines whether it can be called. A class can be made callable by providing
a __call__() method.
Examples:
• callable(2)
• Returns False. Ditto for callable(”Hello”) and callable([1, 2]).
• callable([1,2].pop)
• Returns True, as pop without ”()” returns a function object.
• callable([1,2].pop())
• Returns False, as [1,2].pop() returns 2 rather than a function object.

21.5 Dir

Returns the list of attributes of an object, which includes methods.

Examples:
• dir(3)
• dir(”Hello”)
• dir([1, 2])

21.6 Getattr

Returns the value of an attribute of an object, given the attribute name passed as a string.
An example:
• getattr(3, ”imag”)
The list of attributes of an object can be obtained using #Dir3 .

21.7 External links

• 2. Built-in Functions4 , [Link]

• How to determine the variable type in Python?5 , stackoverfl[Link]
• Differences between isinstance() and type() in python6 , stackoverfl[Link]
• W:Reflection (computer_programming)#Python7 , Wikipedia
• W:Type introspection#Python8 , Wikipedia

3 Chapter 21.5 on page 130

4 [Link]
5 [Link]
6 [Link]
7 [Link]
8 [Link]

130
22 Regular Expression

Python includes a module for working with regular expressions on strings. For more infor-
mation about writing regular expressions and syntax not specific to Python, see the regular
expressions1 wikibook. Python’s regular expression syntax is similar to Perl’s2
To start using regular expressions in your Python scripts, import the ”re” module:

import re

22.1 Overview

Regular expression functions in Python at a glance:

import re
if [Link]("l+","Hello"): print 1 # Substring match suffices
if not [Link]("ell.","Hello"): print 2 # The beginning of the string has to
match
if [Link](".el","Hello"): print 3
if [Link]("he..o","Hello",re.I): print 4 # Case-insensitive match
print [Link]("l+", "l", "Hello") # Prints "Helo"; replacement AKA
substitution
print [Link](r"(.*)\1", r"\1", "HeyHey") # Prints "Hey"; backreference
for match in [Link]("l+.", "Hello Dolly"):
print match # Prints "llo" and then "lly"
for match in [Link]("e(l+.)", "Hello Dolly"):
print match # Prints "llo"; match picks group 1
matchObj = [Link]("(Hello|Hi) (Tom|Thom)","Hello Tom Bombadil")
if matchObj is not None:
print [Link](0) # Prints the whole match
disregarding groups
print [Link](1) + [Link](2) # Prints "HelloTom"

22.2 Matching and searching

One of the most common uses for regular expressions is extracting a part of a string or
testing for the existence of a pattern in a string. Python offers several functions to do this.
The match and search functions do mostly the same thing, except that the match function
will only return a result if the pattern matches at the beginning of the string being searched,
while search will find a match anywhere in the string.

1 [Link]
2 [Link]

131
Regular Expression

>>> import re
>>> foo = [Link](r'foo(.{,5})bar', re.I+re.S)
>>> st1 = 'Foo, Bar, Baz'
>>> st2 = '2. foo is bar'
>>> search1 = [Link](st1)
>>> search2 = [Link](st2)
>>> match1 = [Link](st1)
>>> match2 = [Link](st2)

In this example, match2 will be None , because the string st2 does not start with the given
pattern. The other 3 results will be Match objects (see below).
You can also match and search without compiling a regexp:

>>> search3 = [Link]('oo.*ba', st1, re.I)

Here we use the search function of the re module, rather than of the pattern object. For
most cases, its best to compile the expression first. Not all of the re module functions
support the flags argument and if the expression is used more than once, compiling first is
more efficient and leads to cleaner looking code.
The compiled pattern object functions also have parameters for starting and ending the
search, to search in a substring of the given string. In the first example in this section,
match2 returns no result because the pattern does not start at the beginning of the string,
but if we do:

>>> match3 = [Link](st2, 3)

it works, because we tell it to start searching at character number 3 in the string.

What if we want to search for multiple instances of the pattern? Then we have two options.
We can use the start and end position parameters of the search and match function in a
loop, getting the position to start at from the previous match object (see below) or we can
use the findall and finditer functions. The findall function returns a list of matching strings,
useful for simple searching. For anything slightly complex, the finditer function should be
used. This returns an iterator object, that when used in a loop, yields Match objects. For
example:

>>> str3 = 'foo, Bar Foo. BAR FoO: bar'

>>> [Link](str3)
[', ', '. ', ': ']
>>> for match in [Link](str3):
... [Link](1)
...
', '
'. '
': '

If you’re going to be iterating over the results of the search, using the finditer function is
almost always a better choice.

22.2.1 Match objects

Match objects are returned by the search and match functions, and include information
about the pattern match.

132
 Replacing

The group function returns a string corresponding to a capture group (part of a regexp
wrapped in () ) of the expression, or if no group number is given, the entire match. Using
the search1 variable we defined above:

>>> [Link]()
'Foo, Bar'
>>> [Link](1)
', '

Capture groups can also be given string names using a special syntax and referred to
by [Link]('name') . For simple expressions this is unnecessary, but for more
complex expressions it can be very useful.
You can also get the position of a match or a group in a string, using the start and end
functions:

>>> [Link]()
0
>>> [Link]()
8
>>> [Link](1)
3
>>> [Link](1)
5

This returns the start and end locations of the entire match, and the start and end of the
first (and in this case only) capture group, respectively.

22.3 Replacing

Another use for regular expressions is replacing text in a string. To do this in Python, use
the sub function.
sub takes up to 3 arguments: The text to replace with, the text to replace in, and, option-
ally, the maximum number of substitutions to make. Unlike the matching and searching
functions, sub returns a string, consisting of the given text with the substitution(s) made.

>>> import re
>>> mystring = 'This string has a q in it'
>>> pattern = [Link](r'(a[n]? )(\w) ')
>>> newstring = [Link](r"\1'\2' ", mystring)
>>> newstring
"This string has a 'q' in it"

This takes any single alphanumeric character (\w in regular expression syntax) preceded
by ”a” or ”an” and wraps in in single quotes. The \1 and \2 in the replacement string
are backreferences to the 2 capture groups in the expression; these would be group(1) and
group(2) on a Match object from a search.
The subn function is similar to sub, except it returns a tuple, consisting of the result string
and the number of replacements made. Using the string and expression from before:

>>> subresult = [Link](r"\1'\2' ", mystring)

>>> subresult
("This string has a 'q' in it", 1)

133
Regular Expression

Replacing without constructing and compiling a pattern object:

>>> result = [Link](r"b.*d","z","abccde")

>>> result
'aze'

22.4 Splitting

The split function splits a string based on a given regular expression:

>>> import re
>>> mystring = '1. First part 2. Second part 3. Third part'
>>> [Link](r'\d\.', mystring)
['', ' First part ', ' Second part ', ' Third part']

22.5 Escaping

The escape function escapes all non-alphanumeric characters in a string. This is useful if
you need to take an unknown string that may contain regexp metacharacters like ( and .
and create a regular expression from it.

