EMBEDDED SYSTEM DESIGN

UNIT-II
TYPICAL EMBEDDED
SYSTEM
 ELEMENTS OF EMBEDDED SYSTEMS:
An embedded system is a combination of 3 things, Hardware
Software Mechanical Components and it is supposed to do one specific
task only. A typical embedded system contains a single chip controller
which acts as the master brain of the system. Diagrammatically an
embedded system can be represented as follows:
FPGA/ASIC/DSP/SoC
Embedded
Microprocessor/controller
Firmware

Memory

Communication Interface

System
I/p Ports Core O/p Ports
(Sensors) (Actuators)

Other supporting Integrated Circuits &

subsystems

Embedded System

Real World

Embedded systems are basically designed to regulate a physical

variable (such Microwave Oven) or to manipulate the state of some devices by
sending some signals to the actuators or devices connected to the output port
system (such as temperature in Air Conditioner), in response to the input signal
provided by the end users or sensors which are connected to the input ports.
Hence the embedded systems can be viewed as a reactive system.
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The control is achieved by processing the information
coming from the sensors and user interfaces and controlling
some actuators that regulate the physical variable.
Keyboards, push button, switches, etc. are Examples of
common user interface input devices and LEDs, LCDs,
Piezoelectric buzzers, etc examples for common user
interface output devices for a typical embedded [Link]
requirement of type of user interface changes from
application to application based on domain.
Some embedded systems do not require any manual
intervention for their operation. They automatically sense
the input parameters from real world through sensors which
are connected at input port. The sensor information is
passed to the processor after signal conditioning and
digitization. The core of the system performs some
predefined operations on input data with the help of
embedded firmware in the system and sends some actuating
signals to the actuator connect connected to the output port of
the system.
 The memory of the system is responsible for holding the code
(control algorithm and other important configuration details). There are
two types of memories are used in any embedded system. Fixed
memory (ROM) is used for storing code or program. The user cannot
change the firmware in this type of memory. The most common types of
memories used in embedded systems for control algorithm storage are
OTP,PROM,UVEPROM,EEPROM and FLASH.
An embedded system without code (i.e. the
control algorithm) implemented memory has all
the peripherals but is not capable of making
decisions depending on the situational as well as
real world changes.
Memory for implementing the code may be
present on the processor or may be
implemented as a separate chip interfacing the
processor
In a controller based embedded system, the
controller may contain internal memory for
storing code such controllers are called Micro-
controllers with on-chip ROM, eg. Atmel
AT89C51.
The Core of the Embedded Systems: The core of the

embedded system falls into any one of the following

categories.

 General Purpose and Domain Specific Processors

Microprocessors

Microcontrollers

Digital Signal Processors

Programmable Logic Devices (PLDs)

Application Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs)

Commercial off the shelf Components (COTS)

GENERAL PURPOSE AND DOMAIN SPECIFIC
PROCESSOR:

Almost 80% of the embedded systems are processor/

controller based.
The processor may be microprocessor or a microcontroller
or digital signal processor, depending on the domain and
application.

Microprocessor:
A silicon chip representing a Central Processing Unit
(CPU), which is capable of performing arithmetic as well
as logical operations according to a pre-defined set of
Instructions, which is specific to the manufacturer

In general the CPU contains the Arithmetic and Logic

Unit (ALU), Control Unit and Working registers
Microprocessor is a dependant unit and it requires the
combination of other hardware like Memory, Timer Unit,
and Interrupt Controller etc for proper functioning.

