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MODULE – III: ARMATURE REACTION IN D.C. GENERATOR

Armature reaction –Effects –Distribution of Field MMF & Armature MMF– Cross magnetizing and
de-magnetizing AT/pole – compensating winding – commutation – reactance voltage – methods
of improving commutation. Generator Characteristics-Power Stages-Losses-Efficiency-Parallel
Operation-Problems.

Armature reaction - Effects-Cross magnetizing and de-magnetizing AT/pole -

Compensating winding:

 Armature reaction:
When a DC generator is loaded, a current flows through the armature conductor in the same
direction as that of the induced emf. The armature conductors carrying current that produce their
own magnetic field called armature field.

The effect of armature flux on the main field flux is called armature reaction.

Consider a bipolar generator,

 At no-load, no current flows through the armature conductors and the flux distribution in
the armature is shown below, the vector OFm represents the mmf produced by the main
field.

It is observed that the Magnetic Neutral Axis (MNA) and the Geometrical Neutral Axis (GNA)
coincide with each other. The brushes (B1 and B2) are always placed at MNA.

Geometrical Neutral Axis (GNA): The line passing through the geometrically central point
between the two adjacent opposite magnetic poles is called geometrical neutral axis (GNA).

Magnetic Neutral Axis (MNA): The line passing through the magnetically neutral position
between the two adjacent opposite magnetic poles is called magnetic neutral axis (MNA). When
a conductor passes through this axis, no emf is induced in the conductor.
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 At load, the current flows through the armature conductors which sets up armature field as
shown below, the vector OFA represents the mmf produced by the armature field.

When the armature flux interacts with the main flux, a resultant flux is set up in the armature as
shown below, it can be observed that the resultant flux is no longer uniform.

The resultant mmf is shown by the vector OF which is the vector sum of OFm and OFA. Thus, the
MNA are shifted to new position displaced from its original position by an angle θ. The new
position of magnetic neutral axis is the shifting of axis by an angle θ depends upon the magnitude
of load applied on the generator.

 At larger load, larger will be the shift angle θ. It means the shifting of MNA is not constant,
it varies and depends upon the magnitude of load applied on the generator. The new
position of MNA, the distribution of armature flux is shown below, the vector OFAR
represents the new position of mmf producing resultant armature field.
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The vector OFAR is the combination of OFC & OFD vectors in the armature field.
Where, OFC is perpendicular to the main mmf OFm and produces the cross-magnetizing effect
OFD is opposes the main mmf OFm and produces the de-magnetizing effect

 Effects of Armature reaction - Cross magnetizing and de-magnetizing AT/pole:

The effects of armature reaction are,
 Cross-magnetizing effect
 De-magnetizing effect

In armature reaction, let the MNA be shifted ahead by an angle θ. The new position of MNA is
represented by line AB. Draw another line CD making the same angle θ with GNA but in opposite
direction as shown below,

De-magnetizing effect AT/Pole:

All the conductors lying between AOC and BOD carry current in such a direction of mmf produced
by them opposite the main mmf. These conductors cause demagnetizing effect and these turns are
known as demagnetizing conductors.
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Cross-magnetizing effect AT/Pole:

All other turn lying between angle AOD and COB produce cross magnetizing mmf and are called
cross-magnetizing conductors.

If the brush shift angle is given in electrical degrees then it should be converted into mechanical
degrees by using the relation,

 Methods to reduce Armature reaction - Compensating winding & Interpoles:

The various methods to reduce armature reaction are,
 Compensating winding
 Interpoles
 By using eccentric poles
 By using laminated poles
 Punching rectangular holes in field pole
 Stronger main field flux as compared to armature flux

Compensating winding:
The armature reaction is due to the presence of armature flux. Armature flux is produced due to
the current flowing in armature conductors. If we place another winding close to the armature
winding, then it carries the same current in the opposite direction of the armature current, then this
will nullify the armature field. Such an additional winding is called compensating winding and it
is placed on the pole faces.

Compensating winding is connected in series with the armature winding that carries the current in
opposite direction.
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Interpoles:
To reduce the effects of armature reaction, small auxiliary poles are placed between the main field
poles called interpoles.
 Interpoles have a few turns of large wire and are connected in series with the armature.

Interpoles are wounded and placed so that each interploe has the same magnetic polarity as the
main pole in the direction of rotation. The field generated by the interpoles produces the same
effect as the compensating winding. This field effect cancels the armature reaction for all values
of load current.

Commutation – methods of improving commutation:

 Commutation:
The process of reversal of current in the short-circuited armature coil is called Commutation.

 The process of reversal takes place when coil is passing through the interpolar axis (q-
axis), the coil is short circuited through commutator segments.
 Commutation takes place simultaneously for,
 P coils in a lap-wound machine
 Two coil sets of P/2 coils each in a wave-wound machine.