>>> [Link](r'This text (and this) must be escaped with a "\" to use in a
regexp.')
'This\\ text\\ \\(and\\ this\\)\\ must\\ be\\ escaped\\ with\\ a\\ \\"\\\\\\"\\
to\\ use\\ in\\ a\\ regexp\\.'

22.6 Flags

The different flags use with regular expressions:

Abbrevia- Full name Description

tion
re.I [Link] Makes the regexp case-insensitive3
re.L [Link] Makes the behavior of some special sequences
(\w, \W, \b, \B, \s, \S ) dependent on the
current locale4
re.M [Link] Makes the ˆ and $ characters match at the be-
ginning and end of each line, rather than just the
beginning and end of the string
re.S [Link] Makes the . character match every character in-
cluding newlines.
re.U [Link] Makes \w, \W, \b, \B, \d, \D, \s, \S de-
pendent on Unicode character properties

3 [Link]
4 [Link]

134
 Pattern objects

Abbrevia- Full name Description

tion
re.X [Link] Ignores whitespace except when in a character
class or preceded by an non-escaped backslash,
and ignores # (except when in a character class or
preceded by an non-escaped backslash) and every-
thing after it to the end of a line, so it can be used
as a comment. This allows for cleaner-looking reg-
exps.

22.7 Pattern objects

If you’re going to be using the same regexp more than once in a program, or if you just
want to keep the regexps separated somehow, you should create a pattern object, and refer
to it later when searching/replacing.
To create a pattern object, use the compile function.

import re
foo = [Link](r'foo(.{,5})bar', re.I+re.S)

The first argument is the pattern, which matches the string ”foo”, followed by up to 5 of
any character, then the string ”bar”, storing the middle characters to a group, which will be
discussed later. The second, optional, argument is the flag or flags to modify the regexp’s
behavior. The flags themselves are simply variables referring to an integer used by the
regular expression engine. In other languages, these would be constants, but Python does
not have constants. Some of the regular expression functions do not support adding flags
as a parameter when defining the pattern directly in the function, if you need any of the
flags, it is best to use the compile function to create a pattern object.
The r preceding the expression string indicates that it should be treated as a raw string.
This should normally be used when writing regexps, so that backslashes are interpreted
literally rather than having to be escaped.

22.8 External links

• Python re documentation5 - Full documentation for the re module, including pattern

objects and match objects
fr:Programmation Python/Regex6

5 [Link]
6 [Link]

135
23 GUI Programming

There are various GUI toolkits to start with.

23.1 Tkinter

Tkinter, a Python wrapper for Tcl/Tk1 , comes bundled with Python (at least on Win32
platform though it can be installed on Unix/Linux and Mac machines) and provides a
cross-platform GUI. It is a relatively simple to learn yet powerful toolkit that provides
what appears to be a modest set of widgets. However, because the Tkinter widgets are
extensible, many compound widgets can be created rather easily (e.g. combo-box, scrolled
panes). Because of its maturity and extensive documentation Tkinter has been designated
as the de facto GUI for Python.
To create a very simple Tkinter window frame one only needs the following lines of code:

import Tkinter

root = [Link]()
[Link]()

From an object-oriented perspective one can do the following:

import Tkinter

class App:
def __init__(self, master):
button = [Link](master, text="I'm a Button.")
[Link]()

if __name__ == '__main__':
root = [Link]()
app = App(root)
[Link]()

To learn more about Tkinter visit the following links:

• [Link] <- A
summary

• [Link] <- A tutorial

• [Link] <- A reference

1 [Link]

137
GUI Programming

23.2 PyGTK

See also book PyGTK For GUI Programming2

PyGTK3 provides a convenient wrapper for the GTK+4 library for use in Python programs,
taking care of many of the boring details such as managing memory and type casting. The
bare GTK+ toolkit runs on Linux, Windows, and Mac OS X (port in progress), but the
more extensive features — when combined with PyORBit and gnome-python — require a
GNOME5 install, and can be used to write full featured GNOME applications.
Home Page6

23.3 PyQt

PyQt is a wrapper around the cross-platform Qt C++ toolkit7 . It has many widgets and
support classes8 supporting SQL, OpenGL, SVG, XML, and advanced graphics capabilities.
A PyQt hello world example:

from [Link] import *

from [Link] import *

class App(QApplication):
def __init__(self, argv):
super(App, self).__init__(argv)
[Link] = QLabel("Hello, World!")
[Link]()

if __name__ == "__main__":
import sys
app = App([Link])
[Link](app.exec_())

PyQt9 is a set of bindings for the cross-platform Qt10 application framework. PyQt v4
supports Qt4 and PyQt v3 supports Qt3 and earlier.

2 [Link]
3 [Link]
4 [Link]
5 [Link]
6 [Link]
7 [Link]
8 [Link]
9 [Link]
10 [Link]

138
 wxPython

23.4 wxPython

Bindings for the cross platform toolkit wxWidgets11 . WxWidgets is available on Windows,
Macintosh, and Unix/Linux.

import wx

class test([Link]):
def __init__(self):
[Link].__init__(self, redirect=False)

def OnInit(self):
frame = [Link](None, -1,
"Test",
pos=(50,50), size=(100,40),
style=wx.DEFAULT_FRAME_STYLE)
button = [Link](frame, -1, "Hello World!", (20, 20))
[Link] = frame
[Link]()
return True

if __name__ == '__main__':
app = test()
[Link]()

• wxPython12

23.5 Dabo

Dabo is a full 3-tier application framework. Its UI layer wraps wxPython, and greatly
simplifies the syntax.

import dabo
[Link]("wx")

class TestForm([Link]):
def afterInit(self):
[Link] = "Test"
[Link] = (50, 50)
[Link] = (100, 40)
[Link] = [Link](self, Caption="Hello World",
OnHit=[Link])
[Link]([Link], halign="center", border=20)

def onButtonClick(self, evt):

[Link]("Hello World!")

if __name__ == '__main__':
app = [Link]()
[Link] = TestForm
[Link]()

• Dabo13

11 [Link]
12 [Link]
13 [Link]

