SPECIAL SENSES

• The human body has two basic types of senses, called special senses and
general senses.
• Special senses have specialized sense organs that gather sensory information and
change it into nerve impulses.
• Special senses include vision, hearing, taste, and smell.
• Special senses are processed via cranial nerves and differ from the pathway
utilized in processing general senses.

Special senses are:

1. Sensation of vision
2. Sensation of hearing
3. Sensation of taste
4. Sensation of smell

SPECIAL SENSES - VISION

Structure of the Eye
 Globe shaped, with a diameter of about 24 mm
 Slightly flattened from above downwards
 Made up of two segments, an anterior part and a posterior Part
 Anterior part is small and forms one sixth of the eyeball
 Posterior part is larger and forms five sixth of the eyeball
 Radius of this part is about 8 mm
 Posterior wall of this part is lined by the light sensitive structure called
retina
 Except anterior one sixth,the eyeball is situated in a bony cavity known as
orbital cavity or eye socket
 Eyeballs are attached to orbital cavity by the ocular muscles

Accessory Structures of the Eye:
- Eyebrows:
 Shade the eyes from sunlight
 Prevent water/perspiration trickling down the forehead into the eyes.
- Eyelids (‘Palpebrae’):
 Protect the eye when threatened by foreign objects
 Blinking prevents drying of the eyes
- Conjunctiva (“Joined Together”):
 Transparent mucus membrane lining the eyelids (‘Palpebral
Conjunctiva’) & the anterior eyeball surface (‘Bulbar
Conjunctiva’).
 Produces lubricating mucus – Prevents drying out

Lacrimal
Apparatus:
 Consists of
 Lacrimal Gland (Tear Gland):
 Located in the orbit above the eye.
 - Secretes dilute saline (Lacrimal secretion/tears)
 Lacrimal Canaliculi:
 2 openings on medial margin of each eyelid.
 - Drains tears into the Lacrimal Sac → Nasolacrimal Duct
→ Nose

