UNIT 1

INTRODUCTIONS TO VECTORS

Structure Page No.

1.1 Introduction
Objectives
1.2 Vectors and Their Representations
1.3 Addition of Vectors
1.4 Dot Product of Vectors
1.5 Cross Product of Vectors
1.6 Summary
1.7 Solutions / Answers

1.1 INTRODUCTION
The concept of vectors allows us to explore and analyze physical
quantities that have both magnitude and direction. Vectors are essential
for understanding physical phenomena in disciplines such as physics,
and engineering, where they represent quantities like force, velocity,
and acceleration. Vector calculus was originated from classical
geometry, where magnitudes and directions were represented by line
segments, as described by the Father of Geometry, Greek
mathematician, Euclid. Later, in the 19th century, William Rowan
Hamilton formalized vectors through his development of quaternion. Euclid
Source:
Building on these ideas, Josiah Willard Gibbs and Oliver Heaviside [Link]
introduced the modern concepts of standardized vector notation and e:Jusepe_de_Ribera_-_Euclid_-
_2001.26_-
_J._Paul_Getty_Museum.jpg
operations, forming the foundation of contemporary vector calculus.

In section 1.2, we discuss about scalars and vectors. We learn different

ways to define and represent vectors. We learn about multiplication of a
vector by a scalar.

In section 1.3, we delve into the concept of vector addition, which is the
process of combining two or more vectors to determine their overall
effect. We learn to do vector addition in geometrical and analytical
ways.

In section 1.4, we study one type of multiplication of two vectors, which

is known as scalar product or the dot product.
Block 1 Vector Functions
In section 1.5, we study another type of vector multiplication which is
called cross product of two vectors. The cross product combines two
vectors to produce a third vector.

Objectives:
After going through this unit, you will be able to:

• understand and explain the concepts: vector; vector addition;

scalar product; and cross product;
• apply vector operation to calculate area of a triangle and
parallelogram.
William Rowan
Hamilton
Source:
[Link]
1.2 VECTORS AND THEIR REPRESENTATIONS
wiki/File:William_Rowan_Hamilt
on_portrait_oval_combined.png
The physical quantities are classified into two classes: scalars and
vectors. Scalars represent quantity or property of a physical system that
can be described by a numerical value along with a unit of
measurement, without any associated direction. In case of physical
property, a single real number can be a measure of the property in
some chosen units like kilometres, meters, seconds, etc. Some
examples of scalars are mass, volume, time, temperature, work etc. On
the other hand, vectors have direction and magnitudes both.
Displacement, velocity, acceleration, force etc are some particular
examples of vectors. Vectors may be defined from two different points
of view namely geometric and analytic.

1.2.1 Geometric Representation of Vectors

Geometrically, a vector is a directed line segment. A vector from initial

point A to terminal point B is denoted by AB . Here the initial and
terminal points can be taken in any dimension. If we take the points in
2 − dimension, it will be a directed line segment in 2 − dimension. We
call it a 2 − dimensional vector. If the points are in n − dimension, it will
be a directed line segment in n − dimension. We call it a n − dimensional
vector. Geometrically, a vector can be defined as follows.

Definition 1: A directed line segment characterized by its length and

direction is called a Vector.

Fig. 1
44
Unit 1 Introductions to Vectors

In the vector AB represented in Fig. 1, the distance AB denoted by

AB is the length of the vector AB and the arrow line denotes that the

direction of the vector AB which is from the point A (initial point) to the
r
point B (terminal point). If AB = a then sometimes AB is denoted by a

or by a (read as bold a ). The length AB is also called the modulus or

magnitude or norm of the vector.

For example, (see Fig. 2) let P(1, 2) and Q(2, 3) be two points. Then the
line segment PQ is a vector. The direction of the vector is from P to Q .
The length of the vector is the distance between P(1, 2) and Q(2, 3)
which is (2 − 1) 2 + (3 − 2) 2 = 2 .

Fig. 2

1.2.2 Analytic Representation of Vectors

Analytically, a 2 − dimensional vector is an ordered pair (a1 , a2 ) (See Fig.

3).

Fig. 3

Here this ordered pair denotes the position of a point, say P , with
respect to some co-ordinate system. So, the order pair is also called
the position vector of the point P . The direction of the vector is from
origin to P . The magnitude or modulus of the vector is defined by the
distance of the point P from the origin. Analytically, we can define
vectors as follows.

Definition 2: In a n − dimensional coordinate system, (a1 , a2 ,..., an ) is

called a vector, where the length of the vector is given by the distance
45
Block 1 Vector Functions

of the point (a1 , a2 ,..., an ) from the origin and the direction is from origin
to the point (a1 , a2 ,..., an ) .

r
So, if we denote a vector by a = (a1 , a2 ) then the modulus or the length
of the vector (see Fig. 3) is
r
a = (a1 ) 2 + (a2 ) 2
r
In n − dimensional space, a vector is a = (a1 , a2 ,..., an ) with modulus
r
a = (a1 ) 2 + (a2 ) 2 + ... + (an ) 2

For example, we may say that (1, 2) is a vector whose direction is from
origin to the point (1, 2) . The modulus or the length of the vector
is (1) 2 + (2) 2 = 5 .

Note that the length or modulus of a vector is always non-negative

scalar quantity as it is nothing but the measurement of length from initial
point to the terminal point of the vector.