139
GUI Programming

23.6 pyFltk

pyFltk14 is a Python wrapper for the FLTK15 , a lightweight cross-platform GUI toolkit. It
is very simple to learn and allows for compact user interfaces.
The ”Hello World” example in pyFltk looks like:

from fltk import *

window = Fl_Window(100, 100, 200, 90)

button = Fl_Button(9,20,180,50)
[Link]("Hello World")
[Link]()
[Link]()
[Link]()

23.7 Other Toolkits

• PyKDE16 - Part of the kdebindings package, it provides a python wrapper for the KDE
libraries.
• PyXPCOM17 provides a wrapper around the Mozilla XPCOM18 component architecture,
thereby enabling the use of standalone XUL19 applications in Python. The XUL toolkit
has traditionally been wrapped up in various other parts of XPCOM, but with the advent
of libxul and XULRunner20 this should become more feasible.
fr:Programmation Python/L’interface graphique21 pt:Python/Programação com GUI22

14 [Link]
15 [Link]
16 [Link]
17 [Link]
18 [Link]
19 [Link]
20 [Link]
21 [Link]
22 [Link]

140
24 Authors

24.1 Authors of Python textbook

• Quartz251
• Jesdisciple2
• Hannes Röst3
• David Ross4
• Lawrence D’Oliveiro5

1 [Link]
2 [Link]
3 [Link]
4 [Link]
5 [Link]

141
25 Game Programming in Python

25.1 3D Game Programming

25.1.1 3D Game Engine with a Python binding

• Irrlicht Engine[Link] (Python binding website: http:

//[Link]/pypi/pyirrlicht )
• Ogre Engine [Link] (Python binding website: [Link]
[Link]/ )
Both are very good free open source C++ 3D game Engine with a Python binding.
• CrystalSpace1 is a free cross-platform software development kit for real-time 3D graphics,
with particular focus on games. Crystal Space is accessible from Python in two ways: (1)
as a Crystal Space plugin module in which C++ code can call upon Python code, and
in which Python code can call upon Crystal Space; (2) as a pure Python module named
‘cspace’ which one can ‘import’ from within Python programs. To use the first option,
load the ‘cspython’ plugin as you would load any other Crystal Space plugin, and interact
with it via the SCF ‘iScript’ interface .The second approach allows you to write Crystal
Space applications entirely in Python, without any C++ coding. CS Wiki2

25.1.2 3D Game Engines written for Python

Engines designed for Python from scratch.

• Blender3 is an impressive 3D tool with a fully integrated 3D graphics creation suite
allowing modeling, animation, rendering, post-production, real-time interactive 3D and
game creation and playback with cross-platform compatibility. The 3D game engine uses
an embedded python interpreter to make 3D games.
• PySoy4 is a 3d cloud game engine for Python 3. It was designed for rapid development
with an intuitive API that gets new game developers started quickly. The cloud gam-
ing5 design allows PySoy games to be played on a server without downloading them,
greatly reducing the complexity of game distribution. XMPP6 accounts (such as Jabber

1 [Link]
2 [Link]
3 [Link]
4 [Link]
5 [Link]
6 [Link]

143
Game Programming in Python

or GMail) can be used for online gaming identities, chat, and initiating connections to
game servers. PySoy is released under the GNU AGPL license7 .
• Soya8 is a 3D game engine with an easy to understand design. Its written in the Pyrex9
programming language and uses Cal3d for animation and ODE10 for physics. Soya is
available under the GNU GPL license11 .
• Panda3D12 is a 3D game engine. It’s a library written in C++ with Python bindings.
Panda3D is designed in order to support a short learning curve and rapid development.
This software is available for free download with source code under the BSD License.
The development was started by [Disney]. Now there are many projects made with
Panda3D, such as Disney’s Pirate’s of the Caribbean Online13 , ToonTown14 , Building
Virtual World15 , Schell Games16 and many others. Panda3D supports several features:
Procedural Geometry, Animated Texture, Render to texture, Track motion, fog, particle
system, and many others.
• CrystalSpace17 Is a 3D game engine, with a Python bindings, named *PyCrystal18 , view
Wikipedia page of *CrystalSpace19 .

25.2 2D Game Programming

• Pygame20 is a cross platform Python library which wraps SDL21 . It provides many features
like Sprite groups and sound/image loading and easy changing of an objects position. It
also provides the programmer access to key and mouse events. A full tutorial can be
found in the free book ”Making Games with Python & Pygame”22 .
• Phil’s Pygame Utilities (PGU)23 is a collection of tools and libraries that enhance Pygame.
Tools include a tile editor and a level editor24 (tile, isometric, hexagonal). GUI enhance-
ments include full featured GUI, HTML rendering, document layout, and text rendering.
The libraries include a sprite and tile engine25 (tile, isometric, hexagonal), a state engine,
a timer, and a high score system. (Beta with last update March, 2007. APIs to be dep-
recated and isometric and hexagonal support is currently Alpha and subject to change.)
[Update 27/02/08 Author indicates he is not currently actively developing this library

7 [Link]
8 [Link]
9 [Link]
10 [Link]
11 [Link]
12 [Link]
13 [Link]
14 [Link]
15 [Link]
16 [Link]
17 [Link]
18 [Link]
19 [Link]
20 [Link]
21 [Link]
22 [Link]
23 [Link]
24 [Link]
25 [Link]

144
 See Also

and anyone that is willing to develop their own scrolling isometric library offering can
use the existing code in PGU to get them started.]
• Pyglet26 is a cross-platform windowing and multimedia library for Python with no ex-
ternal dependencies or installation requirements. Pyglet provides an object-oriented pro-
gramming interface for developing games and other visually-rich applications for Win-
dows27 , Mac OS X28 and Linux29 . Pyglet allows programs to open multiple windows on
multiple screens, draw in those windows with OpenGL, and play back audio and video
in most formats. Unlike similar libraries available, pyglet has no external dependencies
(such as SDL) and is written entirely in Python. Pyglet is available under a BSD-Style
license30 .
• Kivy31 Kivy is a library for developing multi-touch applications. It is completely cross-
platform (Linux/OSX/Win & Android with OpenGL ES2). It comes with native support
for many multi-touch input devices, a growing library of multi-touch aware widgets and
hardware accelerated OpenGL drawing. Kivy is designed to let you focus on building
custom and highly interactive applications as quickly and easily as possible.
• Rabbyt32 A fast Sprite33 library for Python with game development in mind. With
Rabbyt Anims, even old graphics cards can produce very fast animations of 2,400 or
more sprites handling position, rotation, scaling, and color simultaneously.

