Chapter 1.

Introduction
Pham Duy Hung, PhD
Faculty of Electronics and Telecommunications,
VNU-University of Engineering and Technology
Email: hungpd@[Link]
Contents
• Basic concepts of measurement
• Electrical devices and measurement
• Introduction to digital control systems
I. Basic concepts of measurement methods
 The objective in any
measurement is to answer a
question

 Measurements to establish the

value or the tendency of some
variable,
o Estimation
o Standard unit
o Accuracy
 Measurement results are
specifically targeted to answer
the question

Common devices that involve measurements

 Important questions:
How can a measurement or test plan be designed to provide clear
and unambiguous information?
How can a measurement system be implemented so that
engineers can easily interpret the data and have confidence in its
validity?
 The importance of Measurement – Data tell the story

 For scientists, measurement is essential for

validating theories.
 For engineers, measurement enables the
evaluation and verification of designs.
 Measurement and sensing systems function
as the “sensory organs” of computers.
 Measurement also means recognizing and
quantifying what we do not yet know.

The blind men and the elephant.

 Measurement and control systems are everywhere

Touch screen
GPS
Microphone
Compass sensor
Acceleration sensor
Rotation sensor
Barometric pressure sensor
1. General measurement systems
 Sensor/transducer stage:
Senses the physical variable and converts
it into a detectable signal (mechanical,
electrical, or optical). This is the primary
interface with the physical world.
1. General measurement systems
 Signal conditioning stage:
takes the transducer signal and modifies it
to the desired magnitude. This optional
intermediate stage may perform functions
such as:
 Amplifying the signal to
increase its magnitude.
 Filtering the signal to
remove unwanted
components
 Providing mechanical or
optical linkage between
the transducer and the
output stage.
1. General measurement systems
 Output stage:
Indicates or records the value measured.
This might be a simple readout display, a
marked scale, or even a recording device
such as a computer disk drive.
1. General measurement systems
 Control stage:
Contains a controller that interprets the
measured signal and makes a decision
regarding the control of the process
1. General measurement systems

Sensors

Signal Conditioning

A/D conversion

Computer

Plant D/A conversion

Computer-Based Measurement and Control System

2. Experimental test plan
• An experimental test is conducted to answer a specific question;
therefore, it should be designed and executed to address that
question, and only that question.
• Example:
“How can the fuel consumption of a new vehicle
be determined?”
 Measured variables: distance traveled and fuel consumption
 Variables affecting the result: road conditions, driver behavior,
weather conditions, etc.
2. Experimental test plan
• A test plan draws from the following three steps
Parameter design plan: Determine the test objective and identify the
process variables and parameters and a means for their control. Ask: ‘‘What
question am I trying to answer? What needs to be measured?’’ ‘‘What
variables and parameters will affect my results?’’
System and tolerance design plan: Select a measurement technique,
equipment, and test procedure based on some preconceived tolerance limits
for error. Ask: ‘‘In what ways can I do the measurement and how good do the
3

results need to be to answer my question?’’

