INTRODUCTION TO

COMPUTER SYSTEMS
COMPUTER HARDWARE FUNDAMENTALS
ENGR. SHEILA MAY LIWAG
DEFINITION AND HISTORY
Computer
An electronic digital device designed to accept and store input data, process data
and produce appropriate output information under the control of a stored
sequence of instructions.

A computer is an electronic device, operating under the control of instructions

stored in its own memory that can accept data (input), process the data according
to specified rules, produce information (output), and store the information for
future use

It is said to be fast but dumb machine.

“Computers are incredibly fast, accurate and stupid; humans are incredibly slow,
inaccurate and brilliant; together they are powerful beyond imagination.” — Albert
Einstein
 Evolution
3000 B.C. – bead-and-wire abacus is used in Asia.
876 A.D.–First recorded use of the symbol zero occurs in India.
1620– Edmund Gunter invents the slide rule
1642 – First functioning mechanical calculator called Pascaline was designed by
Blaise Pascal.
1694 – Calculating machine that uses binary representations of numbers was built
by Gottfried Leibniz.
1812 – Ned Ludd inspires other workers to destroy “labor-saving” machines that
they fear will take their jobs.
Abacus
Pascaline
Evolution
1832 – First computer driven by external instructions called Difference
Engine was designed by Charles Babbage.
1854 – George Boole publishes his thoughts on symbolic logic.
1857–Sir Charles Wheatstone introduces continuously feeding paper tape
1876 – Alexander Grahambell files a patent for the telephone.
1890–Herman Hollerith designs the punch-card tabulation machine
1896 – Herman Hollerith founds the Tabulating Machine Company—
1897 – Karl Braun develops the Cathode-ray-tube.
Analytical Engine
Evolution
1918- Two inventors build a calculating machine based on the binary
numbers 1 and 0.
1938–William Hewlett and David Packard formed HP ; Konrad Zuse
developed the Z3, the first functional program-controlled, all-purpose,
digital computer
1942–Dr. John Atanasoff and Clifford E. Berry came up with the
Atanasoff-Berry Computer (ABC).
1944–Howard H. Aiken devised Mark I, the first electromechanical
computer
1946– John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert designed ENIAC, EDVAC,
BINAC, UNIVAC I.
ENIAC
EDVAC
BINAC
Evolution
1947–Two workers at Bell Laboratories experiment with the first
transistor.
1949–John Mauchly develops the Short Code, the world’s first high level
programming language.
1951–Grace Murray Hopper develops A-0, the first compiler for a
computer programming language.
1955–Narinder Kapany develops the optical fiber.
1956–IBM develops the IBM 305 RAMAC and FORTRAN
MANIAC I – 1st computer program to defeat a human opponent in a
game chess.
Vacuum Tubes
Transistors
Evolution
1958–Jack St. Clair Kilby builds the first integrated circuit
1959 – Grace Murray Hopper and Charles Phillips invented Cobol; John
McCarthy and Marvin Minsky introduces Xerox, the first commercial
copier
1960–Digital Equipment Corporation develops the PDP-1
1962–Programmers at MIT created the first video game
1963–Douglas Engelbert develops the mouse
1964 – American Standard Assoc. adopts ASCII as the standard code for
data transfer.
IC
Evolution
1965 – Digital Equipment Corporation builds the first minicomputer.
BASIC is developed.
1968 – Intel is formed.
1969–ARPAnet, a precursor to the Internet, debuts.
1970 – floppy disk is introduced.
1971–Texas Instruments introduces the pocket calculator. Niklaus Wirth
develops PASCAL. Hearsay was developed
1972 – Ray Tomlinson invents e-mail. Dennis Ritchie developed the
C language.
Evolution
1975–Liquid crystal displays are marketed. Bob Metcalfe at Xerox
develops Ethernet. IBM introduces the laser printer.
1976 – Steve Wozniak and Steve Jobs formed Apple Computer. Gary
Kildall develops the CP/M operating system. IBM develops the inkjet
printer.