25.3 See Also

• 10 Lessons Learned 34 - How To Build a Game In A Week From Scratch With No Budget

26 [Link]
27 [Link]
28 [Link]
29 [Link]
30 [Link]
31 [Link]
32 [Link]
33 [Link]
34 [Link]

145
26 Sockets

26.1 HTTP Client

Make a very simple HTTP client

import socket
s = [Link]()
[Link](('localhost', 80))
[Link]('GET / HTTP/1.1\nHost:localhost\n\n')
[Link](40000) # receive 40000 bytes

26.2 NTP/Sockets

Connecting to and reading an NTP time server, returning the time as follows

ntpps picoseconds portion of time

ntps seconds portion of time
ntpms milliseconds portion of time
ntpt 64-bit ntp time, seconds in upper 32-bits, picoseconds in lower
32-bits

147
27 Files

27.1 File I/O

Read entire file:

inputFileText = open("[Link]", "r").read()

print(inputFileText)

In this case the ”r” parameter means the file will be opened in read-only mode.
Read certain amount of bytes from a file:

inputFileText = open("[Link]", "r").read(123)

print(inputFileText)

When opening a file, one starts reading at the beginning of the file, if one would want more
random access to the file, it is possible to use seek() to change the current position in a
file and tell() to get to know the current position in the file. This is illustrated in the
following example:

>>> f=open("/proc/cpuinfo","r")
>>> [Link]()
0L
>>> [Link](10)
'processor\t'
>>> [Link](10)
': 0\nvendor'
>>> [Link]()
20L
>>> [Link](10)
>>> [Link]()
10L
>>> [Link](10)
': 0\nvendor'
>>> [Link]()
>>> f
<closed file '/proc/cpuinfo', mode 'r' at 0xb7d79770>

Here a file is opened, twice ten bytes are read, tell() shows that the current offset is at
position 20, now seek() is used to go back to position 10 (the same position where the
second read was started) and ten bytes are read and printed again. And when no more
operations on a file are needed the close() function is used to close the file we opened.
Read one line at a time:

for line in open("[Link]", "r"):

print line

149
Files

In this case readlines() will return an array containing the individual lines of the file
as array entries. Reading a single line can be done using the readline() function which
returns the current line as a string. This example will output an additional newline between
the individual lines of the file, this is because one is read from the file and print introduces
another newline.
Write to a file requires the second parameter of open() to be ”w”, this will overwrite the
existing contents of the file if it already exists when opening the file:

outputFileText = "Here's some text to save in a file"

open("[Link]", "w").write(outputFileText)

Append to a file requires the second parameter of open() to be ”a” (from append):

outputFileText = "Here's some text to add to the existing file."

open("[Link]", "a").write(outputFileText)

Note that this does not add a line break between the existing file content and the string to
be added.

27.2 Testing Files

Determine whether path exists:

import os
[Link]('<path string>')

When working on systems such as Microsoft Windows™, the directory separators will conflict
with the path string. To get around this, do the following:

import os
[Link]('C:\\windows\\example\\path')

A better way however is to use ”raw”, or r :

import os
[Link](r'C:\windows\example\path')

But there are some other convenient functions in [Link] , where [Link]() only
confirms whether or not path exists, there are functions which let you know if the path is a
file, a directory, a mount point or a symlink. There is even a function [Link]()
which reveals the true destination of a symlink:

>>> import os
>>> [Link]("/")
False
>>> [Link]("/proc/cpuinfo")
True
>>> [Link]("/")
True
>>> [Link]("/proc/cpuinfo")
False
>>> [Link]("/")
True
>>> [Link]("/")

150
 Common File Operations

False
>>> [Link]("/vmlinuz")
True
>>> [Link]("/vmlinuz")
'/boot/vmlinuz-2.6.24-21-generic'

27.3 Common File Operations

To copy or move a file, use the shutil library.

import shutil
[Link]("[Link]","[Link]")
[Link]("[Link]","[Link]")

To perform a recursive copy it is possible to use copytree() , to perform a recursive remove

it is possible to use rmtree()

import shutil
[Link]("dir1","dir2")
[Link]("dir1")

To remove an individual file there exists the remove() function in the os module:

import os
[Link]("[Link]")

27.4 Finding Files

Files can be found using glob :

[Link]('*.txt') # Finds files in the currect directory ending in dot txt

[Link]('*\\*.txt') # Finds files in any of the direct subdirectories
# of the currect directory ending in dot txt
[Link]('C:\\Windows\\*.exe')
for fileName in [Link]('C:\\Windows\\*.exe'):
print fileName

The content of a directory can be listed using listdir :

filesAndDirectories=[Link]('.')
for item in filesAndDirectories:
if [Link](item) and [Link]('.txt'):
print "Text file: " + item
if [Link](item):
print "Directory: " + item

Getting a list of all items in a directory, including the nested ones:

for root, directories, files in [Link]('/user/Joe Hoe'):

print "Root: " + root
for directory in directories:
print "Directory: " + directory
for file in files:
print "File: " + file

151
Files

27.5 Current Directory

Getting current working directory:

[Link]()

Changing current working directory:

[Link]('C:\\')

27.6 External Links

• os — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces1 in Python documentation

• glob — Unix style pathname pattern expansion2 in Python documentation
• shutil — High-level file operations3 in Python documentation
• Brief Tour of the Standard Library4 in The Python Tutorial

1 [Link]
2 [Link]
3 [Link]
4 [Link]

152
28 Database Programming

28.1 Generic Database Connectivity using ODBC

The Open Database Connectivity1 (ODBC) API standard allows transparent connections
with any database that supports the interface. This includes most popular databases, such
as PostgreSQL2 or Microsoft Access3 . The strengths of using this interface is that a Python
script or module can be used on different databases by only modifying the connection string.
There are four ODBC modules for Python:
1. PythonWin ODBC Module : provided by Mark Hammond with the PythonWin4
package for Microsoft Windows (only). This is a minimal implementation of ODBC,
and conforms to Version 1.0 of the Python Database API. Although it is stable, it
will likely not be developed any further.5
2. mxODBC : a commercial Python package ([Link]
python/mxODBC/), which features handling of DateTime objects and prepared state-
ments (using parameters).
3. pyodbc : an open-source Python package ([Link]
which uses only native Python data-types and uses prepared statements for increased
performance. The present version supports the Python Database API Specification
v2.0.6
4. pypyodbc : a ”pure Python” DBAPI adapter based on the ctypes module,
([Link] , ([Link]
p/pypyodbc/), with a focus on keeping code ”Simple - the whole module is imple-
mented in a single script with less than 3000 lines”.

