Linear Functions

1 Equations
Slope-intercept form: y=mx+b Standard form: ax +by =c
 Best for slope and y-intercept.
 Best for intercepts.
E.g.
E.g.
y=x
2 x−5 y=3
y=2 x−3
−5 1
y= x +2 x +2 y=−6
3 3
y=3 ( y=0 x +3)

Point-slope form: y− y 1=m ( x−x 1 ) Vertical lines: x=c (not a function, but
shows up)
 Best for slope and a given point
E.g.
on the graph.
x=4
E.g.
−2
y +2= (x−4)
3

2 Graph
 Straight line.
 Slope m = Steepness,
increasing if m > 0, decreasing if m < 0, and horizontal if m = 0.
 b = y-intercept
 Zeros (x-intercept): Solve y = 0,
i.e. set equation equal to 0 and isolate x.
 Domain = (−∞, ∞). Range = (−∞, ∞).

 Straight line.
 Slope m = Steepness.
increasing if m>0, decreasing if m<0, and horizontal if m=0 .
  End behavior:
If m>0, left end → −∞, right end → +∞.
If m<0, left end → +∞, right end → −∞.
 Intercepts:
y-intercept: (0 , b).
x-intercepts: solve 0=mx+b .
 Domain = (−∞ , ∞ ).
Range = (−∞, ∞).

How to Draw
Step 1: Identify which form you have
 Slope–intercept form y=mx+b : slope m, intercept b.
 Point–slope form y− y 1=m ( x−x 1 ): slope m, passes through ( x 1 , y 1 ).
 Standard form ax +by =c : good for intercepts.
Step 2: Pick the easiest starting point
 If you see y=mx+b → start by plotting (0,b), the y-intercept.
 If you see ax +by =c → find intercepts:
o set x = 0, solve for y → y-intercept.
o set y = 0, solve for x → x-intercept.
Two points are enough.
 If you see point–slope form → your first point is ( x 1 , y 1 ).
Step 3: Use the slope
Rise
Slope m= Run . From your starting point:

 Rise = how far up or down.

 Run = how far right.
 2
Example: m= 3 means go up 2, right 3.

−1
Example: m= 4 means go down 1, right 4.

Plot at least one more point using slope.

Step 4: Draw the line
 Connect the two (or more) points with a ruler.
 Extend it both ways with arrows → it goes on forever.

3 Tips/Tricks
Parallel lines on a graph = the given equations have the same slope.
Perpendicular lines = slopes are negative reciprocals.
 Quadratic Functions
1 Equations
Standard form: y=a x2 +bx +c Vertex form: y=a ¿
 Best for y-intercept and quick
 Best for graph shape and vertex.
plugging.
E.g.
E.g. 2
2
y=2 x +3
y=x +2 x+1
2
y=− x −6 x+ 9 −1
y= ¿
−2 2 3
y= x +5 x−1
3 y=¿
2
y=2 x +7 x
Intercept form: y=a(x−r 1)(x−r 2)
 Best for zeros.
E.g.
y=−2(x−3)( x+ 1)
4
y= (x)(x−4)
3

Converting to Vertex form - y=a ( x−h )2 +k

This is the “completing the square” move.
a
Step 1: Factor out a (only if a ≠ 1), or simply multiply by a :

( ) ( )
2
a x + bx+ c 2 b c
y=a =a x + x +
a a a

( )
2
b
Step 2: Add and Subtract 2 a inside the bracket:

( ( ) ( ))
2 2
2 b b c b
y=a x + x + + −
a 2a a 2a

Step 3: Rewrite the trinomial as a square and simplify:

 ( ( ) ( ) ) (( ) ( ))
2 2 2 2
2 b b c b b c b
y=a x + x + + − =a x + + −
a 2a a 2a 2a a 2a

( ) ( ( ))
2 2
b c b
y=a x + +k , k =a −
2a a 2a

−b −b
 Vertex is (h , k ) , h= 2 a & k =f ( 2a )

E.g. y=2 x 2 +8 x+5

i. (
y=2 x 2+ 4 x +
2)
5

y=2 ( x + 4 x +4 + −4 ) , ( ) =(
2∗1 )
2 2
2 5 b 4
ii. 2 2a
=4

y=2 (( x+ 2 ) − )
32
iii. 2
2
y=2 ( x +2 ) −3
Vertex is (−2 ,−3)

Converting to Intercept form - y=a(x−r 1)(x−r 2)

This shows where the parabola crosses the x-axis.
Step 1: Solve the quadratic equation y=a x2 +bx +c using factoring (if possible) or
the quadratic formula.
−b ± √ b2−4 ac
x=
2a

Those are the roots r 1 , r 2.

 If you get both r 1∧r 2, the graph touches the x-axis at two points.
 If you get only one of them, the graph touches the x-axis at one point.
 If you don’t get both, then the graph doesn’t touch the x-axis.
How to find roots (zeros) with factoring method: How To Solve Quadratic
Equations By Factoring - Quick & Simple! | Algebra Online Course - YouTube
2 Graph
 Parabola.
Opens up if a > 0, down if a < 0.
 Vertex is (h , k ) (highest or lowest point).
−b
 Axis of symmetry: x= 2 a .
 Zeros: Solve by factoring, quadratic formula, or completing the square.
 Domain = (−∞ , ∞ ).
Range = ¿ if a> 0 opens Up, ¿ if a< 0 opens Down.