- Note: Lacrimal fluid contains Mucus, Antibodies & Lysozyme (an

antibacterial)
- Extrinsic Eye Muscles:
 Eyeball movement is controlled by 6 muscles
 The 4x Rectus Muscles originate from a common tendinous ring
(Annular Ring) at the back of the eye.
 The 2x Oblique Muscles take different paths through the orbit.
They are required to cancel the medial pull of the superior &
inferior recti to allow purely vertical eye movement.
Eye Anatomy:
- 3-Layered Wall (Tunics):
1. Fibrous Layer: (Outermost layer, Tunica externa or tunica fibrosa)
 Made of Dense Connective Tissue
 2 Regions:
 Cornea:
o The Clear, Anterior part of the eye that lets light in.
o Major role in the refractive apparatus of the eye.
 Sclera:
o The white/opaque, Posterior part of the eye.
o Protects & shapes the eyeball.
o It is continuous with the Dura Mater of the brain
via the optic nerve sheath.
2. Vascular Layer: (Middle Layer, Tunica media or tunica vasculosa)
 Middle layer surrounds the eyeball completely, except for a small
opening in front known as pupil
 2 Parts:
 Choroid:
o Highly vascular, dark membrane (Posterior 5/6 of
eye).
 Supplies nutrition to all eye layers
 Absorbs light, preventing it from
scattering/reflecting within the eye.
o Anteriorly, it becomes the Ciliary Body:
 A thickened ring of smooth muscle around
the lens.
 These Ciliary Muscles control lens shape.
 The Ciliary Zonule (Suspensory
ligaments) connects the Ciliary
Muscles to the lens.
 Iris (“Rainbow”):
o The Anterior, coloured portion of the Vascular
Layer
o Lies between the Cornea & the Lens.
o Its round, central opening (The Pupil) allows light
in.
o Consists of 2 Smooth Muscle Layers:
 Sphincter Pupillae (Circular) → Pupil
Constriction
 Dilator Pupillae (Radial) → Pupil Dilation
3. Retinal Layer: (Innermost Layer, Tunica interna or tunica nervosa)
 2 Sub-Layers:
 Pigmented Layer:
o Outer Retinal Layer
o Dark, Single-cell-thick lining adjacent to the
Choroid.
 o Absorbs light, prevents scattering/reflection within
the eye.
o Also function as phagocytes, removing
dead/damaged photoreceptor cells.
o Store Vitamin-A (needed by photoreceptor cells)
 Neural Layer:
o Inner Retinal Layer
o Transparent layer of Photoreceptors/Neurons/ &
Glia
o Direct Role in Vision (Light Transduction)
 Composed of 3 Types of Neurons:
 Photoreceptors:
o Light Transduction
o Blood Supply = The Choroid
o 2 Types:
 Rods – Light Detectors (Dim & Fuzzy)
 Cones – Colour Detectors (Bright & Sharp)
 Bipolar Neurons:
o Connect Photoreceptors to Ganglion Cells
o Blood Supply = The Central Artery/Vein of the
Retina.
 Ganglion Cells:
o Generate & Conduct the Action Potentials → Brain
o Blood Supply = The Central Artery/Vein of the
Retina.
 Note: Also contains other types of neurons (Amacrine Cells
& Horizontal Cells) which play a role in visual processing.
 The Optic Disc - Where the Ganglion Cells’ Axons exit the
eye to form the optic nerve. (Blind Spot)
 The Macula Lutea (“Yellow Spot”):
 Oval region directly at the eye’s Posterior Pole.
 Contains mostly Cones
 The Fovea Centralis – a tiny pit in the centre of the
Macula Lutea – Contains ONLY
Cones.
 Note: Cone density decreases toward the retinal periphery.
 Note: Rod density increases toward the retinal periphery.
The Eye’s 2 Segments & Fluids:
o The Lens & its Ciliary Zonule (Suspensory Ligaments) Divide the eye
into 2 segments:
o 1. Anterior Segment:
 In front of the lens.
 Filled with ‘Aqueous Humour’ – a clear, plasma-like
substance:
 Features:
o Continually formed by capillaries of the Ciliary
Processes in the posterior chamber.
o Flows from the Posterior Chamber to the Anterior
Chamber
o Drains from Ant. Chamber into venous blood via
the Scleral Venous Sinus
(Canal of Schlemm) which encircles the Sclera-
Cornea Junction
o Has the same refractive index as the Cornea
 Functions:
o Its pressure supports the eyeball internally.
o Supplies Nutrients & Oxygen to the Lens & Cornea
 Subdivided by the Iris into 2 Chambers:
 Anterior Chamber:
o Between the Cornea & the Iris
 Posterior Chamber:
o Between the Iris & the Lens.
 Contains:
 Cornea
 Iris
 Lens
 Ciliary Muscles (Lens accommodation)
 Ciliary Processes (Aqueous humour production)
 Aqueous Humour
 Ciliary Zonule (Suspensory Ligaments)
 Scleral Venous Sinuses (Canal Of Schlemm)
2. Posterior Segment:
 Behind the lens.
 Filled with a clear gel called ‘Vitreous Humour’ (“Glassy
Fluid”):
 Features:
o Formed in the Embryo & Lasts a Lifetime
o Has the same refractive index as the cornea
 Functions:
o Transmits light
o Supports the posterior surface of the lens
o Holds the Neural Retina firmly against the
Pigmented Layer
o Contributes to Intraocular Pressure
 Contains:
 Vitreous Humour
 Retina
 Choroid
 Sclera
 Macula Lutea & Fovea Centralis
 Optic Disc
 Optic Nerve
- The Eye’s Lens:
o Features:
 Biconvex
 Transparent
 Flexible
 Enclosed in a thin, elastic capsule
 Held in place by the Ciliary Zonule (Suspensory Ligaments)
 2 Parts:
 Lens Epithelium:
o On the Anterior Lens Surface
o Cuboidal Cells
 Lens Fibres:
o Form the bulk of the lens
o Arranged in layers (like an onion)
o Lens Physics:
 A lens of a certain ‘power’ has a certain Focal Point. The
distance between the lens & the focal point is the Focal
Distance.
 Note: The eye has a fixed Focal Distance, therefore the Lens
‘Power’ must be variable.
o Function:
 Focuses light rays onto the retina.
 Accommodation: Changes shape (& hence, lens ‘Power’) to
 maintain Focal Distance.

VISUAL RECEPTORS

Two types of light-sensitive receptors

Rods
 Very sensitive to light and have a low threshold
 So, the rods are responsible for dim light vision or night vision or scotopic
vision
 But, rods do not take part in resolving the details and boundaries of objects
(visual acuity) or the color of the objects (color vision)
 Vision by rod is black, white or in the combination of black and white namely,
grey
 Therefore, the colored objects appear faded or greyish in twilight
 Rhodopsin or visual purple is the photosensitive pigment of rod cells

Rhodopsin
 Conjugated protein with a molecular weight of 40,000
 Made up of a protein called opsin and a chromophore
 Opsin present in rhodopsin is known as scotopsin
 Chromophore is a chemical substance that develops color in the cell
 Chromophore present in the rod cells is called retinal