1977 – Bill Gates and Paul Allen officially found Microsoft. Apple
introduces the Apple II.
Evolution
1978 – Word Star is released.
1980–dBase II appears on the market.
1981 – MS-DOS operating system is introduced by IBM.
1982 – CD players are introduced.
1983–Apple introduces the $9,995 Lisa. IBM launches the PC-XT.
1984–CD-ROM debuts. Apple releases the Macintosh. Hewlett Packard
markets the LaserJet.
1985 – Microsoft develops Windows 1.0
Evolution
1986–The National Science Foundation approves funding for the internet
backbone.
1988–Microsoft releases Windows 2.03
1989–Tim Berners Lee invents the World Wide Web
1990–Intel introduces the i486 microprocessor chip. Windows hits 3.0.
1993–PDA was introduced. Intel releases the Pentium chip. Marc
Andreessen and Eric Bina designed Mosaic, the first graphical Web
browser.
1994–GPS auto navigation systems became available in the US.
MP
Evolution
1995–Flat-screen TVs were introduced. Microsoft releases Windows 95
and Office 95. Jeffrey Bezos founds [Link].
1996–Palm Pilot debuts.
1997–DVD players become available in the United States.
1998–Diamond Multimedia introduces the portable MP3
1999–The Linux Operating System hits the big time
2000-ILOVEYOU e-mail virus that begins infecting computers

For a complete computer history for the year 2000 to date, visit

[Link]
CLASSIFICATIONS, CAPABILITIES,
AND LIMITATIONS
FUNCTIONALITIES OF A COMPUTER

1. Takes data as input

2. Stores the data/ instructions in its memory and use them when
required

3. Process the data and converts it into useful information

4. Generates the output

5. Controls all the above four steps

CAPABILITIES AND LIMITATIONS OF COMPUTER

Some of the computer’s capabilities

•

It is self-directing
Ability to store and retrieve information
Ability to perform mathematical operations and solve complex formula at
high speed and with great precision
Ability to perform a logic operation
Ability to communicate with the user or with other machines
CAPABILITIES AND LIMITATIONS OF COMPUTER

Some of the computer’s limitations

It can only do what is designed or programmed to do

It cannot correct input data
It cannot think and cannot derive meanings from objects
It can only process jobs expressed in a finite number of steps leading to
a precisely defined goals.
It cannot completely avoid making errors due to power fluctuations,
system malfunctions, and human disorders.
Classification of Computer (Technology)
•First Generation (1940 – 1946)
-Vacuum tubes
•Second Generation (1956 – 1963)
-Transistors

•Third Generation (1964 – 1971)

-Integrated Circuits
•Fourth Generation (1971 – present)
-Microprocessors

•Fifth Generation (present – beyond)

-Artificial Intelligence.
Classification of Computer (Capacity)
•Mainframes and Supercomputers
-Generally designed to perform huge numbers of complex
calculations.
•Mini-computers
-Used either as single workstation or a system feed by network to
several terminals.
•Micro Computers
-Also known as personal computers. Originally designed to be
single-user desktop computers.
Mainframes and Supercomputers
Mini Computer
Micro Computers
Classification of Computer (Purpose)
GENERAL PURPOSE COMPUTERS

-This type of computer is being used for different purposes

SPECIAL PURPOSE COMPUTERS

This type of computer is designed to perform a specific task.

Basic Computer organization
CPU Operation
Programs – Stored instructions
An instruction cycle (sometimes called a fetch–decode–execute cycle) is the
basic operational process of a computer. It is the process by which a
computer retrieves a program instruction from its memory, determines
what actions the instruction dictates, and carries out those actions

1. Fetch
2. Decode
3. Execute
4. Writeback
Instruction Cycle
1. FETCH
The first step the CPU carries out is to fetch some data
and instructions (program) from main memory then
store them in its own internal temporary memory
areas. These memory areas are called 'registers'.
This is called the 'fetch' part of the cycle.
Instruction Cycle
1. FETCH
• For this to happen, the CPU makes use of a
vital hardware path called the 'address bus'.
• The CPU places the address of the next item
to be fetched on to the address bus.
Instruction Cycle
1. FETCH
• Data from this address then moves from main
memory into the CPU by travelling along
another hardware path called the 'data bus'.
 Instruction Cycle
2. DECODE
• The next step is for the CPU to make sense of
the instruction it has just fetched.
• This process is called 'decode'.
 Instruction Cycle
2. DECODE
• The CPU is designed to understand a specific set
of commands. These are called the 'instruction
set' of the CPU. Each make of CPU has a different
instruction set.
• The CPU decodes the instruction and prepares
various areas within the chip in readiness of the
next step.
 Instruction Cycle
3. EXECUTION
• This is the part of the cycle when data processing
actually takes place. The instruction is carried
out upon the data (executed). The result of this
processing is stored in yet another register.
• Once the execute stage is complete, the CPU
sets itself up to begin another cycle once more.
 Instruction Cycle
3. EXECUTION
• This is the part of the cycle when data processing
actually takes place. The instruction is carried
out upon the data (executed). The result of this
processing is stored in yet another register.
• Once the execute stage is complete, the CPU
sets itself up to begin another cycle once more.
 Instruction Cycle
4. Writeback
• Simply “writes back” the results of the execute
step to some form of memory.
FUNDAMENTAL COMPONENTS
OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM
Hardware
Computer hardware is the collection of physical elements that
constitutes a computer system
HW includes all physical devices and materials used in information
processing

