TOPIC 3: COMMUNICATION THEORY

All About Theories for Communication.

The Shannon–Weaver model is one of the first and most influential models of communication. It
was initially published in the 1948 paper "A Mathematical Theory of Communication" and
explains communication in terms of five basic components: a source, a transmitter, a channel, a
receiver, and a destination. The source produces the original message. The transmitter translates
the message into a signal, which is sent using a channel. The receiver translates the signal back
into the original message and makes it available to the destination. For a landline phone call, the
person calling is the source. They use the telephone as a transmitter, which produces an electric
signal that is sent through the wire as a channel. The person receiving the call is the destination
and their telephone is the receiver.

Shannon and Weaver distinguish three types of problems of communication: technical, semantic,
and effectiveness problems. They focus on the technical level, which concerns the problem of
how to use a signal to accurately reproduce a message from one location to another location. The
difficulty in this regard is that noise may distort the signal. They discuss redundancy as a
solution to this problem: if the original message is redundant then the distortions can be detected,
which makes it possible to reconstruct the source's original intention.

The Shannon–Weaver model of communication has been very influential in various fields,
including communication theory and information theory. Many later theorists have built their
own models on its insights.
WEAKNESS OF SHANNON WEAVER MODEL.

It oversimplifies communication. One common objection is that communication should not be

understood as a one-way process but as a dynamic interaction of messages going back and forth
between both participants.
Another criticism rejects the idea that the message exists prior to the communication and argues
instead that the encoding is itself a creative process that creates the content.
Overview and basic component
The Shannon–Weaver model is one of the earliest and most influential models of
communication. It was initially published by Claude Shannon in his 1948 paper "A
Mathematical Theory of Communication".[5] The model was further developed together
with Warren Weaver in their co-authored 1949 book The Mathematical Theory of
Communication.[6][7] It aims to provide a formal representation of the basic elements and
relations involved in the process of communication.[8]

In successful face-to-face communication, a message is translated into a sound wave, which is

transmitted through the air and translated back to the original message when it is heard by the
other party.
The model consists of five basic components: a source, a transmitter, a channel, a receiver, and a
destination.[5][2][9] The source of information is usually a person and decides which message to
send. The message can take various forms, such as a sequence of letters, sounds, or images. The
transmitter is responsible for translating the message into a signal. To send the signal, a channel
is required.[2][5][10][7] Channels are ways of transmitting signals, like light, sound waves, radio
waves, and electrical wires.[10] The receiver performs the opposite function of the transmitter: it
translates the signal back into a message and makes it available to the destination. The
destination is the person for whom the message was intended.[5][2][10]
Shannon and Weaver focus on telephonic conversation as the paradigmatic case of how
messages are produced and transmitted through a channel. But their model is intended as a
general model that can be applied to any form of communication.[9][10][11] For a regular face-
to-face conversation, the person talking is the source, the mouth is the transmitter, the air is the
channel transmitting the sound waves, the listener is the destination, and the ear is the receiver.
In the case of a landline phone call, the source is the person calling, the transmitter is their
telephone, the channel is the wire, the receiver is another telephone and the destination is the
person using the second telephone.[10][2][5] To apply this model accurately to real-life cases,
some of the components may have to be repeated. For the telephone call, for example, the mouth
is also a transmitter before the telephone itself as a second transmitter.[10]
Problems of communication
[edit]
Shannon and Weaver identify and address problems in the study of communication at three basic
levels: technical, semantic, and effectiveness problems (referred to as levels A, B, and
C).[12][10] Shannon and Weaver hold that models of communication should provide good
responses to all three problems, ideally by showing how to make communication more accurate
and efficient.[10] The prime focus of their model is the technical level, which concerns the issue
of how to accurately reproduce a message from one location to another location.[5][10] For this
problem, it is not relevant what meaning the message carries. By contrast, it is only relevant that
the message can be distinguished from different possible messages that could have been sent
instead of it.[5]
Semantic problems go beyond the symbols themselves and ask how they convey meaning.
Shannon and Weaver assumed that the meaning is already contained in the message but many
subsequent communication theorists have further problematized this point by including the
influence of cultural factors and the context in their models. The effectiveness problem is based
on the idea that the person sending the message has some goal in mind concerning how the
person receiving the message is going to react. In this regard, effectivity means that the reaction
matches the speaker's goal.[12][10]The problem of effectivity concerns the question of how to
achieve this. Many critics have rejected this aspect of Shannon and Weaver's theory since it
seems to equate communication with manipulation or propaganda.[10]
Noise and redundancy
[edit]
To solve the technical problem at level A, it is necessary for the receiver to reconstruct the
original message from the signal. However, various forms of noise can interfere and distort
it.[10][12][7][11] Noise is not intended by the source and makes it harder for the receiver to
reconstruct the source's intention found in the original message. Crackling sounds during a
telephone call or snow on a television screen are examples of noise. One way to solve this
problem is to make the information in the message partially redundant. This way, distortions can
often be identified and the original meaning can be reconstructed. A very basic form of
redundancy is to repeat the same message several times. But redundancy can take various other
forms as well. For example, the English language is redundant in the sense that many possible
combinations of letters are meaningless. So the term "comming" does not have a distinct
meaning. For this reason, it can be identified as a misspelling of the term "coming", thus
revealing the source's original intention. Redundancy makes it easier to detect distortions but its
drawback is that messages carry less information.[10][12]
Influence and criticism
[edit]
The Shannon–Weaver model of communication has been very influential and has inspired a lot
of subsequent work in the field of communication studies.[10][13][11] Erik Hollnagel and David
D. Woods even characterize it as the "mother of all models."[14] It has been widely adopted in
various other fields, including information theory, organizational analysis, and psychology.
Many later theorists expanded this model by including additional elements in order to take into
account other aspects of communication. For example, Wilbur Schramm includes a feedback
loop to understand communication as an interactive process and George Gerbner emphasizes the
relation between communication and the reality to which the communication refers. Some of
these models, like Gerbner's, are equally universal in that they apply to any form of
communication. Others apply to more specific areas. For example, Lasswell's model and Westley
and MacLean's model are specifically formulated for mass media.[13] Shannon's concepts were
also popularized in John Robinson Pierce's Symbols, Signals, and Noise, which introduces the
topic to non-specialists.[15]