28.1.1 pyodbc

An example using the pyodbc Python package with a Microsoft Access file (although this
database connection could just as easily be a MySQL database):

import pyodbc

DBfile = '/data/MSAccess/Music_Library.mdb'
conn = [Link]('DRIVER={Microsoft Access Driver (*.mdb)};DBQ='+DBfile)

1 [Link]
2 [Link]
3 [Link]
4 [Link]
5 Hammond, M. Python Programming on Win32 . O’Reilly , , 2000
6 Python Database API Specification v2.0 7 . Python . Retrieved

153
Database Programming

#use below conn if using with Access 2007, 2010 .accdb file
#conn = [Link](r'Driver={Microsoft Access Driver (*.mdb,
*.accdb)};DBQ='+DBfile)
cursor = [Link]()

SQL = 'SELECT Artist, AlbumName FROM RecordCollection ORDER BY Year;'

for row in [Link](SQL): # cursors are iterable
print [Link], [Link]
# print row # if print row it will return tuple of all fields

[Link]()
[Link]()

Many more features and examples are provided on the pyodbc website.
code create problem shown below. ImportError: DLL load failed: The specified procedure
could not be found.

28.2 Postgres connection in Python

-> see Python Programming/Databases8 code create problem shown below ImportError:
DLL load failed: The specified procedure could not be found.

28.3 MySQL connection in Python

-> see Python Programming/Databases9

28.4 SQLAlchemy in Action

SQLAlchemy has become the favorite choice for many large Python projects that use
databases. A long, updated list of such projects is listed on the SQLAlchemy site. Ad-
ditionally, a pretty good tutorial can be found there, as well. Along with a thin database
wrapper, Elixir, it behaves very similarly to the ORM in Rails, ActiveRecord.

28.5 See also

• Python Programming/Databases10

8 [Link]
9 [Link]
10 [Link]

154
 References

28.6 References

28.7 External links

• SQLAlchemy11
• SQLObject12
• PEP 24913 - Python Database API Specification v2.0
• MySQldb Tutorial14
• Database Topic Guide15 on [Link]
• SQLite Tutorial16

11 [Link]
12 [Link]
13 [Link]
14 [Link]
15 [Link]
16 [Link]

155
30 Threading

Threading in python is used to run multiple threads (tasks, function calls) at the same
time. Note that this does not mean that they are executed on different CPUs. Python
threads will NOT make your program faster if it already uses 100 % CPU time. In that
case, you probably want to look into parallel programming. If you are interested in parallel
programming with python, please see here1 .
Python threads are used in cases where the execution of a task involves some waiting.
One example would be interaction with a service hosted on another computer, such as a
webserver. Threading allows python to execute other code while waiting; this is easily
simulated with the sleep function.

30.1 Examples

30.1.1 A Minimal Example with Function Call

Make a thread that prints numbers from 1-10, waits for 1 sec between:

import threading
import time

def loop1_10():
for i in range(1, 11):
[Link](1)
print(i)

[Link](target=loop1_10).start()

30.1.2 A Minimal Example with Object

#!/usr/bin/env python
import threading
import time
from __future__ import print_function

class MyThread([Link]):
def run(self):
print("{} started!".format([Link]())) # "Thread-x
started!"
[Link](1) # Pretend to work for
a second
print("{} finished!".format([Link]())) # "Thread-x
finished!"

1 [Link]

159
Threading

if __name__ == '__main__':
for x in range(4): # Four times...
mythread = MyThread(name = "Thread-{}".format(x + 1)) # ...Instantiate
a thread and pass a unique ID to it
[Link]() # ...Start the thread
[Link](.9) # ...Wait 0.9 seconds
before starting another

This should output:

Thread-1 started!
Thread-2 started!
Thread-1 finished!
Thread-3 started!
Thread-2 finished!
Thread-4 started!
Thread-3 finished!
Thread-4 finished!

Note: this example appears to crash IDLE in Windows XP (seems to work in IDLE 1.2.4
in Windows XP though)
There seems to be a problem with this, if you replace sleep(1) with (2), and change
range(4) to range(10) . Thread-2 finished is the first line before its even started. in
WING IDE, Netbeans, Eclipse is fine.
fr:Programmation Python/Les threads2

2 [Link]

160
31 Extending with C

This gives a minimal Example on how to Extend Python with C. Linux is used for building
(feel free to extend it for other Platforms). If you have any problems, please report them
(e.g. on the dicussion page), I will check back in a while and try to sort them out.

31.1 Using the Python/C API

On an Ubuntu system, you might need to run

$ sudo apt-get install python-dev

This command installs you the python developement package and ensures that you can use
the line #include <Python.h> in the C source code. On other systems like openSUSE the
needed package calls python-devel and can be installed by using zypper :

$ sudo zypper install python-devel

• [Link]
• [Link]

31.1.1 A minimal example

The minimal example we will create now is very similar in behaviour to the following python
snippet:

def say_hello(name):
"Greet somebody."
print "Hello %s!" % name

The C source code (hellomodule.c )

#include <Python.h>

static PyObject*
say_hello(PyObject* self, PyObject* args)
{
const char* name;

if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "s", &name))

return NULL;

printf("Hello %s!\n", name);

161
Extending with C

Py_RETURN_NONE;
}

static PyMethodDef HelloMethods[] =

{
{"say_hello", say_hello, METH_VARARGS, "Greet somebody."},
{NULL, NULL, 0, NULL}
};

PyMODINIT_FUNC
inithello(void)
{
(void) Py_InitModule("hello", HelloMethods);
}

Building the extension module with GCC for Linux

To build our extension module we create the file [Link] like:

from [Link] import setup, Extension

module1 = Extension('hello', sources = ['hellomodule.c'])

setup (name = 'PackageName',

version = '1.0',
description = 'This is a demo package',
ext_modules = [module1])

Now we can build our module with

python [Link] build

The module [Link] will end up in build/[Link]-i686-x .y .

Building the extension module with GCC for Microsoft Windows

Microsoft Windows users can use MinGW1 to compile this from cmd.exe2 using a similar
method to Linux user, as shown above. Assuming gcc is in the PATH environment variable,
type:

python [Link] build -cmingw32

The module [Link] will end up in build\lib.win32-x .y , which is a Python Dynamic

Module (similar to a DLL ).
An alternate way of building the module in Windows is to build a DLL. (This method does
not need an extension module file). From [Link] , type:

1 [Link]
2 [Link]

162
 Using the Python/C API

gcc -c hellomodule.c -I/PythonXY /include

gcc -shared hellomodule.o -L/PythonXY /libs -lpythonXY -o [Link]

where XY represents the version of Python, such as ”24” for version 2.4.