Intel claims the credit for developing the first

Microprocessor unit Intel 4004, a 4 bit processor which
was released in Nov 1971

Developers of microprocessors.
Intel – Intel 4004 – November
1971(4-bit) Intel – Intel 4040.
Intel – Intel 8008 – April 1972.
Intel – Intel 8080 – April
1974(8-bit). Motorola
Motorola 6800.
Intel – Intel 8085 – 1976.
Zilog - Z80 – July 1976
 Microcontroller:
A highly integrated silicon chip containing a
CPU, scratch pad RAM, Special and General
purpose Register Arrays, On Chip ROM/FLASH
memory for program storage, Timer and Interrupt
control units and dedicated I/O ports
Microcontrollers can be considered as a super set
of Microprocessors
Microcontroller can be general purpose (like Intel
8051, designed for generic applications and
domains) or application specific (Like
Automotive AVR from Atmel Corporation.
Designed specifically for automotive applications)
Since a microcontroller contains all the
necessary functional blocks for independent
working, they found greater place in the
embedded domain in place of microprocessors
Microcontrollers are cheap, cost effective and
are readily available in the market Texas
Instruments TMS 1000 is considered as the
world‟s first microcontroller
Microprocessor Vs Microcontroller:
Microprocessor Microcontroller
A silicon chip representing a Central A microcontroller is a highly
Processing Unit integrated chip that
(CPU), which is capable of performing contains a CPU, scratch pad RAM,
arithmetic as Special and
well as logical operations according to a General purpose Register Arrays,
pre-defined set On Chip
of Instructions ROM/FLASH memory for program
storage, Timer
and Interrupt control units and
dedicated I/O ports
It is a dependent unit. It requires the It is a self contained unit and it
combination of doesn’t require
other chips like Timers, Program and external Interrupt Controller, Timer,
data memory UART etc for its functioning
chips, Interrupt controllers etc for
functioning
Most of the time general purpose in Mostly application oriented or domain
design and operation specific

Doesn‟t contain a built in I/O port. Most of the processors contain multiple
The I/O Port built-in I/O
functionality needs to be implemented ports which can be operated as a single
with the help of 8 or 16 or 32
external Programmable Peripheral bit Port or as individual port pins
Interface Chips like
8255
Targeted for high end market where Targeted for embedded market where
performance is important performance is
not so critical (At present this
demarcation is invalid)
Limited power saving options Includes lot of power saving features
compared to microcontrollers
General Purpose Processor (GPP) Vs Application Specific
Instruction Set Processor (ASIP)

General Purpose Processor or GPP is a processor designed for

general computational tasks

GPPs are produced in large volumes and targeting the general

market. Due to the high volume production, the per unit cost for
a chip is low compared to ASIC or other specific ICs

A typical general purpose processor contains an Arithmetic and

Logic Unit (ALU) and Control Unit (CU)

Application Specific Instruction Set processors (ASIPs) are

processors with architecture and instruction set optimized to
specific domain/application requirements like Network
processing, Automotive, Telecom, media applications, digital
signal processing, control applications etc.

ASIPs fill the architectural spectrum between General

Purpose Processors and Application Specific Integrated
Circuits (ASICs)

The need for an ASIP arises when the traditional general purpose
processor are unable to meet the increasing application needs

Some Microcontrollers (like Automotive AVR, USB AVR

from Atmel), System on Chips, Digital Signal Processors etc are
examples of Application Specific Instruction Set Processors
(ASIPs)