Some theorists reject the linear nature of the Shannon–Weaver model and include a two-way
exchange of messages instead.
Many criticisms of the Shannon–Weaver model focus on its simplicity by pointing out that it
leaves out vital aspects of communication. In this regard, it has been characterized as
"inappropriate for analyzing social processes"[16] and as a "misleading misrepresentation of the
nature of human communication".[17] A common objection is based on the fact that it is a linear
transmission model: it conceptualizes communication as a one-way process going from a source
to a destination. Against this approach, it is argued that communication is usually more
interactive with messages and feedback going back and forth between the participants. This
approach is implemented by non-linear transmission models, also termed interaction
models.[18][3][19] They include Wilbur Schramm's model, Frank Dance's helical-spiral model, a
circular model developed by Lee Thayer, and the "sawtooth" model due to Paul
Watzlawick, Janet Beavin, and Don Jackson.[9][20] These approaches emphasize the dynamic
nature of communication by showing how the process evolves as a multi-directional exchange of
messages.[21][3][20]
Another criticism focuses on the fact that Shannon and Weaver understand the message as a
form of preexisting information. I. A. Richards criticizes this approach for treating the message
as a preestablished entity that is merely packaged by the transmitter and later unpackaged by the
receiver.[13] This outlook is characteristic of all transmission models. They contrast with
constitutive models,[18] which see meanings as "reflexively constructed, maintained, or
negotiated in the act of communicating".[22] Richards argues that the message does not exist
before it is articulated. This means that the encoding is itself a creative process that creates the
content. Before it, there is a need to articulate oneself but no precise pre-existing
content.[13] The communicative process may not just affect the meaning of the message but also
the social identities of the communicators, which are established and modified in the ongoing
communicative process.[22]
References
Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication
This model is specially designed to develop the effective communication between sender and
receiver. Also they find factors which affecting the communication process called “Noise”..
The model deals with various concepts like Information source, transmitter, Noise, channel,
message, receiver, channel, information destination, encode and decode.