3 Tips/Tricks
 Plug x = 0 to find y-intercept.
 Cubic Functions
1 Equations
Standard form: Intercept form:
3 2
y=a x +b x +cx + d
y=a(x−r 1)(x−r 2)(x−r 3 )
 Best for y-intercept and quick
plugging.  Best for zeros.
E.g. E.g.
3 2
y=3 x + x + 2 x +1 y=−2(x)(x−3)(x +1)

Converting to Intercept form y=a(x−r 1)(x−r 2)(x−r 3 )

This shows where the S-curve crosses the x-axis.
Step 1: Find at least one real root
d
 Use the Rational Root Theorem: test possible factors of a .
 Or cheat with synthetic division / graphing if you’re lazy.
Step 2: Divide
 Once you find one root r, divide the cubic by (x−r ).
 This reduces the cubic into a quadratic.
Step 3: Factor the quadratic
 Use the quadratic formula or factoring methods.
 You’ll then have the full factorization (if the roots are real).
How to find roots (zeros) with factoring method: Factoring Cubic Polynomials-
Algebra 2 & Precalculus

2 Graph
 S-curve.
 End behavior:
 If a > 0, left end → −∞, right end → +∞.
If a < 0, left end → +∞, right end → −∞.
 Symmetry:
If the equation only has odd powers, it’s symmetric about the origin
E.g. y=3 x 3 +2 x
 Intercepts:
y-intercept: (0 , d ).
x-intercepts: solve y=a x3 +b x 2 +cx + d.
 Domain = (−∞ , ∞ ).
Range = (−∞, ∞).

3 Tips/Tricks
 Plug x = 0 to find y-intercept.
−b −b
 Inflection point is at ( 3 a , f ( 3 a )). That’s the center of the S-curve.
 Absolute Value Functions
1 Equations
Form:
y=a|x−h|+ k
 Best for y-intercept and vertex.
E.g.
y=3|x −6|−1

2 Graph
 V-shape.
 Opens up if a> 0, down if a< 0.
 Domain = (−∞ , ∞ ).
Range = ¿ if a> 0 opens Up, ¿ if a< 0 opens Down.

3 Tips/Tricks
 Plug x=0 to find y-intercept.
 This function is similar with linear functions.
 Square Root Functions
1 Equations
Form:
y=a √ x−h+k
 Best for starting point.
E.g.
y=−2 √ x +3+6

2 Graph
 Half inverse of a Quadratic Function.
 Starts at (h , k ), opens up if a> 0, down if a< 0.
 Domain = [ h , ∞ ¿.
Range = ¿ if a> 0 opens Up, ¿ if a< 0 opens Down.

3 Tips/Tricks
 Plug x=0 to find y-intercept.
 This function is similar with linear functions.
 Cube Root Functions
1 Equations
Parent: General form:
y= √ x y=a √ x−h+k
3 3

 Best starting point.

E.g.
y=2 √−x−1+3
3

2 Graph
 Inverse of a Cubic Function.
 End behavior:
If a > 0, left end → −∞, right end → +∞.
If a < 0, left end → +∞, right end → −∞.
 Intercepts:
y-intercept: solve x=0 .
x-intercepts: solve 0=a √3 x−h+k .
 Domain = (−∞, ∞)
Range = (−∞ , ∞ ).

3 Tips/Tricks
 Passes through (h , k ). Symmetric about (h , k ).
 This function is similar with cubic functions.
 Rational/Reciprocal Functions
1 Equations
Parent: General form:
1
y= P ( x)
x y= +k
Q( x )

E.g.
−2
y= −2
( x−1)(x +3)

2 Graph
 Hyperbola for parent.
 Vertical asymptote:
Where denominator = 0 (If the factor doesn’t cancel with the numerator).
On the graph, the curve shoots up to +∞ or −∞ as x approaches the
asymptote.
1
E.g. x−2 → vertical asymptote at x=2
 Horizontal asymptote:
Look at the degrees of numerator (n) and denominator (m):
 If n< m: horizontal asymptote at y=0.
leading coeff of P
 If n=m: horizontal asymptote at y= leading coeff of Q + k .
 If n> m: no horizontal asymptote (check oblique instead).
2
2 x +5 2
E.g. 2 −3 → asymptote y= 1 −3=−1
x −3
 Oblique asymptote:
Happens when n=m+ 1.
Divide numerator by denominator with polynomial long division.
The quotient (without remainder) is the oblique asymptote.
2
x +1
E.g. → divide → x +1 withremainder → asymptote is y =x+1
x−1
  Holes:
When numerator and denominator share a factor.
The function is undefined at the hole, but the rest of the graph behaves like
the simplified function.
(x−1)(x +2) x+ 2
E.g. ( x−1)(x−3) = x −3 , but has hole at x=1.
 Intercepts:
y-intercept: solve x=0 .
x-intercepts: Solve numerator = 0 (if factor not canceled with denominator).
 Domain excludes x-values which make the denominator = 0.
Range excludes horizontal asymptote values.

3 Tips/Tricks
 Only vertical asymptote if n> m by more than 1.