GE3451 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES AND SUSTAINABILITY

UNIT I

Environment and Biodiversity

Definition, scope and importance of environment - need for public awareness. Eco-system
and Energy flow - ecological succession. Types of biodiversity: genetic, species and
ecosystem diversity - values of biodiversity, India as a mega-diversity nation - hot - spots of
biodiversity - threats to biodiversity: habitat loss, poaching of wildlife, man - wildlife
conflicts - endangered and endemic species of India - conservation of biodiversity: In-situ
and ex-situ.
1. Definitions

Environment

The environment is defined as, "the whole physical and biological system in which
man and other organisms live". Environmental studies involve every issue that affects living
organisms.

Environmental science

Environmental science is a study that deals with the functioning of nature and
interconnections between various things in the nature.

Various interacting components of environment are biology, geology, chemistry,

physics, engineering, sociology, health and economics. Positive and realistic planning is
needed to balance them. Therefore, environmental science is essentially a multidisciplinary
approach.

2. Scope

Our natural landscape consists of forest, river, desert, rocks, minerals and soil. These
landscapes are transformed into villages, town or cities by human beings. Even though we
live in cities, the food grains are supplied from villages surrounding. It means that our daily

K. LAKSHMIKANDHAN AP/CHEMISTRY,
CMS College of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore.
life is linked with surrounding environment. We need water, air to survive and other day-to-
day activities which are part of environment.

Human beings are greatly depending on nature or environment. Therefore

environmental resources like water, trees, minerals, food, energy, land must be preserved in
their natural form.

Now a days, because of technological advancements more foods can be grown by

using fertilizers and pesticides, also construction of dams leads to environmental degradation.

Most environmental resources like-water, minerals, petroleum products, wood etc. are
being extracted continuously. Ecologists and environmental scientists have recognised that if
these resources are consumed in this way it will degrade and deplete natural environment.

A distinguishing characteristic of many environmental resources is that they are non-

producible: If the natural resource is exhausted, it is not possible to reproduce them in
original form. If we continue to extract them, they may not be available for future
generations.
3. Importance
Environmental studies involve multidisciplinary approach. Environmental resources
play a multifunctional role as they command market prices. Any scarce natural resource
(rarely available) will cost more as its supply is less e.g. wood, water.

Huge amount of nature's clean water is being polluted and wasted. Waste by products
of chemical process pollutes water and gases are polluting air.
Deforestation (cutting of trees) leads to increasing environment temperature, dry
rivers, unavailability of fresh air. The accumulated effect of all above factors causes
unhealthy atmosphere to human beings by giving variety of diseases.
The misuse or waste of natural resources can be stopped by spreading awareness to
preserve the nature or environment. All must contribute for safeguarding of environment and
by preventing environmental damage.
Need of Public Awareness
1. The Earth's natural resources are being exhausted rapidly and environment is
degraded by human activities. We must not expect Governments alone to manage the
safeguarding of the environment.

K. LAKSHMIKANDHAN AP/CHEMISTRY,
CMS College of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore.
 2. It is our responsibility that each of us must play an important role. One immediate
thing we can do is to reduce the wastage of natural resources.

1. People in Environment
People have always cared about the environment through their perceptions of
environmental issues and their attitudes.
The environmental movement has become concerned with all aspects of the natural
environment, land, water, minerals, living organisms, life processes, the atmosphere, climate,
oceans and outer space.

The environmental movement has expanded its examination of the nature with
international economic co-operation, covering issues of commodity prices, structural
adjustments subsidies on products prepared from natural resources.

Many environmentalists have contributed their views in the interest of protecting

nature, wildlife, ecosystem, agriculture and environment laws. Few of them are Charles
Darwin, Salim-Ali, Indira Gandhi, [Link], Madhav Gadgil, M.C. Mehta, Medha Patkar,
Sundarlal Bahuguna.

People can participate by forming pressure groups, watch dog (observer), advisory
council, reforming environmental laws.
2. Institutions in Environment / NGOs
1. Scientific groups and Non-Government Organisation (NGOs) have played a major
role in the environmental movement.
2. Environmental groups have a wide range of interests. Small groups are organised to
fight local problems other deal with a specific issue on a national scale.
3. Over the past decades, more international environmental NGOs have emerged
including powerful bodies such as Friends of Earth, Greenpeace and World Wide
Fund for Nature (WWF). Through environmental groups individuals can influence
national and international policies.
4. The media have been used as powerful instrument in public awareness of many
environmental issues, but the media is usually reactive rather than innovative.

K. LAKSHMIKANDHAN AP/CHEMISTRY,
CMS College of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore.
3. Environmental Education

Environmental study and education is important in order to preserve environment.

Scope of environmental studies

1. Environmental studies create awareness and sensitivity to the total environment and
problems associated with it.
2. To participate actively in environment protection and improvement.
3. Developing skills to identify and solve environmental problems.
4. To know the need of conserving natural resources.

Importance of environmental studies

1. It helps to understand the concept of "need of development without destruction of

environment".
2. It helps to understand different environmental hazards.
3. It helps to understand and demand for laws for protecting environment and
enforcement system.
4. It helps to relate the quality of life with environment.

Structure of Atmosphere
 The multilayered gaseous envelope that surrounds the earth is called air or
atmosphere.
 The physio-chemical structure of atmosphere consists of five concentric layers.

These layers are:

1. Troposphere (10 km above earth)
2. Stratosphere (18 to 50 km)
3. Mesosphere (51 to 85 km)
4. Thermosphere / Ionosphere (up to 500 km)
5. Exosphere
1. Troposphere:
 Troposphere is the lowest layer of the atmosphere. It extends from 10 to 18 kms.
 It contains 75 % of the atmospheric mass. It also contains moisture.