Sender : The originator of message or the information source selects desire message
Encoder : The transmitter which converts the message into signals
Note: The sender’s messages converted into signals like waves or Binary data which is
compactable to transmit the messages through cables or satellites. For example: In telephone the
voice is converted into wave signals and it transmits through cables
Decoder : The reception place of the signal which converts signals into message. A reverse
process of encode
Note : The receiver converts those binary data or waves into message which is comfortable and
understandable for receiver. Otherwise receiver can’t receive the exact message and it will affect
the effective communication between sender and receiver
Receiver : The destination of the message from sender
Note : Based on the decoded message the receiver gives their feed back to sender. If the message
distracted by noise it will affect the communication flow between sender and receiver
Noise: The messages are transferred from encoder to decoder through channel. During this
process the messages may distracted or affected by physical noise like horn sounds, thunder and
crowd noise or encoded signals may distract in the channel during the transmission process
which affect the communication flow or the receiver may not receive the correct message
Note : The model is clearly deals with external noises only which affect the messages or signals
from external sources. For example: If there is any problems occur in network which directly
affect the mobile phone communication or distract the messages
Practical Example of Shannon-Weaver model of communication :
Thomson made call to his assistant “come here I want to see you”. During his call, noise
appeared (transmission error) and his assistant received “I want” only. Again Assistant asked
Thomson (feedback) “what do you want Thomson”.

Sender : Thomson

Encoder : Telephone (Thomson)

Channel : Cable

Noise : Distraction in voice

Reception : Telephone (Assistant)

Receiver : Assistant.

Due to transmission error or noise, Assistant can’t able to understand Thomson’s messages.

*The noise which affect the communication flow between them.

Criticism of Shannon-Weaver model of communication :

1. One of the simplest model and its general applied in various communication theories
2. The model which attracts both academics of Human communication and Information
theorist to leads their further research in communication
3. It’s more effective in person-to-person communication than group or mass audience
4. The model based on “Sender and Receiver”. Here sender plays the primary role and
receiver plays the secondary role (receive the information or passive)
5. Communication is not a one way process. If it’s behaved like that, it will lose its strength.
For example: Audience or receiver who listening a radio, reading the books or watching
television is a one way communication because absence of feedback
6. Understanding Noise will helps to solve the various problems in communication
Shannon Weaver model of communication was developed in 1948 when Claude Shannon wrote
an article “A Mathematical Theory

o Shannon- Weaver model

Osgood-Schramm Model of Communication: Definition & Exam
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What is Media of Communication? Definitions, Types and Examples
Communication is an integral part of human interaction, facilitating the exchange of ideas,
emotions, and information. Over the years, numerous models have been developed to understand
the complexities of communication processes. One such model that has stood the test of time is
the Osgood-Schramm Model, named after its creators Charles Egerton Osgood and Wilbur
Schramm. This article aims to explore the Osgood-Schramm Model in detail, examining its
components, applications, and criticisms within various communication contexts.

Definition of Osgood-Schramm Model of Communication

The Osgood-Schramm Model of Communication is a theoretical framework developed by

Charles Egerton Osgood and Wilbur Schramm to explain the process of human communication.
This model posits that communication involves a dynamic interaction between a sender,
message, receiver, feedback, context, channel, and noise. The sender encodes a message and
transmits it through a chosen channel to the receiver, who decodes the message and provides
feedback. Contextual factors such as the environment and cultural background influence how the
message is interpreted. Channels can be verbal or nonverbal, while noise refers to any
interference that disrupts the communication process. This model emphasizes the cyclical nature
of communication, highlighting the importance of understanding various components and their
interactions for effective communication to occur.

Read about Wilbur Schramm’s communication model.

Key Components of the Osgood-Schramm Model of Communication

The Osgood-Schramm Model comprises several interconnected components that collectively

shape the communication process:

Sender

The sender, also known as the encoder, is the individual or entity initiating the communication
process. They encode their thoughts, ideas, or emotions into a message that can be transmitted to
the receiver. The sender’s role is crucial in determining the content, tone, and style of the
message.

Message

The message is the content being communicated from the sender to the receiver. It can take
various forms, including verbal (spoken or written words) and nonverbal (gestures, facial
expressions, tone of voice) cues. The message encapsulates the sender’s intended meaning and is
subject to interpretation by the receiver.

Receiver

The receiver, also known as the decoder, is the intended recipient of the message. They decode
the message, extracting meaning from the symbols and cues transmitted by the sender. The
receiver’s interpretation of the message is influenced by their perceptions, experiences, cultural
background, and cognitive biases.