Example:
• Computer systems
• Computer peripherals
• Telecommunications networks
Input Devices
Input device is any peripheral used to
provide data and control signals to an
information processing system such as
a computer or other information
appliance.
Input device Translate data from form
that humans understand to one that the
computer can work with. Most common
are keyboard and mouse
Input Devices
Central Processing Unit (CPU)
A CPU is brain of a computer.
It is responsible for all functions and processes.

3 Main Parts:
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): Executes all arithmetic and logical
operations.
Control Unit (CU): controls and co-ordinates computer components.
Registers :Stores the data that is to be executed next, "very fast storage
area".
Primary Memory:
RAM: Random Access Memory (RAM) is a memory scheme within the
computer system responsible for storing data on a temporary basis, so that it
can be promptly accessed by the processor as and when needed. It is volatile. in
nature

ROM (Read Only Memory): ROM is a permanent form of storage. Non-volatile.

Secondary Memory:
Hard drive (HD): A hard disk is part of a unit, often called a "disk drive," "hard
drive," or "hard disk drive," that store and provides relatively quick access to
large amounts of data on an electromagnetically charged surface or set of
surfaces
Optical Disk: an optical disc drive (ODD) is a disk drive that uses laser light as
part of the process of reading or writing data to or from optical discs.
Flash Disk A storage module made of flash memory chips.
 Output devices
An output device is any piece of
computer hardware equipment
used to communicate the results
of data processing carried out
by an information processing
system which converts the
electronically generated
information into human readable
form.
Software
SW includes all sets of information processing instructions (programs and
procedures)
Software is a generic term for organized collections of computer data and
instructions

Examples:
Systems software – enables the applications to interact with the computer and
manage its internal resources
Application software – used to perform a general or specific task, such as word
processing.
Procedures – which are operating instructions for the people who will use an
information system.
Software Types
System software is responsible for controlling, integrating, and managing the
individual hardware components of a computer system so that other software
and the users of the system see it as a functional unit without having to be
concerned with the low-level details such as transferring data from memory to
disk, or rendering text onto a display.
Application software is used to accomplish specific tasks other than just running
the computer system
Unit of Measurements
Storage measurements: The basic unit used in computer data storage is
called a bit.
binary number system – 1s and 0s
Unit of Measurements
Speed measurement: The speed of Central Processing Unit (CPU) is
measured by Hertz (Hz), Which represent a CPU cycle. The speed of
CPU is known as Computer Speed.
Data
Data is more than the raw material of information systems
Facts and figures which relay something specific, but which are not
organized in any way and which provide no further information regarding
patterns, context, etc.
Information: For data to become information, it must be contextualized,
categorized, calculated and condensed
Knowledge: Knowledge is closely linked to doing and implies know-how
and understanding
Data Processing
-Process of transforming data into the desired output.

Data is a raw material or a collection of unorganized facts

information is processed and organized data produced as the output of
data processing operations.
Data Processing
Data Processing
Input – data must be captured and prepared for processing by data entry
activities such as recording and editing.
Process – data is typically manipulated by such activities as calculating,
comparing, sorting, classifying, and summarizing
Output – Information in various forms is transmitted to end-users and
made available to them in the output activity
Storage – The data, information, and programs are stored in computer –
processable forms
Peopleware
The human element in a computer system, including the people who
use, develop, and manage it, as well as the processes and teamwork
involved.

Example:
• End users
• Information system specialists
• Engineers
• Technicians
Firmware
Firmware is low-level software embedded in a computer's hardware to
control its basic functions, acting as the essential link between the
hardware and the operating system.

Example:
• BIOS
• UEFI
Netware
Netware was a server operating system

NetWare turns the computer into a high-performance network platform

that provides connectivity between workstations, printers, mass
storage devices, and other networks such as the Internet.