ASIPs incorporate a processor and on-chip peripherals,

demanded by the application requirement, program and data
memory
Digital Signal Processors (DSPs):
Powerful special purpose 8/16/32 bit
microprocessors designed specifically to meet
the computational demands and power
constraints of today's embedded audio, video,
and communications applications
Digital Signal Processors are 2 to 3 times faster
than the general purpose microprocessors in
signal processing applications
DSPs implement algorithms in hardware which
speeds up the execution whereas general
purpose processors implement the algorithm in
firmware and the speed of execution depends
primarily on the clock for the processors
DSP can be viewed as a microchip designed
for performing high speed computational
operations for „addition‟, „subtraction‟,
„multiplication‟ and „division‟
A typical Digital Signal Processor incorporates the
following key units:
Program Memory
Data Memory
Computational Engine
I/O Unit
Audio video signal processing, telecommunication
and multimedia applications are typical examples
where DSP is employed.
RISC V/s CISC Processors/Controllers:
 RISC CISC
Lesser no. of instructions Greater no. of Instructions
Instruction Pipelining and increased Generally no instruction pipelining
execution feature
speed
Orthogonal Instruction Set (Allows Non Orthogonal Instruction Set (All
each instruction instructions
to operate on any register and use any are not allowed to operate on any
addressing register and
mode) use any addressing mode. It is
instruction
specific)
Operations are performed on registers Operations are performed on
only, the registers or
only memory operations are load and memory depending on the instruction
store
Large number of registers are available Limited no. of general purpose
registers
Programmer needs to write more code . A programmer can achieve the
to execute a desired
task since the instructions are simpler functionality with a single instruction
ones which in
turn provides the effect of using
more simpler
single instructions in RISC
Single, Fixed length Instructions Variable length Instructions
Less Silicon usage and pin count More silicon usage since more
additional
decoder logic is required to
implement the
complex instruction decoding.
With Harvard Architecture Can be Harvard or Von-Neumann
Architecture
Harvard V/s Von-Neumann Processor/Controller
Architecture:
Harvard Von-Neumann
Architecture Architecture
Separate buses for Single shared bus for
Instruction and Data Instruction and Data
fetching fetching
Easier to Pipeline, so high Low performance
performance can be Compared to Harvard
achieved Architecture
Comparatively high cost Cheaper
No memory alignment Allows self modifying
problems codes†
Since data memory and Since data memory and
program memory are program memory
stored physically in are stored physically in
different locations, no same chip, chances
chances for accidental for accidental
corruption of program corruption of program
memory memory
Big-endian V/s Little-endian processors:

Endianness specifies the order in which the data is stored in the

memory by processor operations in a multi byte system
(Processors whose word size is greater than one byte). Suppose
the word length is two byte then data can be stored in memory
in two different ways
Higher order of data byte at the higher memory and lower
order of data byte at location just below the higher memory
Lower order of data byte at the higher memory and higher
order of data byte at location just below the higher memory
Little-endian means the lower-order byte of the data is stored in
memory at the lowest address, and the higher-order byte at the
highest address. (The little end comes first)
Big-endian means the higher-order byte of the data is stored in
memory at the lowest address, and the lower-order byte at the
highest address. (The big end comes first.)
Load Store Operation & Instruction Pipelining:
The RISC processor instruction set is orthogonal and it operates on registers. The
memory access related operations are performed by the special instructions load and
store. If the operand is specified as memory location, the content of it is loaded to a
register using the load instruction. The instruction store stores data from a specified
register to a specified memory location
The conventional instruction execution by the processor follows the fetch-decode-
execute sequence
The „fetch‟ part fetches the instruction from program memory or code memory and the
decode part decodes the instruction to generate the necessary control signals Instruction
Pipelining

The execute stage reads the operands, perform ALU operations and stores the result.
In conventional program execution, the fetch and decode operations are performed in
sequence
During the decode operation the memory address bus is available and if it possible to effectively
utilize it for an instruction fetch, the processing speed can be increased

In its simplest form instruction pipelining refers to the overlapped execution of instructions

Application Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC):

A microchip designed to perform a specific or unique application. It is used as
replacement to conventional general purpose logic chips.

ASIC integrates several functions into a single chip and thereby reduces the system
development cost

Most of the ASICs are proprietary products. As a single chip, ASIC consumes very small area
in the total system and thereby helps in the design of smaller systems with high
capabilities/functionalities.
ASICs can be pre-fabricated for a special application or it can be custom fabricated by using
the components from a re-usable „building block‟ library of components for a particular
customer application Fabrication of ASICs requires a non-refundable initial investment
(Non Recurring Engineering (NRE) charges) for the process technology and
configuration expenses

If the Non-Recurring Engineering Charges (NRE) is born by a third party and the
Application Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC) is made openly available in the market,
the ASIC is referred as Application Specific Standard Product (ASSP)

The ASSP is marketed to multiple customers just as a general-purpose product , but to a

smaller number of customers since it is for a specific application.
 Some ASICs are proprietary products , the developers are not interested in
revealing the internal details.