K. LAKSHMIKANDHAN AP/CHEMISTRY,
CMS College of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore.
  There is gradual reduction in temperature within troposphere from 15 to - 56 C.
 The chemical constituents of troposphere are: O2, CO2, H2O and N2.
2. Stratosphere:
 Stratosphere extends from 18 to 50 kms above earth's surface.
 Stratosphere is characterized by temperature range of - 55 C to 5 C.
 Stratosphere is rich in ozone (O3) gas and free from moisture and clouds.
 Stratosphere prevents earth from ultraviolet radiation of the sun.
3. Mesosphere:
 Mesosphere extends from 50 to 85 kms above earth's surface.
 The mesosphere possesses characteristics of low temperature - 92 C and reduced
atmospheric pressure.
 Mesosphere contains N2 and less ozone gas.
4. Thermosphere
 The thermosphere extends up to 450 to 500 kms above earth surface.
 The thermosphere possesses characteristic of gradual increase in temperature up
to 1200 C.
 Thermosphere contains charged particles like O+2, O+ and NO+.
5. Exosphere
 The exosphere extends from 1600 km to 3000 kms above earth's surface.
 The exosphere possesses characteristic of very high temperature because of direct
solar radiation.
 The exosphere contains H2, and He only.

K. LAKSHMIKANDHAN AP/CHEMISTRY,
CMS College of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore.
Fig. 1.3.1 illustrates vertical structure of earth's atmosphere.

1. Functions of Atmosphere

• Important functions of atmosphere are

1. Atmosphere absorbs Infra-red (IR) radiations thereby maintaining heat balance on earth.

2. Atmosphere contains several gaseous such as oxygen, carbon-dioxide and nitrogen, which
are very important for sustaining life on earth.

3. An ecosystem is a community of living organisms (plants, animals and microbes) in

conjunction with the non-living components of their environment (things like air, water and
mineral soil), interacting as a system.

K. LAKSHMIKANDHAN AP/CHEMISTRY,
CMS College of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore.
Ecosystems (Structure and Function)
 Ecology is study of interactions among organisms with their environment.
 The environment consists of both biotic components (living organisms) and abiotic
components (non-living organisms).
 The terms ecosystems is combination of two words, where 'eco' implies the
environment and 'system' implies an interacting, inter-dependent complex.

Definitions of Ecosystem
1. An ecosystem is a group of plants and animals along with physical environment with
which it interacts.
2. An ecosystem is a community of different species interacting with one another and with
their environment exchanging energy and matter.
3. An ecosystem is a community of living organisms (plants, animals and microbes) in
conjunction with the non-living components of their environment (things like air, water and
mineral soil), interacting as a system.
4. An ecosystem is a biological community of interacting organisms and their physical
environment.
Example: Grassland ecosystem, aquatic ecosystem, dessert ecosystem etc.
1. Scope and Importance of Ecosystem
Scope of Ecosystem
• Our natural landscape consists of forest, river, desert, rocks, minerals and soil. These
landscapes are transformed into villages, town or cities by human beings.
• Even though we live in cities, the food grains are supplied from villages surrounding. It
means that our daily life is linked with surrounding environment. We need water, air to
survive and other day-to-day activities which are part of environment.
• Human beings are greatly depending on nature or environment. Therefore, environmental
resources like water, trees, minerals, food, energy, land must be preserved in their natural
form.
• Now a days, because of technological advancements more foods can be grown by using
fertilizers and pesticides, also construction of dams leads to environmental degradation.

K. LAKSHMIKANDHAN AP/CHEMISTRY,
CMS College of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore.
• Most environmental resources like-water, minerals, petroleum products, wood etc. are being
extracted continuously.
• Ecologists and environmental scientists have recognised that if these resources are
consumed in this way it will degrade and deplete natural environment.
• A distinguishing characteristic of many environmental resources is that they are non-
producible: If the natural resource is exhausted, it is not possible to reproduce them in
original form.
• If we continue to extract them, they may not be available for future generations.

Importance of Ecosystem
• Environmental studies involve multidisciplinary approach. Environmental resources play a
multifunctional role as they command market prices.
• Any scarce natural resource (rarely available) will cost more as its supply is less e.g. wood,
water.
• Huge amount of nature's clean water is being polluted and wasted. Waste by products of
chemical process pollutes water and gases are polluting air.
• Deforestation (cutting of trees) leads to increasing environment temperature, dry rivers,
unavailability of fresh air.
• The accumulated effect of all above factors causes unhealthy atmosphere to human beings
by giving variety of diseases.
• The misuse or waste of natural resources can be stopped by spreading awareness to preserve
the nature or environment.
• All must contribute for safeguarding of environment and by preventing environmental
damage.
2. Classification of Ecosystem
• On the basis of interference and non-interference by man, there exists two types of
ecosystem.
I. Natural ecosystem. 2. Artificial ecosystem.
1. Natural ecosystem
• It operates under natural condition. There is no interference by man at all. It can be divided
further on the basis of habitat.
i) Terrestrial ecosystem- Forest ecosystem, grassland ecosystem, dessert ecosystem.
ii) Aquatic ecosystem - It exists under water. It can be further divided into two types.

K. LAKSHMIKANDHAN AP/CHEMISTRY,
CMS College of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore.
a) Fresh water ecosystem
- Running water (river), stream
- Standing water (lake, pond)
b) Marine ecosystem
- Salt water ecosystem.
2. Artificial / Manmade ecosystem
• These ecosystems are maintained artificially by man where energy is added and
manipulated through planning.
Examples: Cropland, gardens aquarium etc.

Fig. 1.4.1 shows the ecosystem and its types.

3. Characteristics of Ecosystem
1. It is structural and functional unit of ecology.
2. Its structure is related to species diversity i.e. more complex ecosystem have high species
diversity and simple ecosystem have low diversity.
3. Functions of ecosystem is related to energy flow and cycling of material involved and
within ecosystem.

K. LAKSHMIKANDHAN AP/CHEMISTRY,
CMS College of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore.
4. Ecosystem mature as we pass from less complex to more complex structure i.e. early stage
has excess potential energy and relatively high energy flow per unit biomass than later stages.
It reduces at energy stage.
5. Alterations in environment represent selective pressures upon populations to which it must
adjust, those which are unable to adjust must disappear i.e. survival at fittest.
6. Environment and energy fixation in any ecosystem is limited and constant be exceeded
without serious undesirable effects.