Data reduction design plan: Plan how to analyze, present, and use the
anticipated data. Ask: ‘‘How will I interpret the resulting data? How will I use
the data to answer my question? How good is my answer? Does my answer
make sense?’’
2. Experimental test plan
• Variables: Entities influence the test.
Independent variables: A variable that can be changed independently of
other variables
Dependent variables: A variable that is affected by changes in one or
more other variables
Controllable variables: A variable is controlled if it can be held at a
constant value or at some prescribed condition during a measurement.
Extraneous variables: Variables that are not or cannot be controlled
during measurement but that affect the value of the variable measured
Results of a boiling point test for water
2. Experimental test plan
• Parameters: a functional grouping of variables.
Control parameters: parameter has an effect on the behavior of the
measured variable
• Noise and interference:
Noise is a random variation of the value of the measured signal as a
consequence of the variation of the extraneous variables. Noise
increases data scatter.
Interference imposes undesirable deterministic trends on the measured
value. Any uncontrolled influence that causes the signal or test outcome
to behave in a manner different from its true behavior is interference.
Effects of noise and interference superimposed on
the signal 𝑦 𝑡 = 2 + sin 2𝜋𝑡
2. Experimental test plan
• Replication and Repetition
Repeated measurements made during any single test run or on a single
batch are called repetitions
An independent duplication of a set of measurements using similar
operating conditions is referred to as a replication
• Concomitant Methods:
The goal is to obtain two or more estimates for the result, each based on a
different method.
These estimates are then compared to access consistency and
agreement.
3. Calibration
• Calibration involves applying a known input value to a measurement
system in order to observe the corresponding output.
• It establishes the relationship between the input and output values.
• The known reference value used in calibration is called the standard
 3. Calibration
• Static calibration - the most common
calibration method.
 The term static means that the variables
remain constant in time and space;
only their magnitudes are considered.
 A known input value is applied to the
measurement system, and the
corresponding output is recorded.
 By applying a range of known input
values and recording the outputs, a Representative static calibration curve
calibration curve is fitted:
𝑦=𝑓 𝑥 • Dynamic calibration:
 The resulting correlation allows the  Determines the relationship between an input
determination of an unknown input with known dynamic behavior and the
from a measured output during actual corresponding system output.
operation.  Common input signals used in dynamic
calibration: sinusoidal and step input
3. Calibration
• Static Sensitivity
The static sensitivity of a measurement system is given by the slope of
the static calibration curve.
At a particular input value 𝑥 ,the static sensitivity 𝐾is defined as:
𝑑𝑦
𝐾=𝐾 𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥
Static sensitivity quantifies how much the indicated output changes in
response to a given change in the static input.
3. Calibration
• Range
Calibration is performed using known inputs from the minimum to the
maximum values over which the system is intended to operate.
These limits define the operating range of the measurement system.
o Input operating range:
𝑟 =𝑥 −𝑥
o Output operating range (Full-Scale Output, FSO):
𝑟 =𝑦 −𝑦
Extrapolation beyond the calibrated range should be avoided, since
system behavior outside this region is unknown.
Therefore, the calibration range must be carefully selected to match the
intended application.
3. Calibration
• Resolution
Resolution is the smallest increment in the measured value that a
measurement system can discern.
It is typically quantified by the smallest scale division, or the least
count/least significant digit (LSD) of the output display.
3. Calibration
• Accuracy and Error
True value: the exact value of a variable (rarely known exactly).
Measured value: the value indicated by the measurement system.
Accuracy refers to the closeness of agreement between the measured value
and the true value. Since the true value is rarely known exactly, accuracy is a
qualitative concept.
• Error and Uncertainty
Error: 𝑒 = Measured value − True value
In practice, a reference value (from calibration) is often used instead of the true
value.
∣ ∣
Relative error: 𝐴 = × 100%
Reference value
Uncertainty: the estimated range within which the error is expected to lie.
3. Calibration
• Deviation Plot
A deviation plot shows the
difference between the measured
value and the reference value
versus the measured value.