Programmable Logic Devices (PLDs):

 Logic devices provide specific functions, including device-to-device interfacing,

data communication, signal processing, data display, timing and control
operations, and almost every other function a system must perform.

 Logic devices can be classified into two broad categories - Fixed and
Programmable. The circuits in a fixed logic device are permanent, they perform
one function or set of functions - once manufactured, they cannot be changed
 Programmable logic devices (PLDs) offer customers a wide range of logic
capacity, features, speed, and voltage characteristics - and these devices can be re-
configured to perform any number of functions at any time
 Designers can use inexpensive software tools to quickly develop, simulate, and test
their logic designs in PLD based design. The design can be quickly programmed
into a device, and immediately tested in a live circuit

 PLDs are based on re-writable memory technology and the device is

reprogrammed to change the design
Programmable Logic Devices (PLDs) – CPLDs and FPGA
Field Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGAs) and Complex Programmable
Logic Devices (CPLDs) are the two major types of programmable logic
devices

FPGA:
FPGA is an IC designed to be configured by a designer after manufacturing.
FPGAs offer the highest amount of logic density, the most features, and
the highest performance.

Logic gate is Medium to high density ranging from 1K to 500K system gates

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These advanced FPGA devices also offer features such as built-in hardwired
processors (such as the IBM Power PC), substantial amounts of memory,
clock management systems, and support for many of the latest, very fast
device-to-device signaling technologies

Figure: FPGA Architecture

These advanced FPGA devices also offer features such as built-in hardwired
processors, substantial amounts of memory, clock management systems, and
support for many of the latest, very fast device-to-device signaling technologies.
FPGAs are used in a wide variety of applications ranging from data
processing and storage, to instrumentation, telecommunications, and digital
signal processing

CPLD:
A complex programmable logic device (CPLD) is a programmable logic
device with complexity between that of PALs and FPGAs, and architectural
features of both.
CPLDs, by contrast, offer much smaller amounts of logic - up to about 10,000
gates.
CPLDs offer very predictable timing characteristics and are therefore ideal for
critical control applications.
 CPLDs such as the Xilinx CoolRunner series also require extremely low amounts
of power and are very inexpensive, making them ideal for cost-sensitive, battery-
operated, portable applications such as mobile phones and digital handheld assistants.

ADVANTAGES OF PLDs:
• PLDs offer customer much more flexibility during design cycle
• PLDSs do not require long lead times for prototype or production-the PLDs are
already on a distributor‟s self and ready for shipment
• PLDs do not require customers to pay for large NRE costs and purchase expensive
mask sets
• PLDs allow customers to order just the number of parts required when they need
them. allowing them to control inventory.

• PLDs are reprogrammable even after a piece of equipment is shipped to a customer.

• The manufacturers able to add new features or upgrade the PLD based products that
are in the field by uploading new programming file

Commercial off the Shelf Component (COTS):

A Commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) product is one which is used „as-is‟
COTS products are designed in such a way to provide easy integration and
interoperability with existing system components
Typical examples for the COTS hardware unit are Remote Controlled Toy
Car control unit including the RF Circuitry part, High performance, high
frequency microwave electronics (2 to 200 GHz), High bandwidth analog-to-
digital converters, Devices and components for operation at very high
temperatures, Electro-optic IR imaging arrays, UV/IR Detectors etc

A COTS component in turn contains a General Purpose Processor (GPP) or

Application Specific Instruction Set Processor (ASIP) or Application Specific
Integrated Chip (ASIC)/Application Specific Standard Product (ASSP) or
Programmable Logic Device (PLD)

The major advantage of using COTS is that they are readily available in the
market, cheap and a developer can cut down his/her development time to a great
extend.
There is no need to design the module yourself and write the

firmware . Everything will be readily supplied by the COTs

manufacturer.
 The major problem faced by the end-user is that there are no
operational and manufacturing standards.