Structure and Components of an Ecosystem

The structure of an ecosystem indicates its components (species diversity) and their
interdependency for growth and survival.
An ecosystem has two types of components.
1. Abiotic component (non-living).
2. Biotic component (living).

1. Abiotic (Non-Living) Components

The abiotic components determine the type of organisms can live in specific area.
Abiotic components can be physical components or chemical components.

K. LAKSHMIKANDHAN AP/CHEMISTRY,
CMS College of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore.
1. Physical Components
• Physical components usually include sunlight, water, soil, temperature etc. These are
necessary growth of species.
Examples
• Sunlight - Necessary for photosynthesis.
• Water - Essential for living things.
• Temperature - Necessary for survival.
• Soil - Provides base and nutrients.
2. Chemical Components
• Chemical components provide necessary nutrients to the organism.
Examples: Carbohydrates, proteins, liquids, nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium and oxygen.
2. Biotic Components
• Biotic components are living organisms of the ecosystem. Biotic component includes-
plants, animals, fungi, bacteria and there living organisms.
• The biotic components of an ecosystems can be categorized into three categories, these are
1. Producers or autotrophs.
2. Consumers or heterotrophs.
3. Decomposers or detrivores.
a. Producers / Autotrophs
• The producers use energy from the sun and like nitrogen and phosphorus from the soil to
produce high-energy chemical compounds by the process of photosynthesis.
• The energy from the sun is stored in the molecular structure of the these compounds.
Producers are often referred to as being in the first rophic (growth) level and are called
autotrophs.
Example: All green plants and algae.
b. Consumers / Heterotrophs
• Consumers use the energy (food) stored by the producers. Different categories of consumers
are: Herbivores, carnivores and omnivores.
• Herbivores or primary consumers are those who eat producers directly.
Examples : Man, elephant, rabbit.
• Carnivores or secondary consumers eat primary consumers (animals).
Examples :Tiger, lion.
• Omnivores eat both producers and animals.

K. LAKSHMIKANDHAN AP/CHEMISTRY,
CMS College of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore.
Examples : Fox, frog etc.
c. Decomposers
• Decomposers are- very important in ecosystem as they are responsible for recycling of
nutrients.
• Decomposers attacks on dead producers, animals and animal wastes making them simple
stable compound. These compounds can then be used as nutrients by the producers.
Examples: Bacteria and fungi.
Energy Flow in Ecosystem
The energy needed for the function of ecosystems comes from an external source, the
sun. The solar energy is transformed into chemical energy by using photo-synthesis. This
chemical energy is nothing but carbohydrates and oxygen.
Photosynthesis equation

• A part of chemical energy is utilized by the producers (plants) for their growth and
remaining energy is transferred to consumers.
• The decomposer utilizes the energy with consumer producing inorganic nutrient. This
nutrient is again used by producer to produce food for consumer. Fig. 1.6.1 shows flow of
energy and nutrients.

K. LAKSHMIKANDHAN AP/CHEMISTRY,
CMS College of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore.
Nutrient cycle

• The producers use nutrients for preparing food and which is consumed by consumers and
then decomposer recover the nutrients from consumer.
• Therefore, nutrients flow between biotic and abiotic components repeatedly; it is called as
nutrient cycle or biogeochemical cycle.
1. Biogeochemical Cycle
• In an ecosystem the cycling of nutrient involves both biotic and abiotic components. The
biogeochemical cycle involves
1. Hydrological cycle (Water cycle).
2. Oxygen cycle.
3. Nitrogen cycle.
4. Carbon cycle.
5. Phosphorous cycle.
2. Relationship between Structure and Function or Flow Model
• In an ecosystem the biotic components and abiotic components are linked together energy
flow and nutrient cycling.

K. LAKSHMIKANDHAN AP/CHEMISTRY,
CMS College of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore.
3. Hydrological Cycle
The hydrological cycle is continuous movement of water between surface of earth and
atmosphere. The hydrological (water) cycle involves a dynamic balance between the two
processes of evaporation and precipitation.
Fig. 1.6.3 shows water cycle.

• Water is evaporated from the surfaces of both water bodies and land surfaces. It is also
transpired from living plant cells.
• The water vapour produced is circulated throughout the atmosphere, where it is eventually
precipitated as show and rain. Snow and rain are the ultimate sources of all drinkable water.
4. Carbon Cycle
• Carbon is an important element in all the biological or organic compounds. The carbon is
found in all biotic components in different forms as food.
Examples: Proteins, carbohydrates, fats and amino acids. .
• In atmosphere, carbon dioxide (CO2) is present as carbon element. The CO2 is removed by
photosynthesis process of green plants.
• The photosynthesis makes food for the plant. This food moves through food chain and
finally the carbon present in dead matter is returned to atmosphere as CO2.

K. LAKSHMIKANDHAN AP/CHEMISTRY,
CMS College of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore.
Fig.1.6.4. Carbon cycle

Sources of CO2 in atmosphere

i) Respiration of plants, animals and human’s librates CO2, in atmosphere.
ii) Combustion of fuels releases CO2
iii) Volcanic eruptions.
5. Nitrogen Cycle
• Nitrogen and its compounds are essential for its life process in the biosphere.
• Nitrogen gas (N2) comprises about 78 % of the atmosphere, still plant growth is affected
due to nitrogen, deficiency, agriculture quickly depletes soil nitrogen, therefore fertilizers
fulfils this deficiency.
• The nitrogen is present in all biotic components in different forms as food.
Examples: Proteins, vitarriins, aminoacids etc.
• There is continuous exchange nitrogen between atmosphere and plants which is known as
nitrogen cycle.

K. LAKSHMIKANDHAN AP/CHEMISTRY,
CMS College of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore.
Fig. 1.6.5 illustrates nitrogen cycle.