Building the extension module using Microsoft Visual C++

With VC8 distutils is broken. We will use [Link] from a command prompt instead:

cl /LD hellomodule.c /Ic:\Python24\include c:\Python24\libs\[Link]

/link/out:[Link]

Using the extension module

Change to the subdirectory where the file ‘[Link]‘ resides. In an interactive python session
you can use the module as follows.

>>> import hello

>>> hello.say_hello("World")
Hello World!

31.1.2 A module for calculating fibonacci numbers

The C source code (fibmodule.c)

#include <Python.h>

int
_fib(int n)
{
if (n < 2)
return n;
else
return _fib(n-1) + _fib(n-2);
}

static PyObject*
fib(PyObject* self, PyObject* args)
{
int n;

if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "i", &n))

return NULL;

return Py_BuildValue("i", _fib(n));

}

static PyMethodDef FibMethods[] = {

{"fib", fib, METH_VARARGS, "Calculate the Fibonacci numbers."},
{NULL, NULL, 0, NULL}
};

163
Extending with C

PyMODINIT_FUNC
initfib(void)
{
(void) Py_InitModule("fib", FibMethods);
}

The build script ([Link])

from [Link] import setup, Extension

module1 = Extension('fib', sources = ['fibmodule.c'])

setup (name = 'PackageName',

version = '1.0',
description = 'This is a demo package',
ext_modules = [module1])

How to use it?

>>> import fib

>>> [Link](10)
55

31.2 Using SWIG

Creating the previous example using SWIG is much more straight forward. To follow this
path you need to get SWIG3 up and running first. To install it on an Ubuntu system, you
might need to run the following commands

$ sudo apt-get install swig

$ sudo apt-get install python-dev

After that create two files.

/*hellomodule.c*/

#include <stdio.h>

void say_hello(const char* name) {

printf("Hello %s!\n", name);
}

/*hello.i*/

%module hello
extern void say_hello(const char* name);

Now comes the more difficult part, gluing it all together.

3 [Link]

164
 Using SWIG

First we need to let SWIG do its work.

swig -python hello.i

This gives us the files ‘[Link]‘ and ‘hello_wrap.c‘.

The next step is compiling (substitute /usr/include/python2.4/ with the correct path for
your setup!).

gcc -fpic -c hellomodule.c hello_wrap.c -I/usr/include/python2.4/

Now linking and we are done!

gcc -shared hellomodule.o hello_wrap.o -o _hello.so

The module is used in the following way.

>>> import hello

>>> hello.say_hello("World")
Hello World!

165
32 Extending with C++

There are different ways to extend Python:

• In plain C, using Python.h
• Using Swig
• Using [Link], optionally with Py++ preprocessing
• Using Cython.
This page describes Boost.Python1 . Before the emergence of Cython, it was the most
comfortable way of writing C++2 extension modules.
[Link] comes bundled with the Boost C++ Libraries3 . To install it on an Ubuntu
system, you might need to run the following commands

$ sudo apt-get install libboost-python-dev

$ sudo apt-get install python-dev

32.1 A Hello World Example

32.1.1 The C++ source code ([Link])

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

void say_hello(const char* name) {

cout << "Hello " << name << "!\n";
}

#include <boost/python/[Link]>
#include <boost/python/[Link]>
using namespace boost::python;

BOOST_PYTHON_MODULE(hello)
{
def("say_hello", say_hello);
}

1 [Link]
2 [Link]
3 [Link]

167
Extending with C++

32.1.2 [Link]

#!/usr/bin/env python

from [Link] import setup

from [Link] import Extension

setup(name="PackageName",
ext_modules=[
Extension("hello", ["[Link]"],
libraries = ["boost_python"])
])

Now we can build our module with

python [Link] build

The module ‘[Link]‘ will end up in e.g ‘build/[Link]-i686-2.4‘.

32.1.3 Using the extension module

Change to the subdirectory where the file ‘[Link]‘ resides. In an interactive python session
you can use the module as follows.

>>> import hello

>>> hello.say_hello("World")
Hello World!

32.2 An example with CGAL

Some, but not all, functions of the CGAL library have already Python bindings. Here an
example is provided for a case without such a binding and how it might be implemented.
The example is taken from the CGAL Documentation4 .

// [Link]
using namespace std;

/* PYTHON */
#include <boost/[Link]>
#include <boost/python/[Link]>
#include <boost/python/[Link]>
namespace python = boost::python;

/* CGAL */
#include <CGAL/Cartesian.h>
#include <CGAL/Range_segment_tree_traits.h>
#include <CGAL/Range_tree_k.h>

typedef CGAL::Cartesian<double> K;
typedef CGAL::Range_tree_map_traits_2<K, char> Traits;

4 [Link]

168
 An example with CGAL

typedef CGAL::Range_tree_2<Traits> Range_tree_2_type;

typedef Traits::Key Key;

typedef Traits::Interval Interval;

Range_tree_2_type *Range_tree_2 = new Range_tree_2_type;

void create_tree() {

typedef Traits::Key Key;

typedef Traits::Interval Interval;

std::vector<Key> InputList, OutputList;

InputList.push_back(Key(K::Point_2(8,5.1), 'a'));
InputList.push_back(Key(K::Point_2(1.0,1.1), 'b'));
InputList.push_back(Key(K::Point_2(3,2.1), 'c'));

Range_tree_2->make_tree([Link](),[Link]());
Interval win(Interval(K::Point_2(1,2.1),K::Point_2(8.1,8.2)));
std::cout << "\n Window Query:\n";
Range_tree_2->window_query(win, std::back_inserter(OutputList));
std::vector<Key>::iterator current=[Link]();
while(current!=[Link]()){
std::cout << " " << (*current).first.x() << "," << (*current).first.y()
<< ":" << (*current).second << std::endl;
current++;
}
std::cout << "\n Done\n";
}

void initcreate_tree() {;}

using namespace boost::python;

BOOST_PYTHON_MODULE(test)
{
def("create_tree", create_tree, "");
}

// [Link]
#!/usr/bin/env python

from [Link] import setup

from [Link] import Extension

setup(name="PackageName",
ext_modules=[
Extension("test", ["[Link]"],
libraries = ["boost_python"])
])

We then compile and run the module as follows:

$ python [Link] build

$ cd build/lib*
$ python
>>> import test
>>> test.create_tree()
Window Query:
3,2.1:c
8,5.1:a
Done
>>>

169
Extending with C++

32.3 Handling Python objects and errors

One can also handle more complex data, e.g. Python objects like lists. The attributes are
accessed with the extract function executed on the objects ”attr” function output. We can
also throw errors by telling the library that an error has occurred and returning. In the
following case, we have written a C++ function called ”afunction” which we want to call.
The function takes an integer N and a vector of length N as input, we have to convert the
python list to a vector of strings before calling the function.