The major drawback of using COTs component in embedded design is

that the manufacturer may withdraw the product or discontinue the production
of the COTs at any time if rapid change in technology

This problem adversely affect a commercial manufacturer of the embedded

system which makes use of the specific COTs

Memory:
Memory is an important part of an embedded system. The memory used in
embedded system can be either Program Storage Memory (ROM) or Data
memory (RAM)

Certain Embedded processors/controllers contain built in program memory

and data memory and this memory is known as on-chip memory
Certain Embedded processors/controllers do not contain sufficient memory
inside the chip and requires external memory called off-chip memory or
external memory.

Memory – Program Storage Memory:

 Stores the program instructions

 Retains its contents even after the power to it is turned off. It is

generally known as Non volatile storage memory

 Depending on the fabrication, erasing and programming techniques they

are classified into
[Link] ROM (MROM):
One-time programmable memory.

Uses hardwired technology for storing data.

The device is factory programmed by masking and metallization process
according to the data provided by the end user.
The primary advantage of MROM is low cost for high volume

production. MROM is the least expensive type of solid state memory.

Different mechanisms are used for the masking process of the ROM, like
Creation of an enhancement or depletion mode transistor through channel
implant

 By creating the memory cell either using a standard transistor or a high

threshold transistor.

 In the high threshold mode, the supply voltage required to turn ON the
transistor is above the normal ROM IC operating voltage.

 This ensures that the transistor is always off and the memory cell stores
always logic 0.
The limitation with MROM based firmware storage is the inability to
modify the device firmware against firmware upgrades.

The MROM is permanent in bit storage, it is not possible to alter the bit
information
[Link] Read Only Memory (PROM) / (OTP) :
It is not pre-programmed by the manufacturer
The end user is responsible for Programming these devices.
PROM/OTP has nichrome or polysilicon wires arranged in a matrix, these
wires can be functionally viewed as fuses.

It is programmed by a PROM programmer which selectively burns the fuses

according to the bit pattern to be stored.
Fuses which are not blown/burned represents a logic “1” where as fuses
which are blown/burned represents a logic “0”.The default state is logic “1”.

OTP is widely used for commercial production of embedded systems whose

proto-typed versions are proven and the code is finalized.
It is a low cost solution for commercial production.

OTPs cannot be reprogrammed.

[Link] Programmable Read Only Memory (EPROM):

Erasable Programmable Read Only (EPROM) memory gives the flexibility to re-
program the same chip.

During development phase , code is subject to continuous changes and using an

OTP is not economical.

EPROM stores the bit information by charging the floating gate of an FET
Bit information is stored by using an EPROM Programmer, which applies high
voltage to charge the floating gate

EPROM contains a quartz crystal window for erasing the stored information.
If the window is exposed to Ultra violet rays for a fixed duration, the entire
memory will be erased

Even though the EPROM chip is flexible in terms of re-programmability, it

needs to be taken out of the circuit board and needs to be put in a UV eraser
device for 20 to 30 minutes
[Link] Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM):
Erasable Programmable Read Only (EPROM) memory gives the flexibility to re-
program the same chip using electrical signals

The information contained in the EEPROM memory can be altered by using

electrical signals at the register/Byte level

They can be erased and reprogrammed within the circuit

These chips include a chip erase mode and in this mode they can be erased in a
few milliseconds

It provides greater flexibility for system design

The only limitation is their capacity is limited when compared with the standard
ROM (A few kilobytes).