Nitrification: The conversion of ammonia into nitrates is called as nitrification. This is done
by nitrifying bacteria.
Examples: Nitrobactor, Nitrosomonas.
• Denitrification: The conversion of nitrates into nitrogen (N2) is called as denitrification.
This process is done by denitrifying bacteria.
Examples: Pseudomonas, fluorescence.
6. Phosphorous Cycle
• Phosphorus is found in rocks and fossils. It is present in all biotic components in different
forms.
Examples: Bones, teeths, guano deposits.
• Phosphorus is excavated for fertilizer manufacturing. Farmers use excessive fertilizers for
crops.

K. LAKSHMIKANDHAN AP/CHEMISTRY,
CMS College of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore.
• This excess phosphate fertilizer move with surface runoffs to ocean and lost into sediments.
Sea birds eat fishes, which are phosphorus rich and birds return phosphorus to land.
• The sea birds are playing an important role in phosphorus cycling. Animals and plants use
phosphates during biosynthesis.
7. Photosynthesis
• Photosynthesis is a complex redox process by which plants, algae and certain bacteria,
using the energy of sunlight, convert carbon dioxide and water into carbohydrates (sugar) and
dioxide.
• The catalysts used in plants are the chlorophyll pigments, carotenoids and the phycoblins.
These pigments absorb light and help to convert it into chemical energy via the formation of
new chemical bonds.
• The overall reaction can be simply represented by,

• Photosynthesis is the main way what foodstuffs are produced for the higher animals,
atmospheric dioxide is replenished and energy obtained from the sun is stored. Plants that can
photosynthesis are therefore referred to as the primary producers in the food chain.
• All other organisms that feed on plants in order to use their organic compounds in
respiration and as an energy source are called consumers.
Functions of Ecosystem
• Three major functions of an ecosystem are
1. Primary function: Ecosystem produces starch by interaction of biotic and abiotic
components.
2. Secondary function: Ecosystem is related to processes and events that change form of
energy and materials within biotic and abiotic components.
3. Tertiary function: Ecosystem allows flow of energy and cycling of materials so that
system remains stable and there is continuity in life.
1. Ecosystem Conservation
Ecosystem and its conservation are now vital environmental issues of international
concern. There are several strategies which are adapted for conservation of ecosystem. Some
of these are,

K. LAKSHMIKANDHAN AP/CHEMISTRY,
CMS College of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore.
1. Legislation: Formal policies and programmes for conservation and sustainable utilisation
of ecosystem resources.
2. In -situ Conservation: Conserving the animals and plants in their natural habitats is
known as in situ conservation.
3. Ex-situ Conservation: Ex-situ conservation of plants and animals preserve/ or protect
them away from their natural habitat.
4. Community Participation in Biodiversity Conservation.
Ecosystem Types
1. Forest Ecosystem
• A forest ecosystem is one in which considerably tall and dense trees grow that support
many animal species within it.
a. Types of Forest Ecosystem
• A forest ecosystem can be classified depending upon climatic conditions. Several forest
ecosystems are:
1. Tropical rain forests 2. Tropical deciduous forests
3. Temperature deciduous forests 4. Tropical scrub forests
5. Temperature rain forests.
b. Structure and Function of Forest Ecosystem
• The forest ecosystem has two parts:
1. Abiotic (non-living) components.
2. Biotic (living) components.
1. Abiotic (non-living) components
• The abiotic components are inorganic and organic substances present in soil and
atmosphere.
Examples: Climatic factors (temperature, rainfall light), minerals.
2. Biotic (living) components
• The biotic components include both the large (macrophytes) and the microscopic plants and
animals.
Examples
a. Producers - Trees, shrubs and ground vegetation.
b. Consumers - Ants, flies, insects, mice, deer, snakes, birds, tiger and lion.
c. Decomposers - Bacteria and fungi.

K. LAKSHMIKANDHAN AP/CHEMISTRY,
CMS College of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore.
c. Characteristics of Forest Ecosystem
1. Forest have warm climate with adequate rainfall.
2. Forests have well defined seasons of about equal length.
3. Forest protects biodiversity.
4. Forests have tall and dense trees with many wild animals within ecosystem.
5. The soil of forest is rich in organic matter and nutrients.
6. Forests grow very slowly.
7. Forests provide various resources for human life.
2. Grassland Ecosystem
Grassland has variety of grasses, herbs, insects depending on climatic conditions and
temperature. The grass is major producers of biomass. The grassland may be either
temperature or tropical. The grasslands are degraded because of overgrazing.
a. Types of Grassland Ecosystem
• Grassland ecosystem can be classified depending upon climatic conditions. Different
grassland ecosystems are
1. Tropical grassland, 2. Temperature grassland, 3. Polar grassland.
b. Structure and Function of Grassland Ecosystem
• The grassland ecosystem has two parts:
1. Abiotic (Non-living) components
2. Biotic (Living) components.
1. Abiotic (Non-living) components:
• The abiotic components are sourced by CO2, H2O, nitrate, phosphates and sulphates.
Examples : Nutrients, C, H, O, N, P, S.
2. Biotic (Living) components
• Three biotic components are: producers, consumers and decomposers
I] Producers: Producers produce food.
Examples: Grasses, forbs and shrubs.
II] Primary consumers: They depend on grass for their food.
Examples: Cows, buffaloes, deer, sheep.
Secondary consumer: They feed on herbivores (primary consumers).
Examples: Snakes, lizards, birds etc.
Tertiary consumers: They feed on secondary consumers.
Examples: Hawks, eagles etc.