 Retinal is the aldehyde of vitamin A or retinol

 Retinal is derived from food sources and it is not synthesized in the body
 It is derived from carotinoid substances like β-carotene present in carrots
 Retinal is present in the form of 11-cis retinal known as retinine 1 Retinine 1 is
present in human eyes
 It is different from retinine 2 that is present in the eyes of some animals
 Significance of 11-cis form of retinal is that, only in this form it combines with
scotopsin to synthesize rhodopsin
Cones
 High threshold for light stimulus
 So, the cones are sensitive only to bright light
 Therefore, cone cells are called receptors of bright light vision or daylight
vision or photopic vision
 Cones are also responsible for acuity of vision and the color vision
 Photosensitive pigment in cone cells is of three types, namely porphyropsin,
iodopsin and cyanopsin
 Only one of these pigments is present in each cone
 Photopigment in cone cell also is a conjugated protein made up of a protein
and chromophore
 Protein in cone pigment is called photopsin, which is different from scotopsin,
the protein part of rhodopsin
 However, chromophore of cone pigment is the retinal that is present in
rhodopsin
 Each type of cone pigment is sensitive to a particular light and the maximum
response is shown at a particular light and wavelength
Light/Dark Adaptation:

o Light Adaptation:
 Occurs when we move from Darkness into Bright Light. We
are momentarily dazzled – as the retina is still “set” for dim
light. At this point, both Rods & Cones are strongly
stimulated, causing large amounts of Photopigment to be
broken down → Floods the brain with signals
→ Glare.
 To Compensate, the Rod system quickly desensitises and
essentially turns off. The Cone system rapidly adapts, and
takes over. Hence, overall the retina Desensitises.
 Can take up to 60sec.
o Dark Adaptation:
 Occurs when we move from Brightness to Darkness.
Initially we see nothing but black because:
 1. Cones stop functioning in low light. &
 2. Because Rods have been ‘bleached’ out by the bright
light & are still turned off.
 Once rhodopsin accumulates in the Rods, their function slowly
increases.
 Can take more than 30mins.

Visual pathway or optic pathway

 Nervous pathway that transmits impulses from retina visual center in cerebral
cortex
 In binocular vision, the light rays from temporal (outer) half of visual field fall
upon the nasal part of corresponding retina
 The rays from nasal (inner) half of visual field fall upon the temporal part of
retina
 Rods and cones which are present in the retina of eye form the visual receptors
 Fibers from the visual receptors synapse with dendrites of bipolar cells of inner
nuclear layer of the retina

FIRST ORDER NEURONS

 First order neurons (primary neurons) are bipolar cells in the retina
 Axons from the bipolar cells synapse with dendrites of ganglionic cells

SECOND ORDER NEURONS

 Second order neurons (secondary neurons) are the ganglionic cells in ganglionic
cell layer of retina
 Axons of the ganglionic cells form optic nerve
 Optic nerve leaves the eye and terminates in lateral geniculate body
THIRD ORDER NEURONS
 Third order neurons are in the lateral geniculate body
 Fibers arising from here, reach the visual cortex
Areas of Visual Cortex and their Function
 Three areas are present in visual cortex:

[Link] visual area (area 17), which is concerned with the perception of
visual impulses
[Link] visual area or visual association area (area 18), which is concerned
with the interpretation of visual impulses
[Link] eye field (area 19), which is concerned with the movement of eyes
Visual pathway consists of six components:
1. Optic nerve
2. Optic chiasma
3. Optic tract
4. Lateral geniculate body
5. Optic radiation
6. Visual cortex
 Refractive errors of eye
[Link]

 The eye with normal refractive power is called emmetropic eye and the
condition is called emmetropia

 Any deviation in the refractive power from normal condition, resulting in

inadequate focusing on retina is called ametropia and the eye is called
ametropic eye

 The defect is due to the change in shape of the eyeball

 Ametropia is of two types:

1. Myopia

2. Hypermetropia

 MYOPIA OR SHORT SIGHTEDNESS

 Myopia is the eye defect characterized by the inability to see the distant object

 It is otherwise called short sightedness because the person can see near objects
clearly but not the distant objects

 In emmetropia, the far point is infinite

 In myopia, the near vision is normal but the far point is not infinite, i.e. it is at
a definite distance

 In extreme conditions, it may be only a few centimeter away from the eye

 Causes- Refractive power of eye is normal but anteroposterior diameter is

abnormally long

 Therefore, the image is brought to focus a little in front of retina

 Light rays, after coming to a focus, disperse again so, a blurred image is
formed upon retina