[Link] Storage Memory – FLASH

FLASH memory is a variation of EEPROM technology.
FALSH is the latest ROM technology and is the most popular ROM technology
used in today‟s embedded designs

It combines the re-programmability of EEPROM and the high capacity of

standard ROMs

FLASH memory is organized as sectors (blocks) or pages

FLASH memory stores information in an array of floating gate MOSFET transistors

The erasing of memory can be done at sector level or page level without
affecting the other sectors or pages

Each sector/page should be erased before re-programming

The typical erasable capacity of FLASH is of the order of a few 1000 cycles.
Read-Write Memory/Random Access Memory (RAM)
 RAM is the data memory or working memory of the controller/processor
RAM is a direct access memory, meaning we can access the desired memory location
directly without the need for traversing through the entire memory locations to reach
the desired memory position (i.e. Random Access of memory location).

[Link] RAM (SRAM):

Static RAM stores data in the form of Voltage. They are made up of flip-flops

In typical implementation, an SRAM cell (bit) is realized using 6 transistors (or 6

MOSFETs).

Four of the transistors are used for building the latch,

part of the memory cell and 2 for controlling the access.
Static RAM is the fastest form of RAM available.
SRAM is fast in operation due to its resistive networking
and switching capabilities.

[Link] RAM (DRAM)

Dynamic RAM stores data in the form of charge. They are made up of MOS transistor
gates
The advantages of DRAM are its high density and low cost compared to
SRAM
The disadvantage is that since the information is stored as charge it
gets leaked off with time and to prevent this they need to be
refreshed periodically
Special circuits called DRAM controllers are used for the refreshing operation. The
refresh operation is done periodically in milliseconds interval
 SRAM Vs DRAM:
SRAM Cell DRAM Cell
Made up of 6 CMOS transistors Made up of a MOSFET and a capacitor
(MOSFET)
Doesn‟t Require refreshing Requires refreshing
Low capacity (Less dense) High Capacity (Highly dense)
More expensive Less Expensive
Fast in operation. Typical access time is Slow in operation due to refresh
10ns requirements. Typical access time is
60ns.
Write operation is faster than read
operation.

[Link] Volatile RAM (NVRAM):

Random access memory with battery backup

It contains Static RAM based memory and a minute battery for providing supply
to the memory in the absence of external power supply
The memory and battery are packed together in a single package
NVRAM is used for the non volatile storage of results of operations or for setting up
of flags etc
DS1744 from Maxim/Dallas is an example for 32KB NVRAM
Memory selection for Embedded Systems:
• Selection of suitable memory is very much essential step in high
performance applications, because the challenges and limitations of the system
performance are often decided upon the type of memory architecture.
• Systems memory requirement depend primarily on the nature of the
application that is planned to run on the system.
• Memory performance and capacity requirement for low cost systems are small,
whereas memory throughput can be the most critical requirement in a complex,
high performance system.
 • Following are the factors that are to be considered while selecting the memory
devices,
Speed
 Data storage size and capacity
 Bus width
Power consumption
 Cost

Embedded system requirements:

Program memory for holding control algorithm or embedded OS and the

applications designed to run on top of OS.
Data memory for holding variables and temporary data during task execution.

Memory for holding non-volatile data which are modifiable by the application.
The memory requirement for an embedded system in terms of RAM (SRAM/DRAM)
and ROM (EEPROM/FLASH/NVRAM) is solely dependent on the type of the embedded
system and applications for which it is designed.

There is no hard and fast rule for calculating the memory requirements.
Lot of factors need to be considered for selecting the type and size of memory for
embedded system.

Example: Design of Embedded based electronic Toy.

SOC or microcontroller can be selected based type(RAM &ROM) and size of on-chip
memory for the design of embedded system.

If on-chip memory is not sufficient then how much external memory need to be
interfaced.

If the ES design is RTOS based ,the RTOS requires certain amount of RAM for its
execution and ROM for storing RTOS Image.
The RTOS suppliers gives amount of run time RAM requirements and program memory
requirements for the RTOS.

Additional memory is required for executing user tasks and user applications.
On a safer side, always add a buffer value to the total estimated RAM and ROM
requirements.

A smart phone device with windows OS is typical example for embedded device
requires say 512MB RAM and 1GB ROM are minimum requirements for running
the mobile device.