K. LAKSHMIKANDHAN AP/CHEMISTRY,
CMS College of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore.
III] Decomposers - They decompose the dead organic matter.
Examples: Fungi and bacteria.
c. Characteristics of Grassland Ecosystem
1. Grassland ecosystem exists where rainfall is low and uneven.
2. The soil of grassland ecosystem is rich in nutrients and organic matters.
3. Grassland ecosystem provides largest biomass and is used for grazing animals.
4. The grassland ecosystem exists in moderate climates.
5. Grassland ecosystem is characterized by seasonal flowering plants and savannas (scattered
trees).
3. Desert Ecosystem
The ecological succession of grassland is deserts. Desserts are characterized by high
temperature, less moisture, warm, dry, less vegetation, special habitats.
• Four major types of deserts are
1. Hot and dry desert. 2. Semiarid desert.
3. Coastal desert. 4. Cold desert.
a. Types of Desert Ecosystems
• Desert ecosystems can be categorized depending on climatic conditions:
1. Tropical desert
2. Temperature desert
3. Cold desert
b. Characteristics of Desert Ecosystem
1. Desert is subjected to strong winds.
2. There is low annual rainfall. .
3. The desert air is dry and climate is hot.
4. Temperature variation is large (days are hot and nights are cold).
5. Without or rare vegetation.
6. No soil is present.
c. Structure and Function of Desert Ecosystems
• Desert ecosystem consists of two components
1. Abiotic components 2. Biotic components
1. Abiotic components
Examples: Temperature, rainfall, sunlight, water etc.
2. Biotic components

K. LAKSHMIKANDHAN AP/CHEMISTRY,
CMS College of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore.
a) Producers: Mostly found plant in deserts are succulent (cacti). They have water content
inside which keeps them alive. The waxy outer layer protects them from sun.
Examples: Shrubs, bushes etc.
b) Consumers: Animals dig holes in ground to live in. They come out at night to find food.
They can extract water from the seeds they eat.
Examples: Mice, rabbits, reptiles, squirrles etc.
c) Decomposers: Desert has poor vegetation with a very low amount of dead organic matter.
Examples: Fungi and bacteria.
4. Aquatic Ecosystem
The ecosystems exists in the medium of water is called as aquatic ecosystem. In
aquatic ecosystems, plants and animals live in water. The organisms found in aquatic
environment are determined by quality of water such as clarity, salinity, oxygen content and
rate of flow.
a. Types of Aquatic Ecosystem
• The aquatic ecosystems may be classified as -
1. Fresh water ecosystems:
Examples: Rivers, pond, lake, streams, wetland.
2. Marine ecosystems:
Examples: Marine or ocean, estuary.
b. Pond Ecosystem
• A pond is a freshwater aquatic ecosystem, where water remains in the same area for a
longer period.
• As the pond fills in the monsoon season, a large number of food chains are formed. It
contains several types of algae, aquatic plants, insects, fishes and birds.
Characteristic features of pond ecosystem
1. Most ponds are temporary that has water only in monsoon season.
2. It is a stagnant (standing) water body.
3. The medium contains less nutrients.
4. Most ponds become dry after the rains are over and are covered by terrestrial plants for the
rest of year.
5. Pond gets polluted easily due to limited amount of water.
Structure and functions of pond ecosystem
• The two components of pond ecosystems are:

K. LAKSHMIKANDHAN AP/CHEMISTRY,
CMS College of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore.
1. Abiotic components 2. Biotic components.
1. Abiotic components
Examples: Light, temperature, chemical environment such as dissolved and particulate
matter, oxygen, pH, phosphorous.
2. Biotic components
a. Producers: These are green photosynthetic organisms. They are of two types :
I] Phytoplankton: These are microscopic aquatic plants, which freely float on surface of
water.
Examples: Algae, volvox, pandorina, cosmarium.
II] Microphytes : These are large floating plants and submerged plants.
Examples: Hydrilla, jussiaea, wolfia, demma.
b. Consumers:
I] Primary consumers (Zooplanktons): Microscopic animals which can freely float on the
surface of water.
Examples: Protozoa, very small fish, ciliates, flagellates.
II] Secondary consumers (Carnivores): They feed on zooplanktons.
Examples: Insects like water beetles and small fish.
III] Tertiary consumers: They feed on smaller fish.
Examples: Large fish like game fish.
c. Decomposers : They decompose-the dead plant and animal matter and their nutrients are
released and reused by green plants.
Examples: Fungi, bacteria and flagellates.
c. Lake Ecosystem
• A lake is a giant permanent pond. A large amount of its plant material is the algae, which
derives energy from the sun.
Types of lake
• Important types of lakes are
1. Oligotrophic lakes: Low nutrient concentrations.
2. Eutrophic lakes: Ovemourished nutrients.
3. Dystrophic lakes: Low pH, brown water, acidic.
4. Volcanic lakes: Receive water from magma after volcanic eruptions.
5. Meromictic lakes: Salt rich.

K. LAKSHMIKANDHAN AP/CHEMISTRY,
CMS College of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore.
Characteristic features of Lake Ecosystem
1. Lake is a shallow fresh water body.
2. Lake is a permanent water body.
3. Food chains are interred linked with terrestrial food chains.
Structure and function of Lake Ecosystem
1. Abiotic components
Examples: Temperature, proteins and lipids, light, CO2, O2.
2. Biotic components
a. Producers: They can be green plants submerged, free floating and amphibious plants.
Examples: Phytoplanktons, algae and flagellates
b. Consumers: I] Primary consumers (Zooplanktons): Ciliates.
II] Secondary consumers: Insects, small fishes.
III] Tertiary consumers: Large fish.
c. Decomposers: They decompose the dead plant and animals.
Examples: Bacteria, fungi and actinomycetes.
d. River or Stream Ecosystem
• The river or stream has running water. The river water contains more oxygen. There exists
less species in rivers.
• The nutrient content in the water is largely determined by the terrian and vegetation
surrounding the river.
• Overhanging vegetation adds a substantial amount of organic material from fallen leaves.
The erosion of the streambed adds inorganic nutrients to the running water.
Characteristics of river/stream ecosystem
1. Rivers are fresh water system.
2. Dissolved oxygen content is more in streams.
3. Moving down stream, numerous tributaries join to form a river.
4. It carries sediments (from the erosion of soil) and nutrients.
Structure and function of river ecosystem
1. Abiotic components
Examples: Temperature, light, pH, nutrients, organic and inorganic compounds.
2. Biotic components
a. Producers: Phytoplankton, algae, water grasses, aquatic masses and amphibious plants.
b. Consumers:

K. LAKSHMIKANDHAN AP/CHEMISTRY,
CMS College of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore.
i) Primary consumers: Water insects, snails, fishes.
ii) Secondary consumers: Birds, mammals.
c. Decomposers: Bacteria and fungi.
e. Ocean (Marine) Ecosystem
• The ocean or marine is a saltwater aquatic ecosystem. The ocean environment is
characterized by its high concentration of salts and minearls.
• The marine or ocean ecosystem is largest of all ecosystems. It supplies huge variety of sea
products, minerals, natural gas etc. ocean contains the richest diversity of species.
Characteristics of ocean ecosystem
1. It covers large surface area with saline water.
2. Marine or oceans are rich in biodiversity.
3. The evaporation of sea water provides rain water for the land.
4. Algae are abundant in ocean and provide much of the world's oxygen supply by absorbing
huge amounts of atmospheric carbon dioxide.
Structure and function of marine ecosystem
1. Abiotic components
Examples: Temperature, light, Nacl, K, Ca and Mg salts, alkalinity.
2. Biotic components
a. Producers: Phytoplanktons (diatoms, unicellular algae), marine plants (seaweeds,
chlorophyceal, phaeophyceae).
b. Consumer: These are heterotrophic macroconsumers. They depend on producers for their
nutrition.
i) Primary consumers / herbivores: They feed on producers.
Examples: Crustaceans, moiluscs, fish.
ii) Secondary consumers/carnivores: They feed on herbivores.
Examples: Herring sahd, mackerel etc.
iii) Tertiary consumers: They are top consumers. They feed on small fishes.
Examples: Cod, haddock.
c. Decomposers: They decompose the dead organic matter.
Examples: Bacteria and some fungi.

K. LAKSHMIKANDHAN AP/CHEMISTRY,
CMS College of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore.
 Biodiversity

Varieties of life on the earth exist over thousands of years to fulfil the needs of
mankind. For understanding the life cycle of plants and animals they must be classified and
categorized properly.

Biodiversity (Biological diversity) is defined as variety and variability of living

organisms in a given assemblage. Biodiversity covers whole life on earth.

Biodiversity may be described in terms of genes, species and ecosystems,

corresponding to three fundamental and hierarchically related levels of biological
organization.

All life depends on uninterrupted functioning of natural systems that ensure the
supply of energy and nutrients, so ecological responsibility among all people is necessary for
survival, security, equality and dignity of the world's communities.

1. Importance of Biodiversity
1. Increase ecosystem productivity; each species in an ecosystem has a specific role to play.
2. Support a larger number of plant species and, therefore, a greater variety of crops.
3. Protect freshwater resources.
4. Promote soils formation and protection.
5. Provide for nutrient storage and recycling.
6. Aid in breaking down pollutants.
7. Contribute to climate stability.
8. Speed recovery from natural disasters.
9. Provide more food resources.
10. Provide more medicinal resources and pharmaceutical drugs.
11. Offer environments for recreation and tourism.
2. Types of Biodiversity
There are three basic types of biodiversity,
1. Genetic diversity
2. Species diversity
3. Ecosystem diversity or community diversity.

K. LAKSHMIKANDHAN AP/CHEMISTRY,
CMS College of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore.
3. Genetic Diversity

Genetic diversity is a measure of variety available for the same genes within
individual species. Genetic diversity is based on variation between genes i.e. functional units
of hereditary information. The genetic variability is essential for a healthy breeding
population of a species.
Example: Each human being is different from all other; thousands of rice varieties are
available.
4. Species Diversity
• Species diversity is the number of different species of living things within an area.
• Species are regarded as populations within which gene flow occurs under natural
conditions. Members of one species do not breed freely with members of other species.
Examples: Tiger, lion, teakwood, human being etc.

5. Ecosystem Diversity
• Ecosystem diversity relates to the variety of habitats, biotic communities and ecological
processes in the biosphere as well as the diversity within ecosystems.
• Diversity can be described at a number of different levels and scales :
* Functional diversity is the relative abundance of functionally different kinds of organisms
* Community diversity is the number sizes and spatial distribution of communities, and is
sometimes referred to as patchiness (uneven quality)
* Landscape diversity is the diversity of scales of patchiness.
• No simple relationship exists between the diversity of an ecosystem and ecological
processes such as productivity, hydrology and soil generation.
• Neither does diversity correlate neatly with ecosystem stability, nor its resistance to
disturbance and its speed of recovery.
• There is no simple relationship within any ecosystem between a change in its diversity and
the resulting change in the system's processes.
• For example, the loss of a species from a particular area or region (local extinction or
extripation) may have little or no effect on net primary productivity of competitors take its .
place in the community.

K. LAKSHMIKANDHAN AP/CHEMISTRY,
CMS College of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore.
• The converse may be true in other cases. For example, if herbivorous such as zebra and wild
beasts are removed from the African savanna, net primary productivity of the ecosystem
decreases.
Values of Biodiversity
A rich biodiversity is the wealth of any nation. Biodiversity provides variety of
environmental survives and ecosystem essential for human life. Each organism has its own
significance in the biosphere.
The value of biodiversity is classified into various categories depending on its use,
such as
i) Consumptive use
iii) Social use
ii) Productive use
iv) Ethical use
v) Aesthetic
vi) Option value.
1. Consumptive Use
• Consumptive use is direct utilization of various species by the modem society. The major
sources are - Food, medicinal plants, fuel etc. These products are directly supplied by
biodiversity.
Examples
a) Food - Seasonal fruits, vegetable, food grains, sea food, chicken, duck.
b) Medicinal plants - Bamboo, eucaliptas, neep, honey comb, herbs.
c) Fuel - Fuel wood, timber, fodder, coal, petroleum, natural gas, biomass.
2. Productive Use
• Most commercial products are synthesized from natural products of biodiversity. The
product may be derived from plants, animals and by products.
Examples : Silk, wool, leather, tusk - from animals and wood, cotton, oil seed, crop - from
plants.
3. Social Values
• Social values of biodiversity counts for use of biodiversity for social aspect. The
consumptive and productive values of biodiversity is closely related to the social concern.

