Sizing the drive system: Matching the electric machine and the internal combustion engine

(ICE), Sizing the propulsion motor, sizing the power electronics

Vehicle Communication protocols :

Need & requirements - Functions of Control Pilot (CP) and Proximity Pilot (PP) pins….refer
module 4

Communication Protocols - CAN, LIN, FLEXRAY (Basics

only)- Power line communication (PLC) in EV

Sizing the drive system

The vehicle power plant must be sized for the target vehicle mass, load requirements and
performance goals. Vehicle propulsion system traction is set by the vehicle design mass and
acceleration performance according to Newton’s law, F = ma.

Matching the electric drive and ICE

One of the most common matching elements used in hybrid electric passenger
vehicles is the epicyclic, or planetary, gear set. Continuously variable transmissions(CVT) of
the compression belt and toroidal variator variety are gaining popularity in compact vehicles
and passenger vans because of seamless transitions in ratio. For larger CVTs the issues of
torque rating and efficiency at high ratio continue to be developmental areas. Figure 4.1
shows the epicyclic gear in schematic form. This is a three port mechanical component used
as a speed summing device. Most designs rely on dual input and single output where one
input source is the ICE and the second input comes from an electric M/G. Epicyclic gear
ports may be defined as input or output according to the convection illustrated in Table 4.2.
The epicyclic basic ratio k = Rring/Rsun = Nr/Ns, where Rx(Nx) is the radius of ring and sun
gears (can also be defined as noted in terms of number of gear teeth, Nx).

Epicyclic gear train:

An automatic transmission consists of epicyclic, torque converter and overdrive. Planetary
gear train which the axis of one or more gears rotate around the axis of another gear that
remains fixed.

Parts of epicyclic gear train:

Sun gear:
The sun gear is the middle gear that has fixed axis of rotataion. The planet pinions that orbit
the sun gear mesh with the latter. The shaft of this gear serves as a power transmission input
from the engine.

Planet gear:
Rotate around their axes and that of the sun, meshing between the sun and ring gear to
tranmit the required [Link] the planet gear the pinion gears are mounted.

Ring gear:
Outermost gear, shaped like a ring, whose inner side includes the teeth that are cut an angle to
mesh with the outer teeth of planet gears. The ring gears will reach faster speeds than other
gears when it is in motion.

Planet carriers:All axles are attached to planet [Link] rotates around the sun gear when the
planet gear begins to spin around [Link] planet carrier helps in regulating the gear ratio.

The governing equation for an epicyclic gear in terms of the basic ratio and gear angular
speeds can be written as shown in (4.3):
According to Table 4.2, speed reversal occurs between sun and ring gear ports and the speed
at these ports is scaled by the basic ratio, k. All other input–output combinations preserve the
direction of speed. The basic ratio, 1.5 < k < 4, is determined by gear diameters.
There are variations of epicyclic gear sets in which combinations of epicyclic gears and spur
gears are used to realize dual stage epicyclic sets that are hard connected and do not rely on
clutches to ground any port. When clutches are used to ground various ports of an epicyclic
set, we have the essential ingredients of an automatic transmission. All automatic
transmissions are designed around epicyclic stages with clutches to affect the step ratio
changes plus an input torque converter to smooth out the speed variations of the engine by
inertia and fluid coupling.

Transmission selection
Passenger vehicle transmissions can be broadly grouped into manual shift, automatic and
continuously variable. Manual shift transmissions (MT) have pre-defined step ratios that vary
in a geometric progression. Modern MTs have an acceleration factor on the geometric ratio to
realize smoother transitions and better drive quality. MTs are virtually always spur gear on a
main and counter shaft, or layshaft, design. Automatic transmissions are designed around
planetary gear sets for power on demand shifting.

Gear step selection

Transmission gear ratios follow a geometric progression that spans the desired range of speed
ratio or shift ratio coverage. For example, a 4-speed gearbox may have a total speed ratio of
3.6:1 to 3.9:1, a 5-speed gearbox a ratio of 4.3:1 to 5.2:1 while a 6-speed gearbox will have a
speed ratio of approximately 6:1.