And additional RAM &ROM memory is required for running user applications.
So estimate the memory requirements for install and run the user applications without
facing memory space.
Memory can be selected based on size of the memory ,data bus and address bus size of
the processor/controller.

Memory chips are available in standard sizes like 512 bytes,1KB,2KB ,4KB,8KB,16
KB
….1MB etc.
FLASH memory is the popular choice for ROM in embedded applications .
It is powerful and cost-effective solid state storage technology for mobile electronic
devices and other consumer applications.

Flash memory available in two major variants

1. NAND FLASH 2. NOR FLASH
NAND FLASH is a high density low cost non-volatile storage memory.
NOR FLASH is less dense and slightly expensive but supports Execute in place(XIP).
The XIP technology allows the execution of code memory from ROM itself without
the need for copying it to the RAM.

The EEPROM is available as either serial interface or parallel interface chip.

If the processor/controller of the device supports serial interface and the amount of
data to write and read to and from the device (Serial EEPROM) is less.

The serial EEPROM saves the address space of the total system.
The memory capacity of the serial EEPROM is expressed in bits or Kilobits.
Sensors & Actuators:
• Embedded system is in constant interaction with the real world
• Controlling/monitoring functions executed by the embedded
system is achieved in accordance with the changes happening
to the Real World.
• The changes in the system environment or variables are
detected by the sensors connected to the input port of the
embedded system.

• If the embedded system is designed for any controlling purpose,

the system will produce some changes in controlling variable to
bring the controlled variable to the desired value.

• It is achieved through an actuator connected to the out port of the

embedded system.
Sensor:
A transducer device which converts energy from one
form to another for any measurement or control purpose.
Sensors acts as input device
Eg. Hall Effect Sensor which measures the distance between the
cushion and magnet in the Smart Running shoes from adidas

Example: IR, humidity , PIR(passive infra red) , ultrasonic ,

piezoelectric , smoke sensors

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Actuator:

A form of transducer device (mechanical or

electrical) which converts signals to
corresponding physical action (motion).
Actuator acts as an output device

Eg. Micro motor actuator which adjusts the

position of the cushioning element in the
Smart Running shoes from adidas

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The I/O Subsystem:

 The I/O subsystem of the embedded system facilitates the interaction of the
embedded system with external world

 The interaction happens through the sensors and actuators connected to the
Input and output ports respectively of the embedded system

 The sensors may not be directly interfaced to the Input ports, instead
they may be interfaced through signal conditioning and translating
systems like ADC, Optocouplers etc

1. I/O Devices - Light Emitting Diode (LED):

Vcc
Light Emitting Diode (LED) is an output device for visual

R
indication in any embedded system

LED can be used as an indicator for the status of various signals

or situations.

Typical examples are indicating the presence of power conditions

GND
like „Device ON‟, „Battery low‟ or „Charging of battery‟ for a
battery operated handheld embedded devices

LED is a p-n junction diode and it contains an anode and a cathode.

For proper functioning of the LED, the anode of it should be connected to +ve terminal
of the supply voltage and cathode to the –ve terminal of supply voltage

The current flowing through the LED must limited to a value below the maximum current
that it can conduct.

A resister is used in series between the power supply and the resistor to limit the current
through the LED

2. I/O Devices – 7-Segment LED Display

The 7 – segment LED display is an output device for displaying alpha numeric characters

It contains 8 light-emitting diode (LED) segments arranged in a special form. Out of the 8
LED segments, 7 are used for displaying alpha numeric characters

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 The LED segments are named A to G and the decimal point LED segment is named as
DP

The LED Segments A to G and DP should be lit accordingly to display numbers and
characters

The 7 – segment LED displays are available in two different configurations, namely;
Common anode and Common cathode

In the Common anode configuration, the anodes of the 8 segments are connected
commonly whereas in the Common cathode configuration, the 8 LED segments share a
common cathode line

Based on the configuration of the 7 – segment LED unit, the LED segment anode or
cathode is connected to the Port of the processor/controller in the order „A‟ segment to
the Least significant port Pin and DP segment to the most significant Port Pin.