K. LAKSHMIKANDHAN AP/CHEMISTRY,
CMS College of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore.
• Many communities are finding that local bioversity can bring cash through ecotourism.
Many people value biodiversity as a part of livelihood through cultural and religious
sentiments.
Examples
Holy plants - Banyan, peepal, lotus etc.
Holy animals - Cow, peacock, snake etc.
4. Ethical Values
• Ethical value of biodiversity is related to conservation of life. Plants and animals have equal
right to live and exist on our planet. No one has right to destroy other's life. The ethical value
tells that any species may or may not be used but its presence is must in ecology.
• India's rich heritage and culture tells us to worship animals. Plants, rivers and mountains.
Some communities have mission of preserving animals life.
5. Aesthetic Values
• Biodiversity is a beautiful and wonderful aspect of nature. Wild plants and animals are
source of beauty wonder, joy and recreational pleasure for many people. Wild life tourism
(ecotourism) is a good source of earning currency.
Examples
i) Neem and mango leaves are used during festivals and fair aesthetics.
ii) Ornamental plants, flowers are used for decoration.
iii) Elephants, horses and camels are used for ceremonial purposes.
6. Option Values
• The potential use of biodiversity is proseutly not known to us, this future possible use is
termed as option value. Any specific species of biodiversity may be found very useful for any
particular purpose ; if it is preserved and exists.
Example : Rarely found medicinal plant may be used for medicinal purpose for any chronic
disease.
Hot-spots of Biodiversity
• There is no uniform distribution of bio-diversity along the geographical regions of the
world. Some habitats are found to be highly rich in abundant number in some specific
regions.
• Hot-spots are the specific areas which contain the richest and the most threatened reservoirs
of plant and animal species.

K. LAKSHMIKANDHAN AP/CHEMISTRY,
CMS College of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore.
• The number of endemic species and degree of threats which are measured in terms of
habitat loss are certain criteria to determine a hot-spot. If these species lost, they can never be
replaced.
1. Criteria to Qualify as Hot-spots
• To qualify as a hot-spot a region must satisfy following criteria.
1. The richness of endemic species.
2. Significant percentage of specified species should be present.
3. The site must have lost more than 70 % of its original habitat.
4. The site must be under threat.
2. Reason for Rich Biodiversity in Tropics
• The reasons for rich biodiversity in tropics are as following :
1. The tropics have more stable climate.
2. Tropical areas have warm temperature and high humidity, which provide favourable
condition.
3. No single species can dominate hence there is an opportunity for many species to coexist.
4. The rate of outcrossing among plants is higher in tropics.
3. Area of Hot-spot
• Twenty five numbers of hot-spots are identified and selected for the conservation of
biodiversity.
• The total area of the hot spots cover about 1.4 % of the total land surface on the earth.

K. LAKSHMIKANDHAN AP/CHEMISTRY,
CMS College of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore.
4. Hot-spots of Biodiversity in India
• Out of 25 hot-spots in the world, two hot-spots are found in India.
1. Eastern Himalayas 2. Western Ghats.
These areas are rich in floral wealth and also in reptiles, amphibians butterflies and
some mammals.

K. LAKSHMIKANDHAN AP/CHEMISTRY,
CMS College of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore.
a. Eastern Himalayas
• These area comprises Nepal, Bhutan and neighbouring states of northern India along with
Yunnan province in southwest China.
• The eastern Himalayas form a distinct floral region. There are around 35000 plant species in
Himalayas of which 30 % are endemic.
Features of Himalayan Regions
1. Eastern Himalayas shows an ultra varied topography, which has species diversity and
endemism.
2. In Sikkim, in semi-isolated area of 7298 km of 4250 plant species, 2550 (60 %) are
endemic.
3. In India's sector, there are 5800 plant species of which 2000 (36 %) are endemic.
4. In Nepal, there are 7000 plant species of which 500 (8 %) are endemic.
5. In Bhutan, there are 5000 plant species of which 750 (15 %) are endemic.
b. Western Ghats
• Western ghats extend along the western coastal region for about 1600 km in Tamilnadu,
Maharashtra, Karnataka and Kerala.
• The Agasthimalai Hills and silent valley / New Amambalam Reserve basin are the two
important places of biodiversity in western ghat region.
• Out of India's 49219 plant species, 1600 endemics (40 %) are found in this region. Only
6.8 % of the originial extent of vegetation existing today while the rest has been deforested or
degraded.
Common plants :Temstroemia Japonica, Rhododendron and Hypericum.
Common animals : Blue bird, Lizard hawk.
Threats to Biodiversity
• There is loss or threat to biodiversity because of several reasons. These include primary
changes in abiotic and biotic factors of an ecosystem which causes harmful effects on
biodiversity.
• Major threats to the biodiversity are -
1. Habitat loss
2. Poaching of wild life
3. Man - wild life conflicts
4. Destruction of coastal areas
5. Filing up of wetlands

K. LAKSHMIKANDHAN AP/CHEMISTRY,
CMS College of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore.
6. Commercial exploitation.

1. Habitat Loss
• The loss of wild habitats, due to rapid human population growth contributes to the rapid
global destruction of biodiversity.
• Other important factors of loss of habitat are:
⊕ Deforestation
⊕ Destruction of wetlands
⊕ Over grazing
⊕ Urban development
⊕ Building of dams
⊕ Mining
⊕ Land slides
⊕ Poor agricultural practices
⊕ Industrial wastes.

2. Poaching of Wild Life

• Poaching of wildlife for sport, making profit and for human consumption. Wild species are
hunted for their fur, tusks, meat, and thorns. Various animals and their purpose of producing
article / use are summarized here.

K. LAKSHMIKANDHAN AP/CHEMISTRY,
CMS College of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore.
 Habitat loss also occurs when man introduces species from one area into other,
disturbing the balance of existing community. Species are lost due to destruction of natural
ecosystem.