Correction
  By using concave lens
HYPERMETROPIA OR LONG SIGHTEDNESS

 Hypermetropia is the eye defect characterized by the inability to see near

object

 It is otherwise known as long sightedness because the person can see the
distant objects clearly but not the near objects

 It is also called hyperopia

 In this defect, distant vision is normal but, near vision is affected

 Causes -Reduced anteroposterior diameter of the eye ball

 So, even though the refractive power of lens is normal, the light rays are not
converged enough to form a clear image on retina, i.e. the light rays are
brought to a focus behind retina

 It causes a blurred image of near objects

 Hypermetropia occurs in childhood, if the eyeballs fail to develop the correct

size

 It is common in old age also

Correction

 By using convex lens

[Link]
 Condition in which the two eyes have unequal refractive power
 It is corrected by using different appropriate lens for each eye

[Link]

 Astigmatism is the condition in which light rays are not brought to a sharp
point upon retina

 Common optical defect

 This defect is present in all eyes

 When it is moderate, it is known as physiological astigmatism

 When it is well marked, it is considered abnormal

 For example, the stars appear as small dots of light to a person with normal eye

 But in astigmatism, the stars appear as radiating short lines of light

CAUSE OF ASTIGMATISM

 Astigmatism is an imperfection in the curvature of your cornea — the clear,

round dome covering the eye's iris and pupil — or in the shape of the eye's lens

 Normally, the cornea and lens are smooth and curved equally in all directions,
helping to focus light rays sharply onto the retina at the back of your eye
  However, if your cornea or lens isn't smooth and evenly curved, light rays
aren't refracted properly

 This is called a refractive error

 Cornea has an irregular shape, it is called corneal astigmatism

 When the shape of the lens is distorted, you have lenticular astigmatism
TYPES OF ASTIGMATISM

1. Regular Astigmatism

 Refractive power is unequal in different meridians because of alteration of

curvature in one meridian

 But, it is uniform in all points throughout the affected meridian

2. Irregular Astigmatism

 Refractive power is unequal not only in different meridians, but it is also

unequal in different points of same meridian

 Corrected by using cylindrical glass lens

[Link]

 Loss of elasticity in lens and weakness of ocular muscles due to old age

 Condition characterized by progressive diminished ability of eyes to focus on

near objects with age

 It is due to the gradual reduction in the amplitude of accommodation

 It progresses as the age advances

 Presbyopia starts developing after middle age

 In presbyopia, the distant vision is unaffected

 Only the near vision is affected

 The near point is away from eye

 In presbyopia, the anterior curvature of lens does not increase during near
vision
  So, the light rays from near objects are not brought to focus on retina

CAUSES OF PRESBYOPIA

[Link] elasticity of lens is because of the physical changes in lens and its
capsule during old age. So, the anterior curvature is not increased during near vision

[Link] convergence of eyeballs due to the concomitant weakness of ocular

muscles in old age

CORRECTION OF PRESBYOPIA
 Presbyopia is corrected by using biconvex lens

GLAUCOMA
 Group of diseases characterized by increased intraocular pressure, which
causes damage of optic nerve, resulting in blindness
 In glaucoma, the drainage of aqueous humor through trabeculae is
 blocked, resulting in increased intraocular pressure
 When the intraocular pressure rises above 60 mm Hg, theoptic nerve fibers at
the optic disk are compressed
 Initially it decreases the visual field (loss of peripheral vision),
which eventually leads to total blindness
 However, with early treatment, often the eyes may be protected against
serious vision loss
 Untreated glaucoma leads to permanent damage of the optic nerve and results
in blindness
 In old age, glaucoma occurs due to the obstruction of
trabeculae by fibrous structures

Types of Glaucoma
● Elevation of intraocular pressure causing glaucoma can occur at any stage of
life
● Congenital glaucoma develops in babies born with increased intraocular
pressure
● Glaucoma in infants is called infantile glaucoma
● When it occurs in childhood, it is known as juvenile glaucoma

Generally glaucoma is divided into two types:

1. Primary open-angle glaucoma

 Common type of glaucoma and it accounts for about 80% of all
cases of glaucoma
 The term open-angle refers to drainage system, which is responsible
 for draining the aqueous humor from the eye
 Actually, in POAG there is no visible obstruction in the drainage
system
 Still intraocular pressure increases, causing damage to optic
nerve
 Exact cause of POAG is not known yet
 It is suggested that a microscopic (minute) blockage in drainage
system beyond limbus may obstruct the flow of aqueous
humor
 It causes a gradual increase in intraocular pressure