Sizing the propulsion motor

An electric machine is at the core of hybrid propulsion regardless of whether or not

the vehicle is gasoline–electric, diesel–electric or fuel cell electric. Propulsion is via an ac
drive system consisting of an energy storage unit, a power processor, the M/G and vehicle
driveline and wheels. Figure 4.8 is a schematic of the hybrid propulsion system in a multi-
converter architecture.

An EM is at the core of HEV drivetrains. The electric energy path of HEV consists of an
energy storage unit (such as batteries, super capacitors or fuel cells), a power processing
unit (such as DC-AC converters) and an EM.
➢ Most EMs used in HEV or EV drivetrains have speed limit of 12000 rpm due to
following reasons:
At very high rpm, the centrifugal force acting on the rotor increases and it is possible that the
rotor might fail mechanically.
The control algorithms of the EM involve determination of rotor position and this becomes
very difficult at high rotor rpm.
➢ The performance of EM is measured by following quantities:
Torque and Power Capability
ii. Constant Power Speed Ratio (CPSR)

The system in Figure 4.8 can be upgraded by the addition of an interface converter (e.g.
booster) to the ultra-capacitor bank for maximum performance when non-alkaline electrolyte
storage batteries are used. For example, a lead–acid battery system benefits the most from a
converter interface to an ultra-capacitor bank. In that case the total ESS weight and cost are
minimized. With alkaline electrolyte advanced batteries the benefits of adding an ultra-
capacitor begin to diminish and with lithium (Li) ion the benefits are minimal .

The M/G is sized as follows: maximum input speed at transmission is restricted to <12,000
rpm from the engine side by the rev-limiter function in the electronic engine controller and on
the transmission side by the proper gear selection. It is possible to over-speed the M/G and
engine by improper down shifting of the transmission while at highway speeds. Most electric
machines rated for vehicle traction applications are limited to 12,000–16,000 rpm for several
inherent reasons: rotor burst limits, rotor position sensing encoders, and their attendant digital
interface, bearing system, and critical speeds of the M/G geometry. M/G torque and power is
dictated by the electric fraction (EF) defined as the ratio of M/G peak power to total peak
power. For virtually all hybrid propulsion systems this fraction ranges from 0.1 < EF < 0.4.
At EF > 0.4, the vehicle electrical storage capacity must be increased to accommodate
electric-only range, otherwise, the vehicle will not perform well on grades or into strong
headwinds without electric torque to augment the ICE.
Currently, many reasons are given for why hybridizing the battery is not considered in many
systems. Reasons cited include comments that combinations of ultra-capacitors with batteries
will be too expensive or the hybrid ESS will be too large or weigh too much or be just too
complex to manage and that the need for a power electronic converter is simply out of the
question. Just a sampling of recent publications on the topic of ultra-capacitor plus battery
combinations and of ultracapacitor- only mild hybrid vehicle performance can be found in the
reference section of this paper. In every single instance the conclusion is the same,
combination technologies outperform either type of energy storage component acting alone.
In this chapter the focus is on how model and simulation are applied early at the design-in
stage to give a specific case study of ultra-capacitors applied to the battery storage system of
an experimental battery electric vehicle (BEV). The vehicle under consideration is a Mazda
Miata that has been converted to electric traction drive by Elite Power Solutions of Phoenix,
AZ.

Sizing the power electronics

All of the electrical power directed to the hybrid propulsion M/G must pass through the
power electronics. It has been said that control electronics uses power to process information
and that power electronics uses information to process power. In this section, we describe
how power electronics is sized to match the electric machine to the vehicle ESS. Figure 4.19
is a schematic of a hybrid ac drive system consisting of on-board energy storage, power
processing according to control algorithms and traction actuation via the M/G and vehicle
driveline.