Feedback

Feedback is a crucial component of the communication process, representing the receiver’s

response to the sender’s message. It provides valuable information to the sender about how their
message was received and understood. Feedback can be verbal (spoken or written), nonverbal
(gestures, facial expressions), or implicit (behavioral responses), and it plays a pivotal role in
shaping subsequent interactions.
Context

Context refers to the environmental, situational, and cultural factors that influence the
communication process. It includes elements such as the physical setting, social norms, cultural
values, historical background, and relational dynamics between communicators. Context shapes
the meaning of the message and influences how it is interpreted and perceived by the receiver.

Channel

The channel is the medium through which the message is transmitted from the sender to the
receiver. It can be verbal (face-to-face conversation, telephone, radio) or nonverbal (body
language, facial expressions). The choice of channel depends on various factors such as the
nature of the message, the relationship between the sender and receiver, and the context of
communication.

Noise

Noise refers to any interference or distortion that disrupts the communication process, leading to
misunderstandings or misinterpretations of the message. Noise can be external (physical
distractions, background noise), internal (mental distractions, cognitive biases), or semantic
(language barriers, ambiguity). Minimizing noise is essential for effective communication to
ensure that the intended message is accurately transmitted and understood.

Learn the simialrities and differences between Shannon-Weaver and Schramm’s models.

Diagram of Osgood-Schramm Model of Communication

The following diagram illustrates the key components and their interactions in the Osgood-
Schramm Model:

Field of Experience in the Osgood-Schramm Model

In the Osgood-Schramm Model of Communication, the “Field of Experience” refers to the sum
total of an individual’s personal experiences, cultural background, values, beliefs, attitudes, and
social context that shape their interpretation of messages during the communication process. This
concept emphasizes that communication is not just about the exchange of words or information
but also about the subjective understanding and meaning-making by individuals based on their
unique life experiences.
The Field of Experience plays a crucial role in the interpretation of messages because it
influences how individuals perceive, understand, and respond to communication. People with
different backgrounds and experiences may interpret the same message differently, leading to
potential misunderstandings or miscommunication. For example, cultural differences,
socioeconomic status, education level, and personal beliefs can all influence how individuals
interpret messages and assign meaning to them.

Understanding the Field of Experience is essential for effective communication because it allows
communicators to consider the diverse backgrounds and perspectives of their audience. By
acknowledging and respecting the different experiences and cultural contexts of individuals,
communicators can tailor their messages to be more relevant and meaningful to their audience.
This can help bridge communication gaps, promote understanding, and foster better relationships
between communicators and receivers.

Applications of the Osgood-Schramm Model of Communication

The Osgood-Schramm Model has found widespread application across various communication
contexts, including interpersonal communication, mass communication, organizational
communication, and public relations:

Interpersonal Communication

In interpersonal communication, the model provides insights into the dynamics of interactions
between individuals. It underscores the importance of feedback, context, and channel selection in
shaping the quality and effectiveness of interpersonal communication. The model’s emphasis on
sender-receiver dynamics helps individuals navigate social interactions and build meaningful
relationships.

Mass Communication

In mass communication, the Osgood-Schramm Model informs the production and dissemination
of media messages to a diverse audience. It highlights the role of media channels in delivering
messages to mass audiences and emphasizes the need for media producers to consider audience
characteristics, preferences, and feedback when crafting messages. The model’s focus on
feedback enables media organizations to assess the impact of their communication efforts on
audience engagement and reception.

Check out the important Mass Communication Theories and Models

Check out the important Mass Communication Theories and Models.
Organizational Communication

In organizational communication, the model offers insights into how communication processes
unfold within complex organizational structures. It underscores the importance of clear and
effective messaging in facilitating coordination, collaboration, and decision-making within
organizations. The model’s emphasis on context and noise helps organizations identify and
address communication barriers that may hinder productivity and performance.

Public Relations

In public relations, the Osgood-Schramm Model informs strategic communication initiatives

aimed at managing and shaping public perceptions. It underscores the role of feedback, context,
and channel selection in designing persuasive messages that resonate with target audiences. The
model’s emphasis on sender-message-receiver dynamics helps public relations practitioners craft
messages that effectively convey organizational goals, values, and narratives.

Delve into the role of New Media in public relations.

Advantages of the Osgood-Schramm Model of Communication

The Osgood-Schramm Model of Communication offers several advantages that contribute to its
usefulness in understanding and analyzing communication processes:

Comprehensive Framework

The model provides a comprehensive framework that incorporates multiple components of

communication, including sender, message, receiver, feedback, context, channel, and noise. By
considering these elements, the model offers a holistic perspective on communication dynamics.