1. Primary angle-closure glaucoma (PACG)

 PACG is characterized by visible obstruction of drainage system for

aqueous humor
 Iris is pushed against cornea, preventing the
drainage of aqueous humor
 Intraocular pressure rises over the period of few hour

Causes of Glaucoma
 Major cause of glaucoma is the blockage in drainage
system of aqueous humor in trabeculae, resulting in
increased intraocular pressure
 Glaucoma also develops secondary to other disorders, which affect the eyes
 Common causes of secondary glaucoma are Diabetes, inflammation
or injury to eye and excess use of drugs such as
corticosteroid

Symptoms of Glaucoma

 Primary open-angle glaucoma is a silent chronic disease without any

early symptoms

 Symptoms that develop in later stages include heaviness around eyeball,

headache
 and rapid reduction in visual acuity and visual field

 Early symptoms of angle-closure glaucoma are severe

 pain in eye or eyebrow, headache, nausea, blurred vision and rainbow

halo (colored rings) around bulb light
 Immediate care should be taken if two or more of these symptoms
appear together
Treatment for Glaucoma
 Treatment does not cure the disease but can prevent
further damage of optic nerve
 Treatment is aimed at lowering the intraocular pressure
 It is achieved by using eye drops or medicines alone or
in combination with laser treatment
 If intraocular pressure cannot be controlled by these methods,
surgery is required.

CATARACT
 Cataract is the opacity or cloudiness in the natural lens of the eye
 It is the major cause of blindness worldwide
 When lens becomes cloudy, light rays cannot pass through it easily and vision
is blurred
 Cataract develops in old age after 55 to 60 years
 Lens is situated within the sealed capsule
 Old cells die and accumulate withinthe capsule
 Over years, the accumulation of cells is associated with accumulation of
fluid and denaturation of proteins in lens fibers, causing
cloudiness of lens and blurred image

Causes of Cataract
In addition to age, cataract develops due to many other causes such as:

 Eye injuries
 Previous eye surgery
 Diseases such as diabetes, Wilson disease and hypocalcemia
 Long-term use of drugs such as steroids, diuretics and
tranquilizers
 Long-term unprotected exposure to sunlight
 Alcoholism
 Family history
 Diet containing large quantity of salt

Symptoms of Cataract

 Common symptoms of cataract:

 Glare
 Painless blurred vision
 Poor night vision
 Diplopia in affected eye
 Need for a bright light while reading
 Fading of colors
● Surgery is the only treatment for cataract
● During surgery, cloudy lens is removed from the eye through a surgical
 ● Incision
● The natural lens is replaced with a permanent, clear and plastic intraocular lens
(IOL) implant

HEARING AND EQUILIBRIUM:

Functional Overview of the Ear:

- Ear is Responsible for 2 Special Senses:
o Hearing – Associated with Outer, Middle & Inner Ear (Cochlear)
Structures.
o Equilibrium - Associated with just the Inner Ear (Vestibular
Apparatus

Ear Anatomy:
Outer Ear ( Air Filled)

o Pinna (Auricle):
 The Outermost part of the ear
 The bit that funnels sound waves into the External Auditory
Canal
 Collects sound
 Helps in sound localization
 Most efficient in directing high frequency sounds to the
eardrum

o External Auditory Canal:

 The canal that conducts the soundwaves waves into the
 Tympanic Membrane (Eardrum)
 Contains Ceruminous Glands – Secrete Cerumen (Earwax)
 Abuts the Middle ear @ the Tympanic Membrane (Ear-Drum)

o Outer Ear Functions

 Protection
 Localization
 Collect sound
 Resonator
- Middle Ear:
(Air-Filled Cavity within the Temporal Bone)
o Tympanic Membrane (Eardrum):
 Thin, translucent, connective Tissue Membrane (Skin on
outside, mucosa on inside)
 Connect to the 3 Auditory Ossicles
 Soundwaves cause it to vibrate → Causes the Auditory Ossicles
to Vibrate.
o The 3 Auditory Ossicles:
 Malleus(“Hammer”/“Mallet”)
 Incus (“Anvil”)
 Stapes (“Stirrup”)
 Note: 2 Skeletal Muscles (Tensor Tympani & Stapedius)
Reflexively contract when ears are assaulted by loud
sounds – Reduces Sound Conduction.
o Oval Window of the Cochlea:
 Transfers Vibration of the Stapes → Into the Cochlea.
o Eustachian (Pharyngotympanic) Tube:
 Equalizes pressure between the Outer & Middle Ear
MIDDLE EAR
 Middle ear or tympanic cavity is a small, narrow, irregular, laterally
compressed chamber
 It is also known as tympanum
 It is separated from external auditory meatus by tympanic membrane
Middle ear consists of the following structures:
1. Auditory ossicles
2. Auditory muscles
3. Eustachian tube
Tympanic Membrane:
 Thin, semitransparent membrane