The essentials of ac drive system operation are that power from a dc source such as a
fuel cell, battery or ultra-capacitor is converted to variable voltage, variable frequency ac
power at the M/G terminals, Vf and If. The M/G then converts this electrical power to
mechanical power in the form of a torque and speed at the transmission input shaft, T and w.
The power electronics is an electrical matching element in much the same manner that a
gearbox processes mechanical power to match the engine to the road load requirements. The
power inverter matches the dc source to the mechanical system regardless of torque or speed
level, provided these quantities are within its capability.
 Switch technology selection:

Vehicle Communication protocols : Need & requirements

Automotive communication protocols serve as the digital backbone of modern vehicles,

enabling seamless interaction between various electronic control units. These protocols
dictate how data is transmitted and interpreted within a vehicle's network, ensuring smooth
operation and coordination among different components. Without robust communication
protocols, the intricate systems in today's cars would struggle to communicate effectively,
leading to potential performance issues and safety concerns. By establishing standardized
communication protocols, automotive manufacturers can enhance interoperability between
different vehicle components and systems. This not only fosters greater efficiency but also
paves the way for advanced features like autonomous driving and connected services. The
importance of these protocols cannot be overstated as they form the foundation for innovation
and progress in the automotive industry. Ultimately, a strong emphasis on effective
communication protocols sets the stage for safer, smarter, and more reliable vehicles on our
roads.

Modern automobile systems rely heavily on vehicle communication technologies to facilitate

flawless information sharing and cooperative operation amongst the many electronic parts
and systems. It is becoming more and more important to comprehend the underlying
communication protocols as the automobile industry moves toward connected and intelligent
vehicles.

FlexRay, Controller Area Network (CAN), and Local Interconnect Network (LIN) are
three of the most often used vehicle communication technological solutions.

Communication Protocols - CAN, LIN, FLEXRAY (Basics only)-

Types of Automotive Communication Protocols

Within the realm of automotive communication, various protocols play a pivotal role in
facilitating data exchange between different vehicle components. Some common
communication protocols include Controller Area Network (CAN), Local Interconnect
Network (LIN), and FlexRay. CAN, a widely adopted protocol, enables high-speed
communication among electronic control units within vehicles, ensuring efficient real-time
data transmission. LIN, on the other hand, is utilized for lower-speed communication in less
critical systems like door controls and window regulators. FlexRay stands out for its
robustness and determinism, making it suitable for advanced safety-critical applications. Each
protocol has its unique characteristics and applications in modern vehicles. CAN offers
reliability and scalability while LIN provides cost-effective solutions for simpler functions.
FlexRay's high bandwidth and fault-tolerant features make it ideal for demanding automotive
systems such as advanced driver-assistance systems (ADAS). By incorporating a mix of these
protocols into vehicle networks, manufacturers can enhance overall performance and safety
by ensuring seamless communication across various electronic components.

CAN Protocol:

CAN stands for Controller Area Network, which is a serial communication protocol
supporting distributed real-time control with a very high level of security and efficiency. It is
a broadcast type of protocol, in which the concept of ‘Master’ and ‘Slave’ is not present. The
communication between nodes happens in a fixed frame structure. Any device/node having
an update over a specific activity from any application could transmit the corresponding
frame and every other device/node on the bus could read this frame and respond to it
correspondingly. During such a situation, conflict on the bus is inevitable. This is resolved by
‘bit-wise arbitration’.

LIN Protocol:

LIN stands for Local Interconnect Network; it is a serial communication and low-cost
protocol for various low-speed and non-critical electronic applications in an automobile. It is
a master-slave type of communication-based on a polling strategy (like UART) and it is half-
duplex or one-way communication at a given time. There is 1 Master and up to 15 slaves on a
LIN bus. The communication between the Master and Slaves happens through a fixed frame
structure initiated by the master always. The slave/(s) respond to the header accordingly. It is
important to note that, sometimes the master can respond to its header.
FlexRay Protocol:

FlexRay is a fault-tolerant, deterministic, and high-speed automotive networking serial

communication protocol. The fundamental idea of designing the FlexRay protocol was to
meet the high-speed requirements of various applications in an automobile. Even in this
protocol, multiple nodes are trying to communicate and there is no master-slave concept
present. Each node is given a specific time during which the communication happens. A fixed
frame structure is used to communicate between the nodes.