Useful when errors are small and
not clearly visible on a direct
calibration curve.
The spread of the deviation
indicates the measurement
uncertainty. Calibration curve in the form of a deviation
plot for a temperature sensor
 3. Calibration
• Random and Systematic Errors
Random error
o Causes scatter in repeated
measurements
o A ects repeatability
o Estimated using statistical methods
Systematic error High repeatability High accuracy means Systematic and
gives low random error low random and random errors lead to
o Causes a consistent o set between
but no direct systematic errors poor accuracy.
the mean value and the true value indication of accuracy.
o A ects bias (accuracy)
o Estimated from the di erence between
the average reading and the
true/reference value
3. Calibration
• In Calibration
Scatter of repeated
measurements → Random
error
Offset of mean from true value
→ Systematic error
Combined effect defines
overall measurement
uncertainty
3. Calibration
• Uncertainty
Uncertainty is a numerical
estimate of the possible range
of error in a measurement.
Since the true value is rarely
known exactly, the actual
error is unknown. Instead, we
assign a ± range within which
the error is believed to lie.
4. Standards in measurement
• During calibration, a measured value is compared with a reference
value. This reference is called a standard.
• A standard may be based on:
A precisely defined physical object
A reliable measurement technique
A well-characterized piece of equipment
• Standards form the foundation of all measurements.
• Why Standards Matter
Units are arbitrary by definition, but must be globally consistent.
Primary standards ensure uniformity worldwide.
Measurement accuracy ultimately depends on traceability to primary
standards.
4. Standards in measurement
• Primary Standards and SI System
A dimension describes a physical quantity (mass, length, time).
A unit assigns a numerical measure to that dimension.
A primary standard defines a unit exactly.
In 1960, the International System of Units (SI) was adopted by the
CGPM as the global standard. Desirable features of standards:
o Global availability
o Stability
o Long-term reliability
o Minimal environmental sensitivity
o Other systems (I-P, gravitational metric) are defined through conversion from SI.
• Base SI Units (Primary
Standards) and Derived
Units
4. Standards in measurement
• Hierarchy of Standards
Primary standard: Maintained as absolute unit standard
Transfer standard: Used to calibrate local standards
Local standard: Used to calibrate working standards
Working standard: Used to calibrate local instruments
5. Presenting data
• Data presentation reveals the relationship between variables.
High-quality plots can be generated using software or constructed
manually. Several plotting formats are commonly used depending
on the data behavior
• Rectangular Coordinate Format
Rectangular (Linear–Linear) Format, both axes use uniform (linear)
scales.
The most common plotting format.
Used to establish the basic relationship between:
 Independent variable (x-axis)
 Dependent variable (y-axis)
Best suited for data that vary within a limited range.
5. Presenting data
• Semilog Coordinate Format
One axis is linear, the other is logarithmic.
Useful when one variable spans more than one order of magnitude.
Advantages:
o Exponential relationships become linear:
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑒 or 𝑦 = 𝑎10
o Logarithmic operations correspond to scaling transformations:
ln 𝑦 = 2.3 log 𝑦
5. Presenting data
• Log (Log–Log) Format
Both axes use logarithmic scales.
Equivalent to plotting: log 𝑦 vs. log 𝑥
Preferred when:
o Both variables span multiple orders of magnitude.
o Data follow a power-law relationship: 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥
o →Produces a straight line in log–log format.
5. Presenting data
• Significant Digits
Significant digits indicate the precision of a reported value.
Leading zeros are not significant; trailing zeros are significant.
o Example: 42.0 → three significant digits.
II. Electrical devices and measurements
 6. Current and voltage measurement
• Permanent-Magnet Moving-Coil Instrument
(PMMC):
Deflecting system: interaction between the
magnetic field and the current flowing through the
coil.
Controlling system: Springs attached to the coil
oppose the deflecting force. When the controlling
torque balances the deflecting torque, the pointer
comes to rest.
Damping system: stabilizes the pointer indication.
• A galvanometer is a device used to detect Basic D’Arsonval meter movement.
current flow in a circuit and is based on a highly
sensitive D’Arsonval movement.
6. Current and voltage measurement
• Ammeter circuit using PMMC instrument
Full-Scale Deflection (FSD) has a low value,
typically around 1mA
The measurement range can be extended by
connecting a shunt resistor in parallel with the
moving coil.