 Forms boundary between outer and middle ear

 Vibrates in response to sound

 Changes acoustical energy into mechanical energy

AUDITORY OSSICLES
 Auditory ossicles are the three miniature bones, which are arranged in the form
of a chain, extending across the middle ear from the tympanic membrane to
oval window
Auditory ossicles are:
A: Malleus -hammer
B: Incus -anvil
C: Stapes- stirrup

i. Malleus
 Malleus is otherwise called hammer
 It has a handle, head and neck
 Hand is called manubrium and it is attached to tympanic membrane
 Neck extends from handle to the head
 Head or capitulum articulates with the body of incus
Malleus Incus

ii. Incus
 It looks like a premolar tooth
 Incus has a body, one long process and one short process
 Anterior surface of the body articulates with the head of malleus
 The short process is attached to a ligament
 The long process runs parallel to handle of malleus
 Tip of the long process is like a knob called lenticular process and it
articulates with the next bone, stapes

iii. Stapes
 Stapes is also called stirrup

 It is the smallest bone in the body

 It has a head, neck, anterior crus, posterior crus and a footplate

 Head articulates with incus

 Footplate fits into oval window

AUDITORY MUSCLES

Two skeletal muscles are attached to ossicles:

i. Tensor tympani
Larger of the two muscles of tympanic cavity
Tensor tympani muscle pulls and keeps the tympanic membrane stretched or
tensed constantly.
Constant stretching of tympanic membrane is essential for the transmission
of sound waves, which may reach any part of the tympanic membrane
Paralysis of tensor tympani causes hearing impairment
  ii. Stapedius

Smallest skeletal muscle in human body with a length of just over 1 mm

It lies in a conical bony cavity, on the posterior wall of the tympanic cavity
Stapedius prevents excess movements of stapes
When it contracts, it pulls the neck of stapes backwards and reduces the
movement of footplate against the fluid in cochlea
Tympanic Reflex
 Attenuation reflex characterized by involuntary contraction of tensor tympani
and stapedius muscles, in response to a loud noise

 It has a latent period of 40 to 80 millisecond

 When both the muscles contract, manubrium of malleus moves inward and
stapes is pulled outward
 These two actions result in stiffness of auditory ossicles, so that the
transmission of sound is decreased
Significance of tympanic reflex

i. Tympanic reflex protects the tympanic membrane from being ruptured by loud
sound
ii. It also prevents fixation of footplate of stapes, against oval window, during
exposure to loud sound
iii. It helps to protect the cochlea from damaging effects of loud sounds
Contraction of tensor tympani and stapedius during exposure to loud sound
develops stiffness of the auditory ossicles so that, the transmission of sound
into cochlea is decreased
Eustachian Tube
 The eustachian tube connects the front wall of the middle ear with the
nasopharynx
 The eustachian tube also operates like a valve, which opens during swallowing
and yawning
 This equalizes the pressure on either side of the eardrum, which is necessary
for optimal hearing

Function of Middle Ear

Conduction
 Conduct sound from the outer ear to the inner ear
Protection
 Creates a barrier that protects the middle and inner areas from foreign objects
 Middle ear muscles may provide protection from loud sounds
Transducer
 Converts acoustic energy to mechanical energy
 Converts mechanical energy to hydraulic energy
Amplifier
 Transformer action of the middle ear
 only about 1/1000 of the acoustic energy in air would be transmitted to the
inner-ear fluids (about 30 dB hearing loss)

- Inner Ear – (Cochlea &

Vestibular Apparatus):