Advantages of LIN protocol:

 As LIN is a single wire-based interface, it reduces the cost and the complexity of
implementation.
 LIN is self-synchronized and therefore no need for external oscillators.
 LIN is the best and the most suited alternative to the CAN for applications that do not
need high bandwidth and that are of low speed.

Disadvantages of LIN protocol:

 Since LIN is a low speed, it is not considered for safety and other important
applications.
 The communication is always initiated by the master and therefore when the master
device fails then the whole bus gets failed.
 There are no strong error-checking mechanisms in LIN.

Advantages of CAN protocol:

  CAN is used in different electrical environments which offers noise-free transmission.
 In CAN any node on the bus can initiate the communication and any node can
respond. Therefore, the failure of one device/node will not lead to the failure of the
entire system.
 CAN protocol offers strong error-checking mechanisms.

Disadvantages of CAN protocol:

 CAN bus is more expensive than the LIN

 Implementing CAN is a bit more complex than that of LIN due to the increased
number of nodes.

Advantages of FlexRay:

 FlexRay is a deterministic, fault-tolerant, and high-speed protocol than that CAN

protocol and therefore FlexRay is mostly used in safety-critical applications.
 Since FlexRay is a synchronous protocol, it synchronizes its nodes without an
external synchronous clock.
 The star topology of the FlexRay reduces the exposed wire for the segment which in
turn decreases the noise.
 It has a better error-checking mechanism compared to LIN and CAN.

Disadvantages of FlexRay:

 It is expensive compared to LIN and CAN protocols.

 It is a bit complex to implement
 It has lower operating voltages

Applications of LIN

LIN is used in non-critical applications like:

 Sunroof sensors
 Light sensors
 Wiper sensors
 Climate control sensors
 In engines for engine fan cooling sensors

Applications of CAN

 CAN is used as a controller which makes direct communication with Engine Control
Units (ECUs) for applications that are used by LIN.
 CAN also find its application outside the automotive industry such as in Avionics,
Industrial automation, and escalators and elevators.
 CAN is used for internal hardware communication of a control unit or a CPU inside
Battery Management Systems (BMS).

Applications of FlexRay
FlexRay is used in safety-critical applications like:

 Power train module

 Safety suspension
 Adaptive Cruise Control

Power line communication (PLC) in EV

At present the communication in cars is mostly implemented through dedicated wired
solutions: excluding the infotainment subsystem, there are currently three common buses,
namely LIN, CAN and FlexRay. LIN provides time triggered communication at speeds of 20
kbps, and it is meant for inexpensive communication without reliability or timeliness
requirements. CAN provides event triggered communication at speeds of up to 1 Mbps,
providing good levels of reliability and timeliness. FlexRay provides time-triggered
communication at speeds up to 10 Mbps (x2 channels) and it is meant for safetycritical
systems and as a backbone to interconnect different segments. Power Line Communication
technology (PLC) on the other hand aims at exploiting the power supply line to send/receive
information without using separate dedicated wires; nowadays it is mostly adopted for power
utilities communication and remote control, automatic remote meter reading, and home and
building automation. Savings in cable deployment that, within a modern reliable car, can
reach up to 2 km length, with many interface nodes, seems to be a reason significant enough
to propose this solution to be adopted even in the automotive domain. The electric vehicle
deserve still more attention on this regard, because energy efficient policy requirements,
inherent in the electric vehicle design philosophy, can better be attained through a careful
coordination of data exchange among the main car sections: substantial saving can be
expected from an optimal energy exploitation from the battery (or fuel cell) source to both
propulsion and service destination.