Emphasis on Feedback

The Osgood-Schramm Model emphasizes the importance of feedback in the communication

process. Feedback allows communicators to assess the effectiveness of their messages and make
adjustments to improve communication outcomes. This focus on feedback promotes interactive
and iterative communication exchanges.
Recognition of Context

The model acknowledges the significance of context in shaping communication interactions.

Contextual factors such as cultural background, social norms, and environmental conditions
influence how messages are perceived and interpreted. By considering context, communicators
can tailor their messages to be more relevant and impactful.

Flexibility

The Osgood-Schramm Model is flexible and adaptable to various communication contexts and
situations. Whether applied to interpersonal communication, mass communication, or
organizational communication, the model’s framework remains relevant and applicable, allowing
for a wide range of analyses.

Practical Applications

The model has practical applications in fields such as media studies, advertising, public relations,
and organizational communication. By understanding the components of the model and their
interactions, practitioners can develop more effective communication strategies, campaigns, and
interventions.

Insight into Communication Dynamics

By examining the sender-message-receiver-feedback loop, the Osgood-Schramm Model offers

valuable insights into communication dynamics. It helps elucidate how messages are transmitted,
received, and interpreted, as well as the factors that influence communication effectiveness.

Predictive Power

The model’s framework can be used to predict communication outcomes based on the interaction
of its components. By understanding how changes in one component affect the overall
communication process, communicators can anticipate potential challenges and opportunities in
their interactions.
In summary, the Osgood-Schramm Model of Communication offers several advantages,
including its comprehensive framework, emphasis on feedback, recognition of context,
flexibility, practical applications, insight into communication dynamics, and predictive power.
These advantages make the model a valuable tool for understanding, analyzing, and improving
communication processes in various contexts.

Read about the Agenda-Setting Theory and its advantages and disadvantages.

Disadvantages of the Osgood-Schramm Model of Communication

Despite its widespread acceptance and application, the Osgood-Schramm Model has faced
criticisms from scholars and practitioners within the field of communication studies. While this
model offers valuable insights into communication processes, it also has several limitations and
disadvantages:

Oversimplification

Critics argue that the model oversimplifies the complexity of human communication by reducing
it to a linear process of transmission and reception. In reality, communication is often nonlinear,
iterative, and influenced by multiple factors simultaneously. By reducing communication to a
linear process of transmission and reception, this model fails to capture the intricacies and
nuances of real-life communication interactions.

Lack of Dynamism

The model portrays communication as a static and one-way process, with a clear sender-
message-receiver-feedback loop. However, communication is often dynamic and nonlinear,
involving multiple feedback loops and interactions between communicators. The model’s linear
representation does not fully account for this dynamic nature of communication.

Limited Focus on Context

While the Osgood-Schramm Model acknowledges the importance of context in communication,

critics argue that it does not adequately address the role of context in shaping communication
interactions. They argue for a more nuanced understanding of context, including its role in
shaping power dynamics, social identities, and cultural meanings in communication. Contextual
factors such as cultural background, social norms, and environmental conditions play a
significant role in influencing how messages are interpreted and understood, but the model’s
treatment of context is relatively simplistic.
Lack of Emphasis on Power Dynamics

Critics also highlight the model’s limited treatment of power dynamics in communication,
particularly in interpersonal and organizational contexts. They argue that communication is not
always symmetrical, and power differentials between communicators can significantly influence
the exchange of messages and the interpretation of meaning. The model’s focus on sender-
receiver interactions does not fully capture these power dynamics.

Inadequate Treatment of Feedback

Some critics argue that the model’s treatment of feedback is limited, focusing primarily on the
receiver’s response to the sender’s message. They advocate for a broader understanding of
feedback that considers the mutual exchange of information, the role of context in shaping
feedback, and the iterative nature of communication. The model primarily focuses on the
receiver’s response to the sender’s message, overlooking the mutual exchange of information
and the role of context in shaping feedback. This narrow view of feedback fails to capture its
complexity and significance in communication interactions.

Lack of Cultural Sensitivity

The model’s emphasis on sender-message-receiver interactions may overlook the cultural

differences and diverse backgrounds of communicators. Cultural sensitivity is essential in
communication, as cultural norms and values can significantly influence how messages are
perceived and interpreted. The model’s simplistic representation may not adequately account for
these cultural variations.