𝐼
𝑅
𝐼 𝐼 𝑅 =𝐼 𝑅 →𝐼 =𝐼
𝑅 𝑅
𝑅 +𝑅
𝐼 =𝐼 +𝐼 =𝐼
𝑅
6. Current and voltage measurement
• DC ammeter: A multi-range
ammeter uses parallel shunt
resistors with a switching
mechanism.
6. Current and voltage measurement
• Voltmeter circuit using PMMC instrument
 A PMMC current meter can be used as a
voltmeter by connecting a large resistor in
series with the meter resistance. The series
resistor, called a multiplier resistor, ensures
that only an acceptable current flows through
the meter.
Let the meter current be 𝐼 and the voltage to
be measured be 𝑉 . The total resistance of
the circuit 𝑅 is given by:
𝑉
𝑅=
𝐼
6. Current and voltage measurement
• AC voltmeter: Full-wave rectifier voltmeter

/
1 2
𝐼 = 𝐼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡𝑑𝑡
𝑇 𝑇
2
𝐼 = 𝐼 = 0.637𝐼
𝜋
6. Current and voltage measurement

AC ammeter using a full-waver rectifier

 6. Current and voltage measurement
• Ohmmeter using PMMC instrument
Battery voltage E
Current flows through the unknown
resistance 𝑅
Potentiometer R for zero adjustment
6. Current and voltage measurement

• Digital Multimeter
Uses analog-to-digital conversion (ADC)
Conversion process:
o Generate a reference voltage
o Compare the input analog voltage with
the reference voltage
o Generate a digital code, implemented
by a pulse counter or algorithm
6. Current and voltage measurement

Block diagram of digital multimeters

 7. Signal observation and measurement
• Signal observation device: visually and
directly displays or plots waveforms over time.
• Signal measurement: determines
quantitative parameters of the signal, such as
amplitude, period/frequency, phase, ...
• Role: used in circuit analysis, testing, and
diagnosing electronic systems.
• Oscilloscope: also called a cathode-ray
oscilloscope (CRO) or waveform display
device.
• Block diagram for Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
• Structure of a Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)
 Electron gun: generates a narrow
electron beam directed toward the
phosphor screen.
 X-Y deflection plates: deflect the
electron beam along the X and Y
axes, independently controlled.
 Phosphor screen: the screen that
emits visible light when struck by
the electron beam.
• Electron gun: It is the total assembly of the
filament, cathode, control (intensity) grid, focus
grid and accelerating anode. It generates the
electron beam and control its intensity and focus.
Filament F gets heated up when current is
passed through it and then heats up the
cathode.
Cathode K (a negative electrode) emits
electrons when heated.
Control (intensity) grid M controls the
number of electrons reaching the fluorescent
screen.
Accelerating anodes 𝑨𝟏 and 𝑨𝟐 accelerate the
electrons towards the fluorescent screen.
Focusing grid focuses the beam of electrons
on the screen.
• Deflection plate system and the principle of electron beam steering
 Beam steering system consists of two
pairs of metal plates, X and Y:
o X: pair of horizontal deflection plates
o Y: pair of vertical deflection plates
 Each deflection plate pair is supplied
with a voltage, creating an electric field in
the space between the plates. Due to the
e ect of the electric field, the trajectory
of the charged particle passing through
o 𝑈 : voltage between the two deflection
the plates is deflected along the X and Y
plates
axes. o 𝑑: distance between the two plates
o 𝑙: length of the plates
 Vertical deflection: 𝑦 = o 𝑈 : voltage on anode 𝐴
o L: distance between the center of the plates
 Beam sensitivity: (mm/V) to the phosphor screen
• Principle of linear sweep
Apply control voltages to the two pairs of
deflection plates:
o Signal 𝑈 is applied to the Y-plate pair
o Sawtooth sweep signal 𝑈 is applied to
the X-plate pair
Under the effect of the electric fields on
the X and Y plates, the electron beam is
deflected along the X and Y directions,
tracing a time-dependent waveform on
the phosphor screen.
8. Loading Errors and impedance matching
𝑅

• A loading error is the difference between

the value of the measurand and the E
𝑅 𝑉?
indicated value brought on by the act of
measurement.
• Loading error when a voltmeter with
Meter
internal resistance 𝑅 is connected in 𝑅

the circuit:
(𝑉 −𝑉 ) × 100% 𝑉
𝑒= = 1− × 100% 𝑉 ?
𝑉 𝑉 E V
𝑅 𝑅
×
Without meter: 𝑉 =

×( ⁄∕ )
With meter: 𝑉 = ( ⁄∕ )
=
(Shunt resistor 𝑅 )
8. Loading Errors and impedance matching
𝑅

• =
E
𝑅 𝑉?
• When 𝑅 tends to infinity
𝑉 𝑅
=
𝑉 𝑅 +𝑅
𝑅 Meter

Loading error goes to zero as 𝑹𝑴 → ∞ 𝑉 ?