The process of commutation of coil ‘B’ is,

 When the Armature starts rotating, the brush moves over the commutator segments. Let
the first position of the brush commutator contact be at segment b. As the width of the
commutator is equal to the width of the brush, in the above position the total areas of
commutator and brush are in contact with each other. The total current conducted by the
commutator segment into the brush at this position will be 2Ia.
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 When the armature rotates towards the right and the brush comes in contact with the bar a.
At this position, the total conducted current will be 2Ia, but the current in the coil changes.
Here, the current flows through two paths A and B. 3/4th of the 2Ia comes from the coil B
and remaining 1/4th comes from coil A. When KCL is applied at the segment a and
segment b, the current through the coil B is reduced to Ia/2 and the current drawn through
segment a is Ia/2.

 When the armature rotates towards the right, at this position half of the brush, a surface is
in contact with segment a and the other half is with segment b. As the total current drawn
trough brush is 2Ia, current Ia is drawn through coil A and Ia drawn through coil B. Using
KCL we can observe that the current in coil B will be zero.

 When the armature rotates towards the right, at this position, one-fourth of the brush
surface will be in contact with segment b and three fourth with segment a. Here, the
current drawn through coil B is Ia/2. Here we can observe that the current in coil B is
reversed. At this point a spark will generate which is due to the reactance voltage occurred
during commutation process.
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Let, Ia = Ic, as the coil is embedded in the armature slots. The coil possesses appreciable amount of
self-inductance. The current is changed from +Ic to –Ic.

So, due to self-inductance and variation in the current from +Ic to –Ic, a voltage is induced in the
coil which is given by L dI/dt. The variation of current plotted on the time axis is shown as,

Sparking can be avoided by the use of interpoles or commutating-poles.

 Methods of improving commutation:

The methods of improving commutation are,
 Resistance commutation
 EMF commutation (shifting brushes)
 Interpoles or commutating-poles
 Compensating winding

 Resistance commutation: In this method of commutation, we use high electrical

resistance brushes for getting spark less commutation. Resistance commutation can be
obtained by replacing low resistance copper brushes with high resistance carbon brushes.

We can clearly see from the below figure, the current IC from the coil C may reach to the brush in
two ways in the commutation period.
 One path is direct through the commutator segment b and to the brush
 2nd path is first through the short-circuit coil B and then through the commutator segment
a and to the brush.
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When the brush resistance is low, then the current IC from coil C will follow the shortest path, i.e.
the 1st path as its electrical resistance is low because it is shorter than the 2nd path.

When high resistance brushes are used, then as the brush moves towards the commutator segments,
the contact area of the brush and the segment b decreases, the contact area with the segment a
increases. Now, as the electrical resistance is inversely proportional to the contact area of then
resistance Rb will increase and Ra will decrease as the brush moves. Then the current will prefer
the 2nd path to reach to the brush.

This method ensures the quick reversal of current in the desired direction, improving commutation.

Where, ρ is the resistivity of the conductor

l is the length of the conductor
A is the area of cross-section of the conductor

 EMF commutation (shifting brushes): In this method, brushes are shifted to the
new position of MNA so that no emf be induced in the coil undergoing commutation. Thus,
the sparking at the brushes is eliminated. But in this case, the position of MNA changes
with the change in load on the machine and simultaneously the position of brushes cannot
be changed. Hence, this method is employed in the machine which we do not have
interpoles and the load on the machine remains almost constant.
 Interpoles: In this method, narrow poles are placed in between the main poles of a DC
machine which re-energized to such an extent that they neutralize the field produced by the
armature under load. Hence, no emf is induced in the coil which undergoes commutation.

 Compensating winding: In this method, a number of conductors or coils are

embedded in the slots provided at the pole shoes faces and carry current of such a
magnitude and direction that field produced by them neutralizes the armature field and
improve commutation.

Generator Characteristics-Power Stages-Losses-Efficiency-Problems:

 Generator Characteristics:
The various characteristics of DC Generator are,
 Open Circuit Characteristic (No-Load Characteristics): Open Circuit or No-Load
Characteristics shows the relationship between No-load induced EMF (E0) and field current
(If) at a constant speed. The curve shows that voltage increases with field current until
magnetic saturation is reached.

 Internal Characteristic: Internal characteristics shows the relationship between On-load

generated EMF (Eg or E) and armature current (Ia)

 External Characteristic (Load Characteristics): External or Load characteristics shows the

relationship between terminal voltage (V or VT) and load current (IL).
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Open Circuit Characteristic (No-Load Characteristics):

 Open Circuit Characteristics shows the relationship between No-load induced EMF (E0)
and field current (If) at a constant speed.
 Also called No-Load Characteristics
 The curve is also called magnetic characteristic or no-load saturation curve
 The OCC curve is same for all generators whether separately or self-excited generator.
The data for Open Circuit Characteristics is obtained experimentally by operating the generator at
no load and constant speed and recording the change in terminal voltage by varying the field
current. The connection arrangement to obtain O.C.C. curve is shown below, for shunt or series
excited generators, the field winding is disconnected from the machine and connected across an
external supply.