-
o Cochlea - HEARING:
 The Spiral-Shaped Organ
 Begins @ the Oval Window:
 The Entry Point of the Cochlea.
 The hole covered by membrane
 Separates the air-filled middle ear from the fluid-filled
inner ear.
 Ends @ the Round Window:
 The Exit-Point of the Cochlea
 Also covered by membrane
 Also separates the air-filled middle ear from the fluid-
filled inner ear.
 Consists of 3 Coiled Ducts – Separated by 2 Membranes:
 Scala Vestibuli (Vestibular Duct):
o Begins @ the Oval Window
o Ends @ the apex of the Cochlea
o Filled with Perilymph.
o Separated from the Scala Media by the Vestibular
Membrane.
 Scala Media (Cochlear Duct):
o Runs through the middle of the Cochlea.
o Separates the Vestibular Duct & Tympanic Duct.
o Filled with Endolymph.
o Separated from the Scala Tympani by the Basilar
Membrane.
o Contains the Spiral Organ of Corti: (See Next
Page)
 Scala Tympani (Tympanic Duct):
o Begins @ the apex of the Cochlea
o Ends @ the Round Window
o Filled with Perilymph
.
 The Spiral Organ of Corti:
 Sits inside the Scala Media & runs along the Basilar
Membrane.
 Composed of:
o The Tectorial Membrane (Overlying the Hair
Cells)
o Hair Cells (Receptors for hearing) – Associated
with cochlear nerve fibres:
 1x Row of Inner Hair Cells – Has several
inputs to the Spiral Ganglion
- Sends most of the
auditory info.
 3x Rows of Outer Hair Cells – Has Only 1
input to the Spiral Ganglion
- Plays a role in Signal
Amplification
o Supporting Cells
o The Basilar Membrane
 Cochlear Branch of the Vestibulocochlear Nerve
Originates Here.
Audiotransduction:
- Soundwaves are funnelled by the Auricle of the ear into the External
Auditory Canal.
- → Soundwaves vibrate the Tympanic Membrane (Eardrum)
- → Eardrum vibration is passed through the Auditory Ossicles to the Oval
Window.
o Note: This transfer of vibration from the Eardrum→Oval
Window AMPLIFIES it by ≈20x (As the eardrum surface area
is ≈20x that of the Oval Window)

- → Oval Window vibration is transmitted into the Perilymph of the Scala

Vestibuli.
- → Waves travelling through the Scala Vestibuli penetrate the
Vestibular Membrane at different points relative its Resonant
Frequency & enter the Scala Media:
o High sounds resonate the Vestibular Membrane closer to the oval
window
o Low sounds resonate the Vestibular Membrane away from the oval
window
- → Waves exit the Scala Media by Penetrating the Basilar Membrane &
enter the Scala Tympani:
o The waves penetrating the Basilar Membrane cause it to Vibrate.
o Vibration of the Basilar Membrane pushes the Hair Cells in the
Organ of Corti up into the Tectorial Membrane, Distorting the
Cilia & Initiating Graded Potentials in the Cochlear Nerve.
- → Waves continue down the Scala Tympani & leave the Cochlea via
the Round Window – This prevents echoing of the sound waves within
the Cochlea.
Pathway From the Cochlea to the Brain:
- Hair Cells → Cochlear Nerve (Incl. Spiral Ganglia) → Cochlear
Branch of the Vestibulocochlear Nerve → Cochlear Nuclei of the
Medulla →
- → Superior Olivary Nucleus → Lateral Lemniscal Tract → Inferior
Colliculus → Medial Geniculate Nucleus of the Thalamus →
o Primary Auditory Cortex – (Conscious Sound)
o Superior Colliculus – (Auditory Reflexes – Startle, Turning Head, etc.)
THE TONGUE & GUSTATION (TASTE)

Receptor Type:
- Chemoreceptors (Respond to chemicals dissolved in solution)

TASTE BUDS

 Sense organs for taste or gustatory sensation are the taste buds
 Taste buds are ovoid bodies with a diameter of 50 μ to 70 μ
 In adults, about 10,000 taste buds are present and the number is more in children
 In old age, many taste buds degenerate and the taste sensitivity decreases

SITUATION OF TASTE BUDS

 Most of the taste buds are present on the papillae of tongue
 Taste buds are also situated in the mucosa of epiglottis, palate, pharynx and the
proximal part of esophagus
Types of papillae located on tongue:

 Filiform papillae
 Fungiform papillae
 Circumvallate papillae
1. Filiform Papillae
 Filiform papillae are small and conical-shaped papillae, situated over the dorsum
of tongue These papillae contain less number of taste buds (only a few)
2. Fungiform Papillae
 Fungiform papillae are round in shape and are situated over the anterior surface
of tongue near the tip
 Numerous fungiform papillae are present
 Each papilla contains moderate number of taste buds (up to 10)
[Link] papillae
 Large structures present on the posterior part of tongue and are many in number
 These papillae are arranged in the shape of ‘V’
 Each papilla contains many taste buds (up to 100)