#include <vector>
using namespace std;

void _afunction_wrapper(int N, boost::python::list mapping) {

int mapping_length = boost::python::extract<int>([Link]("__len__")());

//Do Error checking, the mapping needs to be at least as long as N
if (mapping_length < N) {
PyErr_SetString(PyExc_ValueError,
"The string mapping must be at least of length N");
boost::python::throw_error_already_set();
return;
}

vector<string> mystrings(mapping_length);
for (int i=0; i<mapping_length; i++) {
mystrings[i] = boost::python::extract<char const *>(mapping[i]);
}

//now call our C++ function

_afunction(N, mystrings);

using namespace boost::python;

BOOST_PYTHON_MODULE(c_afunction)
{
def("afunction", _afunction_wrapper);
}

170
33 Extending with ctypes

ctypes[Link] is a foreign function interface1 module

for Python (included with Python 2.5 and above), which allows you to load in dynamic
libraries and call C functions. This is not technically extending Python, but it serves one
of the primary reasons for extending Python: to interface with external C code.

33.1 Basics

A library is loaded using the [Link] function. After you load the library, the functions
inside the library are already usable as regular Python calls. For example, if we wanted
to forego the standard Python print statement and use the standard C library function,
printf , you would use this:

from ctypes import *

libName = '[Link]' # If you're on a UNIX-based system
libName = '[Link]' # If you're on Windows
libc = CDLL(libName)
[Link]("Hello, World!\n")

Of course, you must use the libName line that matches your operating system, and delete
the other. If all goes well, you should see the infamous Hello World string at your console.

33.2 Getting Return Values

ctypes assumes, by default, that any given function’s return type is a signed integer of native
size. Sometimes you don’t want the function to return anything, and other times, you want
the function to return other types. Every ctypes function has an attribute called restype
. When you assign a ctypes class to restype , it automatically casts the function’s return
value to that type.

33.2.1 Common Types

ctypes name C type Python type Notes

None void None the None object
c_bool C99 _Bool bool
c_byte signed char int

1 [Link]

171
Extending with ctypes

ctypes name C type Python type Notes

c_char signed char str length of one
c_char_p char * str
c_double double float
c_float float float
c_int signed int int
c_long signed long long
c_longlong signed long long long
c_short signed short long
c_ubyte unsigned char int
c_uint unsigned int int
c_ulong unsigned long long
c_ulonglong unsigned long long long
c_ushort unsigned short int
c_void_p void * int
c_wchar wchar_t unicode length of one
c_wchar_p wchar_t * unicode

172
35 WSGI Web Programming

35.1 External Resources

[Link]

175
36 References

36.1 Language reference

The latest documentation for the standard python libraries and modules can always be
found at The [Link] documents section1

1 [Link]

177
37 Contributors

Edits User
1 Aaronchall1
1 AdamPro2
1 Adeelq3
3 Adriatikus4
3 Adrignola5
1 Ahab19646
1 Ahornedal7
4 Albmont8
2 Alexander2569
1 AlisonW10
1 Apeigne˜enwikibooks11
1 ArrowStomper12
50 Artevelde13
2 Atcovi14
2 Auk15
1 Avicennasis16
1 Avnerium17
1 Az156818
1 Baijum8119
1 Beary605˜enwikibooks20
1 Behnam21

1 [Link]
2 [Link]
3 [Link]
4 [Link]
5 [Link]
6 [Link]
7 [Link]
8 [Link]
9 [Link]
10 [Link]
11 [Link]
12 [Link]
13 [Link]
14 [Link]
15 [Link]
16 [Link]
17 [Link]
18 [Link]
19 [Link]
20 [Link]
21 [Link]

179
Contributors

2 Beland22
1 Benrolfe23
2 Betalpha24
3 Bittner25
20 BobGibson26
1 Boyombo27
1 Brian McErlean˜enwikibooks28
13 CWii29
2 CaffeinatedPonderer30
1 CaptainSmithers31
1 Cburnett32
1 Chazz33
1 Chesemonkyloma34
1 Christian.ego35
6 Chuckhoffmann36
1 Cic37
1 Cladmi38
1 Clorox39
1 Cogiati40
2 Convex˜enwikibooks41
1 Cosmoscalibur42
2 Cribe˜enwikibooks43
1 Cspurrier44
2 DaKrazyJak45
1 Daemonax46

22 [Link]
23 [Link]
24 [Link]
25 [Link]
26 [Link]
27 [Link]
28 [Link]
29 [Link]
30 [Link]
31 [Link]
32 [Link]
33 [Link]
34 [Link]
35 [Link]
36 [Link]
37 [Link]
38 [Link]
39 [Link]
40 [Link]
41 [Link]
42 [Link]
43 [Link]
44 [Link]
45 [Link]
46 [Link]

180
 Language reference

68 Dan Polansky47
1 Danielkhashabi48
44 Darklama49
2 DavidCary50
11 DavidRoss51
2 Dbolton52
2 Deep shobhit53
4 Derbeth54
4 Dirk Hünniger55
1 DivineAlpha56
4 Dragonecc57
6 Driscoll˜enwikibooks58
1 Edleafe59
1 EdoDodo60
3 ElieDeBrauwer61
1 Eric Silva62
1 Esquivalience63
1 FerranJorba˜enwikibooks64
8 Fishpi65
21 Flarelocke66
2 Flowzn67
1 Foxj68
1 Fry-kun69
2 Gasto570
1 Glaisher71

47 [Link]
48 [Link]
49 [Link]
50 [Link]
51 [Link]
52 [Link]
53 [Link]
54 [Link]
55 [Link]
56 [Link]
57 [Link]
58 [Link]
59 [Link]
60 [Link]
61 [Link]
62 [Link]
63 [Link]
64 [Link]
65 [Link]
66 [Link]
67 [Link]
68 [Link]
69 [Link]
70 [Link]
71 [Link]

181
Contributors

1 Greyweather˜enwikibooks72
1 Grind2473
1 Guanabot˜enwikibooks74
1 Guanaco75
4 Gutworth76
45 Hackbinary77
4 Hagindaz78
27 Hannes Röst79
1 Harrybrowne198680
2 Howipepper81
17 Hypergeek1482
3 IO83
2 Imapiekindaguy84
5 ImperfectlyInformed85
1 Intgr86
3 Irvin.sha87
12 JackPotte88
2 Jakec89
17 Jbeyerl90
2 Jerf˜enwikibooks91
1 Jesdisciple92
32 Jguk93
1 JocelynD94
1 JohnL495
1 Jonathan Webley96