The current flow through each of the LED segments should be limited to the maximum
value supported by the LED display unit

Anode Common Cathode LED Display

DP GFEDCB A

DPGF ED C B A
Common Anode LED Display Cathode

The typical value for the current falls within the range of 20mA

The current through each segment can be limited by connecting a current limiting resistor
to the anode or cathode of each segment

3. I/O Devices – Optocoupler

Optocoupler is a solid state device to isolate two parts of a circuit.

Optocoupler combines an LED and a photo-transistor in a single housing (package)

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 In electronic circuits, optocoupler is used for suppressing interference in data
communication, circuit isolation, High voltage separation, simultaneous separation and
intensification signal etc

Optocouplers can be used in either input circuits or in output circuits

4. I/O Devices – Stepper Motor:

Stepper motor is an electro mechanical device which generates discrete

displacement (motion) in response to dc electrical signals

It differs from the normal dc motor in its operation. The dc motor produces
continuous rotation on applying dc voltage whereas a stepper motor produces discrete
rotation in response to the dc voltage applied to it

Stepper motors are widely used in industrial embedded

applications, consumer electronic products and robotics
control systems

The paper feed mechanism of a printer/fax makes use

of stepper motors for its functioning.

Based on the coil winding arrangements, a two phase

stepper motor is classified into


Unipolar

Bipolar

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 ES UNIT-2 Notes

 Unipolar: A unipolar stepper motor contains two windings per phase. The direction of
rotation (clockwise or anticlockwise) of a stepper motor is controlled by changing the
direction of current flow. Current in one direction flows through one coil and in the
opposite direction flows through the other coil. It is easy to shift the direction of rotation
by just switching the terminals to which the coils are connected

 Bipolar: A bipolar stepper motor contains single winding per phase. For reversing the
motor rotation the current flow through the windings is reversed dynamically. It requires
complex circuitry for current flow reversal

5. The I/O Subsystem – I/O Devices – Relay:


An electro mechanical device which acts as dynamic path selectors for signals and power.


The „Relay‟ unit contains a relay coil made up of insulated wire on a metal core and a metal
armature with one or more contacts.

„Relay‟ works on electromagnetic principle.


When a voltage is applied to the relay coil, current flows through the coil, which in turn
generates a magnetic field.


The magnetic field attracts the armature core and moves the contact point.

The movement of the contact point changes the power/signal flow path.


The Relay is normally controlled using a relay driver circuit connected to the port pin of the
processor/controller


A transistor can be used as the relay driver. The transistor can be selected depending on the
relay driving current requirements.

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6. The I/O Subsystem – I/O Devices -Piezo Buzzer:

• It is a piezoelectric device for generating audio indications in embedded applications.

• A Piezo buzzer contains a piezoelectric diaphragm which produces audible sound in

response to the voltage applied to it.

• Piezoelectric buzzers are available in two types

[Link]-driving [Link] driving

• Self-driving contains are the necessary components to

generate sound at a predefined tone.

• External driving piezo Buzzers supports the generation of different tones.

• The tone can be varied by applying a variable pulse train to the piezoelectric buzzer.

• A Piezo Buzzer can be directly interfaced to the port pin of the processor/Controller.

6. The I/O Subsystem – I/O Devices – Push button switch:


Push Button switch is an input device.


Push button switch comes in two configurations, namely „Push to Make‟
and „Push to Break‟


The switch is normally in the open state and it makes a circuit
contact when it is pushed or pressed in the „Push to Make‟
configuration.

 In the „Push to Break‟ configuration, the switch

is normally in the closed state and it breaks
the circuit contact when it is pushed or pressed


The push button stays in the „closed‟ (For Push
to Make type) or „open‟ (For Push to Break
type) state as long as it is kept in the pushed
state and it breaks/makes the circuit connection
when it is released.

Push button is used for generating a momentary pulse

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