From the emf equation of dc generator Eg = kɸ, the generated emf should be directly proportional
to field flux ɸ (and also directly proportional to the field current If). When the field current is zero,
some amount of emf is generated (represented by OA or oa). This initial induced emf is due to the
existence of residual magnetism in the field poles. Due to the residual magnetism, a small initial
emf is induced in the armature. This initial induced emf has the existing residual flux and hence,
increasing the overall field flux. This consequently increases the induced emf. Thus, O.C.C.
follows a straight line. However, as the flux density increases, the poles get saturated and the ɸ
becomes practically constant. Even if we increase it further, the ɸ remains constant and hence Eg
also remains constant. Hence, the O.C.C. curve looks like the B-H characteristic. The speed
varying characteristics are also shown below,

Internal Characteristic(Total Characteristics):

 Internal characteristics shows the relationship between On-Load generated EMF (Eg or E)
and armature current (Ia)
 Also called Total Characteristics
External Characteristic (Load Characteristics):
 External characteristics shows the relationship between terminal voltage (V or VT) and load
current (IL).
 Also called Load Characteristics
 Also called Performance characteristics
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Internal & External Characteristics of Separately exited DC Generator:

The internal & external characteristics of DC Generator is obtained by making simultaneous

measurements of generated voltage, terminal voltage and load current (with voltmeter and
ammeter) of a loaded generator.

 If there is no armature reaction and armature voltage drop, the voltage will remain constant
for any load current. Then the straight-line AB represents the no-load voltage vs load
current IL.
 Due to the demagnetizing effect of armature reaction, the on-load generated emf is less
than the no-load voltage. The curve AC represents the on-load generated emf (Eg) vs load
current (IL) i.e. Internal characteristic (as Ia = IL for a separately excited dc generator).
 The terminal voltage is lesser due to ohmic drop occurring in the armature and brushes.
Curve AD represents terminal voltage (V) vs load current (IL) i.e. external characteristic.

Internal & External Characteristics of Series exited DC Generator:

The internal & external characteristics of DC Generator is obtained by making simultaneous

measurements of generated voltage, terminal voltage and load current (with voltmeter and
ammeter) of a loaded generator.

 The curve AB is open circuit characteristic (O.C.C.) curve, this is because in DC series
generators field winding is connected in series with armature and load. Hence, here load
current is similar to field current (i.e. IL=If).
 The curve OC and OD represent internal and external characteristics. In a DC series
generator, terminal voltage increases with the load current. This is because, as the load
current increases, field current also increases. However, beyond a certain limit, terminal
voltage starts decreasing with increase in load. This is due to excessive demagnetizing
effects of the armature reaction.
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Internal & External Characteristics of Shunt exited DC Generator:

The internal & external characteristics of DC Generator is obtained by making simultaneous

measurements of generated voltage, terminal voltage and load current (with voltmeter and
ammeter) of a loaded generator.

 For a shunt generator, Ia=IL+If. Hence, the internal characteristic can be easily transmitted
to Eg vs IL by subtracting the correct value of If from Ia.
 During a normal running condition, when load resistance is decreased, the load current
increases. But, as we go on decreasing the load resistance, terminal voltage also falls. So,
load resistance can be decreased up to a certain limit, after which the terminal voltage
drastically decreases due to excessive armature reaction at very high armature current and
increased I2R losses. Hence, beyond this limit any further decrease in load resistance results
in decreasing load current. Consequently, the external characteristic curve turns back and
is represented by dotted line.

Internal & External Characteristics of Compound DC Generator:

 If series winding amp-turns are adjusted so that, increase in load current causes increase in
terminal voltage then the generator is called to be over compounded. The external
characteristics of over compounded generator is shown by curve AB.
 If series winding amp-turns are adjusted so that, the terminal voltage remains constant even
if the load current is increased, then the generator is called to be flat compounded. The
external characteristics of a flat compounded generator is shown by curve AC.
 If the series winding has lesser number of turns than that would be required to be flat
compounded, then the generator is called to be under compounded. The external
characteristics of an under compounded generator is shown by curve AD.
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Applications of DC Generator:
The various applications of DC generators are,
 Battery Charging: DC generators are frequently used to charge batteries, providing a
steady and direct current.
 Electroplating and Electrolysis: They are used in industrial processes that require a low-
voltage, high-current direct supply, like electroplating and electrolysis.
 Excitation of Alternators: DC shunt generators are used to provide the DC field excitation
required by large alternators in power stations.
 Arc Welding: Differential compound generators are used for arc welding, which requires
a constant current and a significant voltage drop.
 DC Power Supply: They provide power for small-scale, localized lighting in locations
such as offices, hotels, and homes.
 Industrial Motor Control: Separately excited generators are utilized in Ward Leonard
systems to control the speed of large DC motors.
 Traction Systems: DC generators are used in railway traction systems to provide the
necessary power.