72 [Link]
73 [Link]
74 [Link]
75 [Link]
76 [Link]
77 [Link]
78 [Link]
79 [Link]
80 [Link]
81 [Link]
82 [Link]
83 [Link]
84 [Link]
85 [Link]
86 [Link]
87 [Link]
88 [Link]
89 [Link]
90 [Link]
91 [Link]
92 [Link]
93 [Link]
94 [Link]
95 [Link]
96 [Link]

182
 Language reference

1 Jonbryan97
1 Jperryhouts98
1 JuethoBot99
2 KarlDubost100
1 Kayau101
1 Kernigh102
1 Ketan Arlulkar103
11 LDiracDelta˜enwikibooks104
7 Ldo105
1 Leaderboard106
1 Legoktm107
1 Lena2289108
4 Leopold augustsson109
1 Linuxman255110
3 Logictheo111
1 MMJ˜enwikibooks112
4 ManWhoFoundPony113
1 ManuelGR114
5 MarceloAraujo115
1 Mathonius116
1 Mattzazami117
1 Maxim kolosov118
1 Mdupont119
1 Mh7kJ120
4 Microdot121

97 [Link]
98 [Link]
99 [Link]
100 [Link]
101 [Link]
102 [Link]
103 [Link]
104 [Link]
105 [Link]
106 [Link]
107 [Link]
108 [Link]
109 [Link]
110 [Link]
111 [Link]
112 [Link]
113 [Link]
114 [Link]
115 [Link]
116 [Link]
117 [Link]
118 [Link]
119 [Link]
120 [Link]
121 [Link]

183
Contributors

1 Mithrill2002122
1 Monobi123
33 Mr.Z-man124
2 Mshonle125
17 Mwtoews126
3 Myururdurmaz127
2 N313t3128
1 Natuur12129
7 Nbarth130
3 Nikai131
1 Nikhil389132
1 NithinBekal133
1 Nobelium134
1 Offpath135
1 Otus136
6 Panic2k4137
1 Pavlix˜enwikibooks138
22 Pdilley139
1 Perey140
1 Peteparke141
1 Pingveno142
6 Quartz25143
15 QuiteUnusual144
4 Qwertyus145
2 Rdnk˜enwikibooks146

122 [Link]
123 [Link]
124 [Link]
125 [Link]
126 [Link]
127 [Link]
128 [Link]
129 [Link]
130 [Link]
131 [Link]
132 [Link]
133 [Link]
134 [Link]
135 [Link]
136 [Link]
137 [Link]
138 [Link]
139 [Link]
140 [Link]
141 [Link]
142 [Link]
143 [Link]
144 [Link]
145 [Link]
146 [Link]

184
 Language reference

3 Recent Runes147
1 Remi0o148
31 Remote149
3 Richard001150
3 Robm351151
1 Rotlink152
1 Ruy Pugliesi153
1 RyanPenner154
1 Senobyte155
1 Shanmugamp7156
15 Sigma 7157
4 Singingwolfboy158
1 Smalls123456159
1 Sol˜enwikibooks160
1 StephenFerg161
2 Suchenwi162
1 Surfer190163
3 Syum90164
6 Szeeshanalinaqvi165
1 Tecky2166
1 Tedzzz1167
3 The Kid168
9 The djinn169
18 Thunderbolt16170
2 Tobych171

147 [Link]
148 [Link]
149 [Link]
150 [Link]
151 [Link]
152 [Link]
153 [Link]
154 [Link]
155 [Link]
156 [Link]
157 [Link]
158 [Link]
159 [Link]
160 [Link]
161 [Link]
162 [Link]
163 [Link]
164 [Link]
165 [Link]
166 [Link]
167 [Link]
168 [Link]
169 [Link]
170 [Link]
171 [Link]

185
Contributors

2 Tom Morris172
1 Treilly173
2 Unionhawk174
1 Watchduck175
24 Webaware176
1 Wenhaosparty˜enwikibooks177
2 Whym178
1 WikiNazi179
1 Wilbur.harvey180
59 Withinfocus181
1 Wolf104182
14 Wolma183
3 Xania184
1 Yasondinalt185
20 Yath˜enwikibooks186
1 Σ187

172 [Link]
173 [Link]
174 [Link]
175 [Link]
176 [Link]
177 [Link]
178 [Link]
179 [Link]
180 [Link]
181 [Link]
182 [Link]
183 [Link]
184 [Link]
185 [Link]
186 [Link]
187 [Link]

186
List of Figures

• GFDL: Gnu Free Documentation License. [Link]

html
• cc-by-sa-3.0: Creative Commons Attribution ShareAlike 3.0 License. http://
[Link]/licenses/by-sa/3.0/
• cc-by-sa-2.5: Creative Commons Attribution ShareAlike 2.5 License. http://
[Link]/licenses/by-sa/2.5/
• cc-by-sa-2.0: Creative Commons Attribution ShareAlike 2.0 License. http://
[Link]/licenses/by-sa/2.0/
• cc-by-sa-1.0: Creative Commons Attribution ShareAlike 1.0 License. http://
[Link]/licenses/by-sa/1.0/
• cc-by-2.0: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 License. [Link]
org/licenses/by/2.0/
• cc-by-2.0: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 License. [Link]
org/licenses/by/2.0/[Link]
• cc-by-2.5: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 License. [Link]
org/licenses/by/2.5/[Link]
• cc-by-3.0: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License. [Link]
org/licenses/by/3.0/[Link]
• GPL: GNU General Public License. [Link]
• LGPL: GNU Lesser General Public License. [Link]
html
• PD: This image is in the public domain.
• ATTR: The copyright holder of this file allows anyone to use it for any purpose,
provided that the copyright holder is properly attributed. Redistribution, derivative
work, commercial use, and all other use is permitted.
• EURO: This is the common (reverse) face of a euro coin. The copyright on the design
of the common face of the euro coins belongs to the European Commission. Authorised
is reproduction in a format without relief (drawings, paintings, films) provided they
are not detrimental to the image of the euro.
• LFK: Lizenz Freie Kunst. [Link]
• CFR: Copyright free use.

187
List of Figures

• EPL: Eclipse Public License. [Link]

php
Copies of the GPL, the LGPL as well as a GFDL are included in chapter Licenses188 . Please
note that images in the public domain do not require attribution. You may click on the
image numbers in the following table to open the webpage of the images in your webbrower.

188 Chapter 38 on page 191

188