E V
𝑅 𝑅

(Shunt resistor 𝑅 )
• Exe. Given the circuit as shown in the figure, measure the voltage
across the load resistor 𝑅 using two voltmeters with sensitivities of
20000 Ω/V and 1000 Ω/V, both with a 10 V scale. Calculate the
loading error for each voltmeter. Assume that 𝑅 = 10kΩ, 𝑅
= 100kΩ, and 𝐸 = 10V

𝑅 Meter

𝑉 ?
E V
𝑅 𝑅

(Shunt resistor 𝑅 )
8. Loading Errors and impedance matching
• Interstage Loading Errors

Impedance matching?
III. Digital control systems
9. Digital control systems

x(t) u(t) y(t)

e(t)

z(t)

The controller operates using analog electronic circuits (op-amps).

Typical control elements include:
 Integrator (integral control)
 Differentiator (derivative control)
 Amplifier (proportional control)
 1 2 3 4

PID R7

100K

4
U02A
D R6 S1 D
2
10K 1
3

TL082
4

8
U01A R14
2 U01B

Actuator
1 R1 5 R10 1M
3 7 R8 10K R16
Vref 10K
6 10K
TL082 100K C1
10K R2 TL082 D
8

10nF U03B
6
R4 R9 U02B 7
6 S2 R14 5
10K
7
1K 5

4
C TL082 C
R17 U04A
10K
TL082 2
1
10K R3 R12 100K R13 100 3
1K
C3 TL082

8
R15
10pF
S7
L R 10K

4
C2 U03A S8
R11 2 S3 L S4 R L R
330 1
1nF 3
Vsens
TL082
B B

8
S6
L R

R20
Physical system External

L S5 R
4

U05B U05A
6 2
7 R21 100K 1
5 3 R19
1K R18
TL082 1K TL082 100K
8

1M C5 1M
10nF C4
10nF Title
A A
𝑑𝑒(𝑡) Size Number Revision
𝑢 𝑡 =𝐾 𝑒 𝑡 +𝐾 𝑒 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + 𝐾 A4
𝑑𝑡 Date:
File:
29-Nov-2002
C:\Documenti\trinhcd\pids\[Link]
Sheet of
Drawn By:
1 2 3 4
9. Digital control systems
• Digital control model
x(t) u(t)

e(t) y(t)

z(t)

 Controller: computer/microprocessor → digital signals

 Plant: analog system → analog inputs/outputs
 Sensors: measurement devices
 ADC and DAC
9. Digital control systems
• Digital control model
x(t) u(t)

e(t) y(t)

z(t)

Advantages
 Can implement complex control algorithms, such as PID control
 The controller is program/software-based
 Direct input from digital sensors
9. Digital control systems
• Digital control model
x(t) u(t)

e(t) y(t)

z(t)

Challenges
 Analog-to-digital conversion (ADC) is required because the environment is analog
 High sampling rates are needed for rapidly changing signals
 Limited accuracy due to the finite number of bits in digital conversion
 Most output signals must be reconstructed into analog form to interact with the environment
→ DAC required
9. Digital control systems
• Data Acquisition System (DAQ)
Data collection
Data processing
System control
9. Digital control systems
• Sequential Control systems (Cloths Dryers)

(Dishwashers)
(Washing machine)

All processes are controlled

according to the timing of events.
Time-driven sequential processes
9. Digital control systems
• Event-Driven Sequential Processes
 The next step of the process cannot occur until an external event happens.
 Example:

The sequence of motions depends on

the positions of mechanical
components (joints).
Robotic Arms
9. Digital control systems
• On/Off Control: also called bang-bang control or two-position control. It is a
feedback controller with abrupt switching between states (the error signal is
binary). It is typically used in applications that do not require high accuracy.
Mất nhiệt
Thời gian chạy lò Nhiệt độ phòng
Lò sưởi Phòng

Điều khiển Cảm biến nhiệt

Bộ điều nhiệt
quạt Error signal (Cặp nhiệt điện trở)
điện/nhiên liệu (Binary)

Bộ điều khiển Setpoint: Nhiệt độ yêu cầu lối vào

Khi nhiệt độ phòng giảm xuống dưới ức nhiệt độ đặt trước, bộ

điều nhiệt sẽ kích hoạt quạt lò và thêm nhiên liệu
Summary of chapter 1