Applications of Shunt Generator: General lighting, battery charging, and providing excitation
to alternators.

Applications of Series Generator: Used as booster generators to maintain constant voltage in

distribution lines and in series arc lighting.

Applications of Compound Generator: Used in heavy-duty applications such as power supplies,

driving motors, and lighting.

Voltage Regulation of DC Generator:

The voltage regulation of a generator is expressed as “the change in voltage from a no-load
condition to a full-load condition and compared to full-load.

It is expressed in the following formula:

Where, Vnl is the no-load voltage at the terminals of the generator

Vfl is the full-load voltage.

 In the ideal case, VR will equal 0%. In order to achieve this, the excitation voltage must be
adjusted with load conditions, i.e. the field voltage must be controlled.
 Generally, Voltage regulation is positive (voltage drops) in shunt/separately excited
generators due to armature resistance and negative (voltage rises) in over-compound
generators.
 Poor Voltage Regulation occurs when there is a large difference between no-load and full-
load voltage (e.g., Series Generator).
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 Power Stages:
The various power stages in D.C. generator are,

The three generator efficiencies are,

Where, overall efficiency ηc = ηm x ηe. For good generators, their value may be as high as 95%.

 Losses in D.C. Generator:

 In conversion of mechanical energy into electrical energy, a part of energy dissipated in
the form of heat in surrounding air is called losses in the generator.
 These losses affect the efficiency of the generator. A reduction in these losses leads to
higher efficiency.

The various losses in D.C. Generator are,

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Iron or Core Losses:

Iron losses consist of (i) Hysteresis loss and (ii) Eddy Current loss.

Hysteresis Loss (Wh):

Hysteresis loss is due to the reversal of magnetization of the armature core. If P is the number of
poles and N is the armature speed in r.p.m, then frequency of magnetic reversals is f = PN/120.

The loss depends upon the volume and grade of iron, maximum value of flux density Bmax and
frequency of magnetic reversals. For normal flux densities (i.e. upto 1.5 Wb/m2), hysteresis loss
is given by Steinmetz formula. According to this formula,

For reducing the hysteresis loss, the metals which are chosen for the armature core have a low
hysteresis coefficient. Generally, special silicon steels are used which not only have a low
hysteresis coefficient but also possess high electrical resistivity.

Eddy Current Loss (We):

When the e.m.f induced in the core is small, that sets up large current in the body of the core due
to its small resistance. This current is known as eddy current. The power loss due to the flow of
this current is known as eddy current loss.

Eddy current loss is reduced by using laminated core.

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Copper losses:
The various windings of DC machine are made of copper and have some resistance. When current
flows through copper conductors, the power loss proportional to the square of their currents. These
power losses are called copper losses.

Mechanical losses:
Mechanical losses consist of,
(i) Friction loss at bearings and commutator.
(ii) Air-Friction or Windage loss of rotating armature.

The losses in a DC generator may also be sub-divided into Constant losses and Variable losses.
Constant losses: The losses in a DC machine which remain the same at all loads are called
constant losses. The constant losses in a DC machine are: (i) Iron losses; (ii) Mechanical losses;
(iii) Shunt field copper losses

Variable losses: The losses in DC machine which vary with load are called variable losses.
The variable losses in a DC machine are (i) Armature copper loss; (ii) Series field copper loss; (iii)
Interpole winding copper loss; (iv) Compensating winding copper loss.

Stray losses: The sum of the iron losses and mechanical losses in a DC machine are known as
stray losses i.e., Stray losses = Iron losses + Mechanical losses.
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 Efficiency and condition for maximum efficiency in DC Generator:

The ratio of output power to the input power of a DC generator is called efficiency.

Where, Power output = VI watt

Power input = Power output + Variable losses + Constant losses

Since, the shunt field current Ish is very small as compared to line current,
therefore, IL = Ia (neglecting Ish)
Variable losses = Ia2 Ra
Constant losses = Wc (say)

Variation of efficiency (η) with load current(I) is,

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Problems:

Example 1: A wave wound 4 pole D.C. generator with 480 armature conductors supplies a current
of 144 A. The brushes are given an actual lead of 10o. Calculate the demagnetizing and cross
magnetizing amp turns per pole.

Solution: P=4
Z = 480
Ia = 144 A
For wave wound, I = Ia/2 = 144/2 = 72 A
θm = 10o
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Example:
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