Taste bud
 Bundle of taste receptor cells, with supporting cells embedded in the epithelial
covering of the papillae
 Each taste bud contains about 40 cells, which are the modified epithelial cells
Cells of taste bud are divided into four groups:
Type of Cells in Taste Bud
Type I cells or sustentacular cells
Type II cells
Type III cells
Type IV cells or basal cells.
 Type I cells and type IV cells are supporting cells
 Type III cells are the taste receptor cells
 Function of type II cell is unknown
 Type I, II and III cells have microvilli, which project into an
opening in epithelium covering the tongue
 This opening is called taste pore
-
- Basic Taste Sensations:
o Sweet - Sugars, some Amino Acids, Lead Salts
o Sour - Acids
o Salt - Metal Ions (Particularly Sodium)
o Bitter - Alkaloids (Quinine, Caffeine, and Nicotine) – Note: Dislike for
bitter is Protective.
o Umami - “Delicious” - Glutamate (Steak, Cheese) & MSG.
o Note: Most ‘tastes’ are a mixture of these basic taste sensations.
- Physiology of Taste:
o Tasting requires a chemical to dissolve in the saliva, then diffuse
through a Taste Pore, and contact
Gustatory Hairs.
o Binding of chemical induces a depolarising potential → Release of
Neurotransmitter.
o Neurotransmitter → Triggers dendrites of sensory nerves → Action
Potentials.
o Note: Different receptor cells have different thresholds (Eg: Bitter cells
are very sensitive)
- Taste Transduction:
o Basic Overview:
 Stimulation of Gustatory Cell → leads to an ↑in intracellular
[Ca+] → Causes NT Release → Stimulates sensory nerves.
o Each taste-quality has its own way of stimulating the receptor cells:
 Salty – due to Na+ influx → directly depolarises the Gustatory
Cell.
 Sour – due to H+ either: 1) Entering the cell, 2) Opening
Ion Channels, or 3) Blocking K+ Channels
 Bitter, Sweet & Umami – G-Protein Linked Receptors that
produce depolarisation.
- Gustatory Pathway:
o Afferent fibres from taste buds run in 3 Cranial Nerves:
 Facial (first 2/3 of tongue)
 Glossopharyngeal (last 1/3 of tongue)
 Vagus (Epiglottis & Lower Pharynx)
o Afferent Fibres synapse in the Solitary Nucleus of the Medulla →
Thalamus → Gustatory Cortex in Parietal Lobes.
 OLFACTION (SMELL)

Olfaction (Smell):
* Olfaction is a chemoreception that forms the sense of smell.
* Olfaction has many purposes, such as the detection of hazards,
pheromones, and food.
* It integrates with other senses to form the sense of flavour.
* Olfaction occurs when odorants bind to specific sites
on olfactory receptors located in the nasal cavity.

OLFACTION
 Olfactory receptors are situated in olfactory mucus membrane, which is the
modified mucus membrane that lines upper part of nostril
 Olfactory mucus membrane consists of 10 to 20 millions of olfactory
receptor cells supported by the sustentacular cells
 Mucosa also contains mucus-secreting Bowman glands
 Olfactory receptor cell is a bipolar neuron
 Dendrite of this neuron is short and it has an expanded end called olfactory
rod
 From olfactory rod, about 10 to 12 cilia arise
 Cilia are non-myelinated, with a length of 2 μ and a diameter of 0.1 μ
 These cilia project to the surface of olfactory mucus membrane
 Mucus secreted by Bowman glands continuously lines the olfactory mucosa
 Mucus contains some proteins, which increase the actions of odoriferous
substances on receptor cells
Olfactory pathway
* Axons of the bipolar olfactory receptors pierce the cribriform plate of
ethmoid bone and reach the olfactory bulb.
* Here, the axons synapse with the dendrites of mitral cells.
* Different groups of these synapses form globular structures, called olfactory
glomeruli.
* The axons of mitral cells leave the olfactory bulb and form olfactory tract.
* The olfactory tract runs backwards and ends in olfactory cortex through the
intermediate and lateral olfactory stria.
* The olfactory cortex includes the structures, which form a part of limbic
system.
* The structures are anterior olfactory nucleus, prepyriform cortex, olfactory
tubercle and amygdala.
Abnormalities of olfactory sensation
ANOSMIA
* Anosmia refers to total loss of sensation of smell.
* It may be temporary or permanent.
* Temporary anosmia is due to obstruction of nose which occurs during
common cold, nasal sinus and allergic conditions.
* Permanent anosmia occurs during lesion in olfactory tract, meningitis and
degenerative conditions such as Parkinson’s disease and Alzheimer’s
disease.
HYPOSMIA
* It is the reduced ability to recognize and to detect any odour.
* The odour can be detected only at higher concentrations.
* It is the most common disorder of smell.
* It may be temporary or permanent.
* It occurs due to the same cause of anosmia.

HYPEROSMIA
* It is the increased or exaggerated olfactory sensation.
* It is also called olfactory hyperesthesia.
It occurs in brain injury, epilepsy and neurotic conditions.