3. Man-Wild Conflicts
• Man is continuously interacting with different ecosystems for food, fuel, recreation, sports,
urban development, waste disposal etc.
• Every activity is responsible directly or indirectly responsible for disturbing species.
• Natural forests are being deforested for timber and single species trees like teak, sal. This
monoculture plantation creates imbalance ecosystem.
• Natural size of forests are reducing because of human encroachment, therefore animals
often attacks on human society and creates violence.
Conservation of Biodiversity
• Biodiversity is an important tool for sustaining development in any country. Multiple utility
of biodiversity in commercial, medical, genetic, aesthetic and ecological field makes it
necessary to preserve biodiversity. There is need to educate people to adopt environment
friendly practices.
1. Advantages of Conservation of Biodiversity
1. Biodiversity (ecotourism) is a good source of income.
2. Biodiversity provides various medicinal plants.
3. It provides life support system on earth.
4. Biodiversity maintains environmental balance on earth.
5. Various commercial aspects are related to biodiversity.
2. Factors affecting Biodiversity
1. Over-exploitation of natural resources.
2. Degradation of habitat.
3. Discharge of industrial waste.
4. Global warming.
5. Urbanization.
6. Use of insecticides.
7. Construction of dam.
8. Poaching and trade in wildlife species
9. Extension of agriculture and associated irrigation systems.

K. LAKSHMIKANDHAN AP/CHEMISTRY,
CMS College of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore.
10. Filling up of wetlands
11. Population explosion
3. Approaches of Biodiversity Conservation
• The two basic approaches of biodiversity conservation are :
1. In-situ conservation (on site method)
2. Ex-situ conservation (off site method)
4. In-situ Conservation
The in-situ conservation of biodiversity involves protection of species, where they
naturally exist. It includes identifying and protecting reserved areas for biodiversity. These
specific areas are national parks, sanctuaries, forests, lakes, botanical gardens, biosphere
reserves where vast number of species of living organism, exist.
• The natural habitat maintained under in-situ conservation is called protected areas.
• Protecting the areas helps not only in conserving individual species but preserves ecosystem
also. In these protected areas - tourism, explosive activities, poaching, shooting, grazing of
domestic animals, cutting of trees are strictly prohibited.
• Inspite of these protections, these habitats are facing problem of encroachment,
maintenance and monitoring land management. Also, various activities which are illegal but
profitable for humans are earned out.

K. LAKSHMIKANDHAN AP/CHEMISTRY,
CMS College of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore.
Methods of In-situ Conservation
Following methods are used for In-situ conservation are used.

1. Biosphere reserves:
The special category of protected areas in which human population constitutes an
important component are called biosphere reserves. There are about 408 biosphere reserves in
94 countries by the end of 2000 year. In India following biosphere reserves are identified.

K. LAKSHMIKANDHAN AP/CHEMISTRY,
CMS College of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore.
Role of Biosphere Reserves
1. Biosphere gives long-term survival of ecosystem.
2. Biosphere protects endangered species.
3. Biosphere protects maximum number of species and communities.
4. Biosphere serves as site of recreation and tourism.
5. Biospheres can be used for educational and research purpose.
Restriction
• Explosive activities are not permitted in biosphere..
2. National park:
• A national park is an area dedicated for conservation of wildlife along with its environment.
• Some important national park in India is listed below.

3. Wild life sanctuaries:

A wild life sanctuary is an area which is reserved for the conservation of
animals only. Some important wild life sanctuaries in India are listed below.

K. LAKSHMIKANDHAN AP/CHEMISTRY,
CMS College of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore.
5. Ex-situ Conservation
The ex-situ conservations of biodiversity involve conservation of biodiversity under
the control of human and outside the natural habitats.
The endangered species of plants and animals are collected in botanical gardens, zoos,
aquariums and their maintenance and breeding is done under controlled conditions.
The biodiversity management in captivity (human control) has certain advantages and
disadvantages.
Advantages of Ex-situ conservation
1. The organisms will have longer life span because of assured food, water, shelter and
security.
2. Because of special care the species endangered may survive longer.
3. Modem facilities can provide better process of breeding.
Disadvantages
1. Maintenance and cost of breeding plants and animals are expensive.
2. Species are habitual to favourable environmental conditions, they can not adapt to ever
changing natural condition.
3. Freedom of wildlife is lost.

K. LAKSHMIKANDHAN AP/CHEMISTRY,
CMS College of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore.
6. Steps of Conservation of Biodiversity
Important steps for conservation of biodiversity are as follows,
1. Biodiversity inventories and assessments - population surveys and assessment.
2. Identifying and expanding protected areas.
3. Conserving biodiversity in seed banks and gene banks.
4. Controlling wild life trade.
5. Providing environmental education to the people.
6. Reviewing agricultural practices.
7. Controlling urbanization.
8. Geographical information system for planning and monitoring.
9. Restoration of biodiversity.
10. Population control.
11. Implementing Environmental Protection Act (EPA).
12. Involving more Non-govemment organizations (NGOs).
7. National Biodiversity Act
India is party to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) 1992 which
recognizes the sovereign rights of states to use their own biological resources. In order to help
in realizing the objectives of CBD, India has enacted an umbrella legislation called the
biological Diversity Act 2002.
The central government has established a body called the National Biodiversity
Authority, on and from the 1st day of October, 2003. The Act aims at the conservation of
biological resources and associated knowledge as well as facilitating access to them in a
sustainable manner and through a just process for purposes of implementing the objects of the
Act it establishes the National Biodiversity Authority in Chennai.
The main functions of the authority are :
a) To lay down procedures and guidelines to govern the activities provided under section 3, 4,
and 6. (Permission to foreigners/NRI's foreign companies)
i) For obtaining any biological resource (Section -3).
ii) For transferring the results of any research (Section -4).
iii) Certain collaborative research projects exempted (Section 5).
b) To advice the government of India. Specific areas mentioned as per the Act are the
following:
i) Notifications of threatened species (Section - 38).

K. LAKSHMIKANDHAN AP/CHEMISTRY,
CMS College of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore.
ii) Designate institutions as repositories for different categories of biological resources
(Section - 39).
iii) Exempt certain biological resources, normally traded as commodities (Section - 40)
c) To encourage setting up state biodiversity boards
d) To build up database and documentation system
e) To create awareness through mass media
i) Training of personnel
ii) Necessary measures in the areas of intellectual propriety rights.

K. LAKSHMIKANDHAN AP/CHEMISTRY,
CMS College of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore.