CLASS 12

Computer Science

Python Notes
Comprehensive Study Guide | CBSE Board

Covering all important topics for Board Examination

Revision Tour | OOP | Inheritance | File Handling

Data Structures | Recursion | Exception Handling | MySQL with Python
Class 12 Computer Science | Python Notes CBSE Board

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Class 12 Computer Science | Python Notes CBSE Board

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Python Revision Tour ........................................ 3

2. Object Oriented Programming (OOP) ........................... 5

3. Inheritance & Polymorphism .................................. 9

4. File Handling in Python ..................................... 12

5. Exception Handling .......................................... 15

6. Data Structures – Stack & Queue ............................. 17

7. Recursion ................................................... 20

8. MySQL & Database Concepts ................................... 22

9. Python – MySQL Connectivity ................................. 25

10. Important Programs & Quick Revision ......................... 27

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Class 12 Computer Science | Python Notes CBSE Board

Chapter 1: Python Revision Tour

1.1 Data Types in Python

Python has several built-in data types. Understanding these is fundamental to writing efficient programs.

Data Type Description

int Whole numbers — e.g. 5, -3, 0

float Decimal numbers — e.g. 3.14, -0.5

complex Complex numbers — e.g. 3+4j

str Sequence of characters — e.g. 'Hello'

bool True or False

list Ordered, mutable sequence — [1, 2, 3]

tuple Ordered, immutable sequence — (1, 2, 3)

dict Key-value pairs — {'a': 1}

set Unordered unique elements — {1, 2, 3}

1.2 Operators
Python supports a rich set of operators:

Type Operators

Arithmetic +, -, *, /, //, %, **

Relational ==, !=, >, <, >=, <=

Logical and, or, not

Bitwise &, |, ^, ~, <<, >>

Assignment =, +=, -=, *=, /=, //=, %=, **=

Identity is, is not

Membership in, not in

1.3 Control Structures

Conditional Statements
if condition:
# block
elif another_condition:
# block
else:
# block

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Loops
# for loop
for i in range(1, 11):
print(i)

# while loop
n = 1
while n <= 10:
print(n)
n += 1
Note: range(start, stop, step) — stop is EXCLUSIVE.

1.4 Functions
def greet(name, msg='Hello'):
'''Docstring: greets a person'''
return f'{msg}, {name}!'

print(greet('Riya')) # Hello, Riya!

print(greet('Arjun','Hi')) # Hi, Arjun!
Types of arguments: Positional, Default, Keyword (*args, **kwargs).

★ Important: Local vs Global scope: Use global keyword to modify a global variable inside a function.

1.5 Strings
Strings are immutable sequences. Key methods:

Method Description Example

len() Length of string len('abc') → 3

upper() / lower() Case conversion 'hi'.upper() → 'HI'

strip() Remove whitespace ' hi '.strip() → 'hi'

split() Split into list 'a,b'.split(',') → ['a','b']

find() First index of substring 'hello'.find('l') → 2

replace() Replace substring 'cat'.replace('c','b') → 'bat'

count() Count occurrences 'banana'.count('a') → 3

isdigit() Check if all digits '123'.isdigit() → True

join() Join list to string ','.join(['a','b']) → 'a,b'

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Class 12 Computer Science | Python Notes CBSE Board

Chapter 2: Object-Oriented Programming (OOP)

OOP is a programming paradigm based on the concept of objects which contain data (attributes) and
behaviour (methods).

Class: Blueprint for creating objects.

Object: Instance of a class.
Attribute: Variable belonging to a class/object.
Method: Function defined inside a class.
Encapsulation: Wrapping data and methods together.
Abstraction: Hiding complex details, showing essentials.
Inheritance: Acquiring properties of a parent class.
Polymorphism: Same interface, different implementations.

2.1 Defining a Class

class Student:
school = 'DPS' # Class attribute

def __init__(self, name, roll):

[Link] = name # Instance attribute
[Link] = roll

def display(self):
print(f'Roll: {[Link]}, Name: {[Link]}')

s1 = Student('Ananya', 101)
[Link]() # Roll: 101, Name: Ananya
print([Link]) # DPS

2.2 Constructor & Destructor

class Demo:
def __init__(self): # Constructor
print('Object created')
def __del__(self): # Destructor
print('Object deleted')
Note: __init__ is automatically called when an object is created. __del__ is called when object is garbage
collected.

2.3 Access Modifiers

Modifier Syntax & Access

Public name — accessible anywhere

Protected _name — accessible in class & subclasses (convention)

Private __name — name-mangled, not directly accessible outside

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class BankAccount:
def __init__(self, bal):
self.__balance = bal # private

def get_balance(self): # getter

return self.__balance

def deposit(self, amt): # setter-like

if amt > 0:
self.__balance += amt

2.4 self Parameter

self refers to the current instance of the class. It must be the first parameter of every instance method.
Python automatically passes the calling object as the first argument.

2.5 Special / Magic Methods (Dunder Methods)

Method Triggered when...

__init__ Object is created

__str__ str(obj) or print(obj) is called

__len__ len(obj) is called

__add__ obj1 + obj2 is used

__eq__ obj1 == obj2 is used

__del__ Object is destroyed

class Vector:
def __init__(self, x, y):
self.x, self.y = x, y
def __str__(self):
return f'({self.x}, {self.y})'
def __add__(self, other):
return Vector(self.x+other.x, self.y+other.y)

v1 = Vector(1, 2); v2 = Vector(3, 4)

print(v1 + v2) # (4, 6)

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Class 12 Computer Science | Python Notes CBSE Board

Chapter 3: Inheritance & Polymorphism

3.1 Types of Inheritance

Type Description

Single One child inherits from one parent

Multiple One child inherits from two or more parents

Multilevel Chain: A → B → C

Hierarchical Multiple children from one parent

Hybrid Combination of two or more types

3.2 Single Inheritance Example

class Animal:
def __init__(self, name):
[Link] = name
def speak(self):
print(f'{[Link]} makes a sound')

class Dog(Animal): # Single Inheritance

def speak(self): # Method Overriding
print(f'{[Link]} says Woof!')

d = Dog('Bruno')
[Link]() # Bruno says Woof!

3.3 Multiple Inheritance & super()

class Father:
def skills(self): print('Cricket')

class Mother:
def skills(self): print('Cooking')

class Child(Father, Mother):

def skills(self):
super().skills() # calls [Link]()
print('Football')

c = Child()
[Link]() # Cricket Football
Note: Python uses MRO (Method Resolution Order) — C3 linearisation algorithm. Use ClassName.__mro__ to
see the order.

3.4 Multilevel Inheritance

class Vehicle:
def run(self): print('Vehicle runs')

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class Car(Vehicle):
def drive(self): print('Car drives')

class SportsCar(Car):
def race(self): print('SportsCar races')

sc = SportsCar()
[Link](); [Link](); [Link]()

3.5 Polymorphism
Polymorphism means 'many forms'. In Python it is achieved through:

• Method Overriding — child class redefines a parent method

• Duck Typing — any object with required method is accepted
• Operator Overloading — using magic methods

class Shape:
def area(self): return 0

class Circle(Shape):
def __init__(self, r): self.r = r
def area(self): return 3.14 * self.r * self.r

class Rectangle(Shape):
def __init__(self, l, b): self.l = l; self.b = b
def area(self): return self.l * self.b

for s in [Circle(5), Rectangle(4, 6)]:

print([Link]())

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Class 12 Computer Science | Python Notes CBSE Board

Chapter 4: File Handling in Python

4.1 File Opening Modes

Mode Meaning

'r' Read (default). Error if file not found.

'w' Write. Creates new file or truncates existing.

'a' Append. Creates new file if not found.

'r+' Read and write. File must exist.

'w+' Write and read. Truncates file.

'rb' / 'wb' Binary read / write

4.2 Text File Operations

# Writing to a file
with open('[Link]', 'w') as f:
[Link]('Hello World\n')
[Link](['Line 2\n', 'Line 3\n'])

# Reading from a file

with open('[Link]', 'r') as f:
content = [Link]() # entire file as string
# OR
line = [Link]() # one line at a time
# OR
lines = [Link]() # list of all lines

# Appending
with open('[Link]', 'a') as f:
[Link]('New line\n')
Note: Always use with statement — it automatically closes the file even if an exception occurs.

4.3 File Pointer Methods

Method Purpose

tell() Returns current file pointer position

seek(n) Moves pointer to byte position n

seek(0) Moves pointer to beginning

seek(0, 2) Moves pointer to end of file

4.4 Binary File Handling with pickle

import pickle

# Writing binary file

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data = {'name': 'Raj', 'marks': 95}

with open('[Link]', 'wb') as f:
[Link](data, f)

# Reading binary file

with open('[Link]', 'rb') as f:
rec = [Link](f)
print(rec) # {'name': 'Raj', 'marks': 95}

# Reading multiple records

with open('[Link]', 'rb') as f:
while True:
try:
rec = [Link](f)
print(rec)
except EOFError:
break
★ Important: EOFError must be caught while reading binary files in a loop to detect end-of-file.

4.5 CSV File Handling

import csv

# Writing CSV
with open('[Link]', 'w', newline='') as f:
writer = [Link](f)
[Link](['Name', 'Marks'])
[Link](['Asha', 98])

# Reading CSV
with open('[Link]', 'r') as f:
reader = [Link](f)
for row in reader:
print(row)

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Class 12 Computer Science | Python Notes CBSE Board

Chapter 5: Exception Handling

An exception is an error that occurs during execution. Python provides a structured way to handle
exceptions so the program doesn't crash.

5.1 try-except-else-finally
try:
num = int(input('Enter number: '))
result = 100 / num
except ValueError:
print('Invalid input! Enter a number.')
except ZeroDivisionError:
print('Cannot divide by zero!')
except Exception as e:
print(f'Unexpected error: {e}')
else:
print(f'Result = {result}') # runs if no exception
finally:
print('Execution complete') # always runs

5.2 Common Built-in Exceptions

Exception Cause

ValueError Invalid value passed to function

TypeError Wrong data type used

ZeroDivisionError Division or modulo by zero

IndexError List index out of range

KeyError Key not found in dictionary

FileNotFoundError File does not exist

NameError Variable not defined

AttributeError Invalid attribute access

ImportError Module not found

EOFError End of file reached unexpectedly

OverflowError Result too large to represent

5.3 Raising Exceptions

def check_age(age):
if age < 0:
raise ValueError('Age cannot be negative!')
return age

try:

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check_age(-5)
except ValueError as e:
print(e) # Age cannot be negative!

5.4 User-Defined Exceptions

class NegativeAgeError(Exception):
def __init__(self, msg='Age must be positive'):
super().__init__(msg)

try:
raise NegativeAgeError()
except NegativeAgeError as e:
print(e)

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Class 12 Computer Science | Python Notes CBSE Board

Chapter 6: Data Structures – Stack & Queue

6.1 Stack
A Stack is a linear data structure following LIFO (Last In, First Out). Operations: push (insert), pop (delete),
peek (top element), isEmpty.

stack = []

# Push
[Link](10)
[Link](20)
[Link](30)
print('Stack:', stack) # [10, 20, 30]

# Pop
if stack:
top = [Link]()
print('Popped:', top) # 30

# Peek
print('Top:', stack[-1]) # 20

# isEmpty
print('Empty?', len(stack) == 0) # False
Note: In Python, list is used to implement stack. append() = push, pop() = pop.

★ Important: Board exam question: Write a Python program to implement a stack using a list for
storing integers.

6.2 Stack using Class

class Stack:
def __init__(self):
self.__data = []

def push(self, item):

self.__data.append(item)

def pop(self):
if not [Link]():
return self.__data.pop()
return 'Underflow'

def peek(self):
if not [Link]():
return self.__data[-1]
return None

def isEmpty(self):
return len(self.__data) == 0

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def display(self):
print(self.__data)

6.3 Queue
A Queue is a linear data structure following FIFO (First In, First Out). Operations: enqueue (insert at rear),
dequeue (delete from front).

from collections import deque

queue = deque()

# Enqueue
[Link]('A')
[Link]('B')
[Link]('C')
print('Queue:', list(queue)) # ['A', 'B', 'C']

# Dequeue
front = [Link]()
print('Dequeued:', front) # A
print('Queue:', list(queue)) # ['B', 'C']
Note: Use [Link] for efficient Queue operations. List-based queue is slow due to O(n) for pop(0).

6.4 Comparison: Stack vs Queue

Feature Stack Queue

Principle LIFO FIFO

Insert at Top Rear

Delete from Top Front

Python impl [Link]() / pop() [Link]() / popleft()

Real-world eg Back button, Undo Print queue, Ticket counter

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Chapter 7: Recursion
A function that calls itself is called a recursive function. Every recursive function must have a base case to
stop infinite recursion.

7.1 Factorial
def factorial(n):
if n == 0 or n == 1: # base case
return 1
return n * factorial(n - 1) # recursive case

print(factorial(5)) # 120

7.2 Fibonacci Sequence

def fib(n):
if n <= 1:
return n
return fib(n-1) + fib(n-2)

for i in range(8):
print(fib(i), end=' ') # 0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13

7.3 Sum of Digits

def sum_digits(n):
if n < 10:
return n
return (n % 10) + sum_digits(n // 10)

print(sum_digits(1234)) # 10

7.4 Recursion vs Iteration

Basis Recursion Iteration

Definition Function calls itself Uses loop constructs

Memory Uses call stack (more memory) Uses less memory

Speed Generally slower Generally faster

Code size Smaller, elegant Longer

Risk Stack overflow if deep No such risk

★ Important: Tail recursion optimisation is NOT performed by Python. Each recursive call adds a
frame to the call stack. Default recursion limit is 1000 ([Link]()).

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Class 12 Computer Science | Python Notes CBSE Board

Chapter 8: MySQL & Database Concepts

8.1 Key Terminology

DBMS: Database Management System — software to manage databases.
RDBMS: Relational DBMS — stores data in tables (rows & columns).
Table: Collection of related records (like a 2D matrix).
Tuple/Row: A single record in a table.
Attribute/Column: A field/property of each record.
Primary Key: Uniquely identifies each row. Cannot be NULL or duplicate.
Foreign Key: References primary key of another table.
Candidate Key: All attributes that can be primary keys.
Degree: Number of columns in a table.
Cardinality: Number of rows in a table.

8.2 DDL, DML, DQL Commands

Category Full Form Commands

DDL Data Definition Language CREATE, ALTER, DROP, TRUNCATE

DML Data Manipulation Language INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE

DQL Data Query Language SELECT

DCL Data Control Language GRANT, REVOKE

TCL Transaction Control Language COMMIT, ROLLBACK, SAVEPOINT

8.3 Important SQL Queries

-- Create database & table
CREATE DATABASE school;
USE school;
CREATE TABLE student(
roll INT PRIMARY KEY,
name VARCHAR(30) NOT NULL,
class INT,
marks FLOAT
);
-- Insert records
INSERT INTO student VALUES(1,'Asha',12,95.5);
INSERT INTO student VALUES(2,'Raj',11,88.0);

-- Select queries
SELECT * FROM student;
SELECT name, marks FROM student WHERE marks > 90;
SELECT * FROM student ORDER BY marks DESC;
SELECT * FROM student WHERE name LIKE 'A%';
SELECT class, COUNT(*) FROM student GROUP BY class;

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SELECT MAX(marks), MIN(marks), AVG(marks) FROM student;

-- Update & Delete
UPDATE student SET marks=97 WHERE roll=1;
DELETE FROM student WHERE marks < 50;

-- ALTER table
ALTER TABLE student ADD COLUMN grade CHAR(2);
ALTER TABLE student MODIFY marks INT;
ALTER TABLE student DROP COLUMN grade;

8.4 Aggregate Functions

Function Purpose

COUNT(*) Count number of rows

SUM(col) Sum of values in column

AVG(col) Average of values

MAX(col) Maximum value

MIN(col) Minimum value

8.5 Constraints
NOT NULL: Column cannot have NULL value
UNIQUE: All values must be different
PRIMARY KEY: Unique + Not Null
FOREIGN KEY: References column of another table
DEFAULT: Sets a default value
CHECK: Ensures condition is met

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Class 12 Computer Science | Python Notes CBSE Board

Chapter 9: Python – MySQL Connectivity

Python connects to MySQL using the mysql-connector-python library. This allows executing SQL queries
from Python programs.

9.1 Installation & Connection

# Install (run in terminal)
pip install mysql-connector-python

import [Link]

con = [Link](
host='localhost',
user='root',
password='yourpassword',
database='school'
)

if con.is_connected():
print('Connected successfully!')

9.2 Cursor Object

A cursor acts as a pointer to execute SQL queries and retrieve results.
cursor = [Link]()

# Execute a query
[Link]('SELECT * FROM student')

# Fetch results
rows = [Link]() # all rows as list of tuples
row = [Link]() # next single row
rows = [Link](3) # next 3 rows

for row in rows:

print(row)

9.3 INSERT / UPDATE / DELETE from Python

# Insert a record
sql = 'INSERT INTO student VALUES(%s,%s,%s,%s)'
data = (3, 'Priya', 12, 91.0)
[Link](sql, data)
[Link]() # MUST commit for DML operations
print([Link], 'record inserted')

# Update
sql = 'UPDATE student SET marks=%s WHERE roll=%s'
[Link](sql, (99, 3))
[Link]()

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# Delete
[Link]('DELETE FROM student WHERE roll=%s', (3,))
[Link]()
Note: Always call [Link]() after INSERT/UPDATE/DELETE. Without it, changes are not saved to the
database.

9.4 Complete CRUD Example

import [Link]

con = [Link](host='localhost',
user='root', password='pass', database='school')
cur = [Link]()

def add_student(roll, name, marks):

[Link](
'INSERT INTO student(roll,name,marks) VALUES(%s,%s,%s)',
(roll, name, marks))
[Link]()

def search_student(roll):
[Link]('SELECT * FROM student WHERE roll=%s',(roll,))
return [Link]()

def display_all():
[Link]('SELECT * FROM student')
for r in [Link](): print(r)

add_student(5, 'Kiran', 87)

print(search_student(5))
display_all()
[Link]()
★ Important: Closing the connection with [Link]() is important to free resources.

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Chapter 10: Important Programs & Quick Revision

10.1 Frequently Asked Programs

A. Binary Search
def binary_search(lst, key):
low, high = 0, len(lst) - 1
while low <= high:
mid = (low + high) // 2
if lst[mid] == key: return mid
elif lst[mid] < key: low = mid + 1
else: high = mid - 1
return -1

B. Bubble Sort
def bubble_sort(arr):
n = len(arr)
for i in range(n-1):
for j in range(n-1-i):
if arr[j] > arr[j+1]:
arr[j], arr[j+1] = arr[j+1], arr[j]
return arr

C. Count Words in a File

with open('[Link]', 'r') as f:
data = [Link]()
words = [Link]()
print('Word count:', len(words))

D. Count Specific Lines in File

with open('[Link]', 'r') as f:
count = sum(1 for line in f if 'Python' in line)
print('Lines with Python:', count)

10.2 Quick Revision: One-Liners

Concept Explanation

list vs tuple list is mutable; tuple is immutable

break vs continue break exits loop; continue skips current iteration

pass null statement — placeholder, does nothing

lambda Anonymous one-line function: lambda x: x*2

map() Applies function to each element of iterable

filter() Filters elements based on condition

list comprehension [expr for item in iterable if cond]

*args Variable number of positional arguments

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**kwargs Variable number of keyword arguments

__name__=='__main__' Block runs only when file is run directly

10.3 Board Exam Tips

• Always write the complete class definition with __init__ in OOP questions.
• In file handling, mention 'with' statement and explain why it is preferred.
• For stack/queue questions, write push/pop or enqueue/dequeue clearly.
• In SQL, remember semicolons and proper syntax. Case doesn't matter for keywords.
• In Python-MySQL, always include [Link]() for DML and [Link]() for SELECT.
• For recursion, always define the base case clearly in your code and explanation.
• Draw memory diagrams for inheritance wherever asked — fetch extra marks!
• Practice at least 5 complete programs for file handling and OOP.

Best of Luck for Your Board Examinations!

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