In summary, while the Osgood-Schramm Model of Communication provides a useful framework

for understanding communication processes, it also has several disadvantages, including
oversimplification, lack of dynamism, limited focus on context and power dynamics, inadequate
treatment of feedback, and lack of cultural sensitivity. These limitations highlight the need for a
more nuanced and holistic understanding of communication phenomena.

Read the differences between Two-Step Flow and Multi-Step Flow theories.

Examples of the Osgood-Schramm Model of Communication

Examples of the Osgood-Schramm Model of Communication can be found in various everyday

scenarios, as well as in professional and academic contexts. Here are a few examples illustrating
how the components of the model interact in different communication situations:
Face-to-Face Conversation

Imagine two friends, Sarah and John, having a face-to-face conversation at a café. Sarah (the
sender) shares a story about her recent vacation (the message) with John (the receiver). As Sarah
speaks, John provides verbal and nonverbal feedback, such as nodding, smiling, and asking
questions, indicating his engagement and understanding of the message. The context of the café
environment influences their interaction, and noise from nearby conversations may occasionally
disrupt their communication flow. The channel of communication is verbal, with Sarah speaking
and John listening.

Television Advertisement

Consider a television advertisement for a new smartphone. The company (sender) creates a
visually appealing commercial showcasing the smartphone’s features and benefits (message).
The advertisement is broadcast on television (channel) and reaches a broad audience (receiver).
Viewers provide feedback through ratings, comments on social media, or purchasing the product,
which the company uses to evaluate the effectiveness of the advertisement. The noise in this
context could include distractions such as other advertisements, background noise, or competing
stimuli.

Check out the DAGMAR and AIDA models of advertising.

Academic Lecture

In an academic lecture, the professor (sender) delivers a lecture on a particular topic (message) to
a room full of students (receivers). The lecture is delivered verbally, with visual aids such as
slides or handouts (channel). Students take notes, ask questions, and engage in discussions,
providing feedback to the professor. The context of the lecture hall, as well as the students’ prior
knowledge and interests, shapes their understanding of the material. Noise in this context could
include distractions such as outside noises, technical difficulties, or lack of clarity in the
professor’s delivery.

Workplace Meeting

During a workplace meeting, the team leader (sender) presents a new project proposal (message)
to the team members (receivers). The meeting takes place in a conference room (context), and
the communication occurs verbally (channel), supplemented by visual aids such as slides or
documents. Team members provide feedback through questions, suggestions, and discussion,
shaping the direction of the project. Noise in this context could include interruptions, conflicting
opinions, or distractions from electronic devices.
These examples demonstrate how the components of the Osgood-Schramm Model—sender,
message, receiver, feedback, context, channel, and noise—interact in different communication
scenarios, highlighting the model’s applicability in various contexts.

Learn about the Uses and Gratification Theory in detail with us.

Conclusion

Osgood-Schramm Model of Communication provides a comprehensive framework for

understanding the dynamics of human communication. Its emphasis on sender-message-receiver
dynamics, feedback, context, channel, and noise has been influential in various communication
contexts. However, the model is not without its criticisms, particularly regarding its simplistic
representation, limited focus on context and power dynamics, and inadequate treatment of
feedback. Despite these criticisms, the Osgood-Schramm Model continues to serve as a valuable
tool for analyzing and studying communication phenomena in diverse social, cultural, and
organizational contexts. By understanding the complexities of communication processes, we can
enhance our ability to convey messages effectively.

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FAQs

What is the Osgood-Schramm model of communication?

The Osgood-Schramm Model of Communication is a theoretical framework developed by
Charles Egerton Osgood and Wilbur Schramm in the 1950s. It describes communication as a
dynamic process involving a sender who encodes a message, a channel through which the
message is transmitted, a receiver who decodes the message, and feedback that completes the
communication loop. The model also incorporates elements such as context, noise, and the field
of experience, highlighting the complexity of human communication interactions.

What is an example of the Osgood and Schramm model of communication?

An example of the Osgood-Schramm Model of Communication is a telephone conversation
between two friends. The sender, Friend A, initiates the communication by encoding a message
(e.g., “Hey, how are you?”). The message is transmitted through the telephone channel to the
receiver, Friend B. Friend B decodes the message and responds with feedback (e.g., “I’m doing
well, thanks for asking!”). The communication loop is completed as Friend A acknowledges the
response. Contextual factors, such as the time of day and the friends’ previous interactions, as
well as potential noise from background sounds, may influence the communication process.