Now, let us write the analytical representation of a vector when its

geometrical representation is given. Let AB be given vector from initial
point A (a1 , a2 ,..., an ) to terminal point B (b1, b2 ,..., bn ) then the analytical
representation of AB will be (b1 − a1, b2 − a2 ,..., bn − an ) . For example, let
AB be a vector from initial point A (1, 2) to terminal point B (2, 3) . Then
the analytical representation of AB will be (2 − 1, 3 − 2) = (1, 1)

Now you try the following exercises.

E1) What is the modulus or magnitude of a vector?

E2) Find the modulus of the following vectors:

a) (1, 2) b) (−2,1) c) (2,1, 3) d) (−1, − 2,1)

We can obtain a new vector from a given vector by increasing or

decreasing the length of the vector retaining the same direction. In the
next section we learn this process of multiplication of a vector by a
scalar.

1.2.3 Multiplication of a vector by a scalar

From a given vector we can obtain another vector through multiplication

by a real number such that the magnitude of the vector changes without
changing the direction. Let k be a scalar (real number) and
r
a = (a1 , a 2 , ..., a n ) be any n-dimensional vector. Then (ka1, ka2 , ..., kan ) is a
vector whose magnitude is

(ka1 ) 2 + (ka2 ) 2 + ... + (kan ) 2 = k (a1 ) 2 + (a2 ) 2 + ... + (an ) 2

46
Unit 1 Introductions to Vectors
r
= k |a|
r
which is k -times the magnitude of the vector a = (a1 , a 2 , ..., a n ) . This
gives rise to the following definition.
r
Definition 3: Let k be any scalar and a = (a1 , a 2 , ..., a n ) be any
n − dimensional vector. Then the vector (ka1, ka2 , ..., kan ) is called scalar
r r
multiple of the vector a and is denoted by ka .

This multiplication allows us to scale a vector by multiplying it with a real

number (called scalar). This operation changes the magnitude of the
vector, making it either longer or shorter, while its direction remains
unchanged—unless the scalar is negative, in which case the direction is
reversed.
r
For example, let a = (2, 3) be a vector and k = 2 be a scalar. Now if we
r
multiply the vector a by the scalar k then the resulting vector will be
r r
ka = (4, 6) . Here, the magnitude is double of the magnitude of a , but the
direction remains the same. Let us take another scalar k1 = .5 then
r r
k1a = (1,1.5) . Here, the magnitude is half of the magnitude of a , but the
direction remains the same. Let us take another scalar k2 = −2 then
r r
k 2 a = (−4,−6) . Here, the magnitude is double of the magnitude of a , but
the direction is reversed. From these examples we can see how scalar
multiplication affects the magnitude and, in some cases, the direction of
a vector.
r r r
Note: ka is a vector quantity in the direction of a when k > 0 . ka is a
r
vector quantity in the opposite direction of a when k < 0 .

Now you try the following exercises.

r
E3) Let a be any given n − dimensional vector then find the following
r r
a) (−1)a b) (0)a
r r r
E4) Show that m(ka ) = k (ma ) = (km)a , where k, m are two scalars and
r
a is an n − dimensional vector.

The multiplication of a vector by a scalar can also help us to identify the

parallel vectors.

Definition 4: Two vectors are called parallel or collinear vectors, if

they are the line segments of two parallel straight lines or same line.
r r
If a and b are two collinear vectors, there exists a scalar quantity
r r r r
λ (≠ 0), such that b = λa. Let a = (1, 2) be a vector then 2a = (2, 4) will
r r
be a parallel vector to a . − 2a = (−2, − 4) will also be a parallel vector to
r r r r
a . So, a , 2a , − 2a are parallel to each other.
47
Block 1 Vector Functions
Note that collinear vectors may have different magnitudes with same or
opposite directions.

Now you try the following exercise.

r r
E5) Let a = (2, 3) and b = (4, 6) be given vectors, verify whether these
vectors are collinear or not.

In the following section, we delve into the concept of vector addition,

which is the process of combining two or more vectors to determine
their overall effect.

1.3 ADDITION OF VECTORS

In many practical situations, we often deal with multiple forces,
velocities, or displacements that act simultaneously. To analyze such
scenarios, it is essential to combine these quantities, and this is where
the addition of vectors comes into play. Vector addition allows us to
determine the resultant vector, which represents the combined effect of
two or more vectors. Unlike scalar quantities, vector addition must
account for both the magnitude and direction of the vectors involved.
The process follows specific geometric and algebraic rules that ensure
the proper addition of both components.

Let us first understand the process of addition of vectors geometrically.

When a point is displaced or translated from one point P to another

point Q, the displacement is represented by a vector, which can be
r
denoted as PQ or a . If the point is further displaced from Q to another
point R, this second displacement is represented by the vector QR or
r
b . The overall or final displacement, from the original point P to the
r
final point R, is represented by the vector PR or c . This final
displacement vector PR is called the addition of the two vectors PQ
and QR . We can represent this addition as (see Fig. 4): PQ + QR = PR
r r r
or equivalently, a + b = c .

Fig. 4
48
Unit 1 Introductions to Vectors
r
This is the essence of vector addition, where the sum of two vectors a
r r
and b gives a resultant vector c , representing the cumulative effect of
the two displacements.

When dealing with more than two successive displacements, the same
principle of vector addition can be applied. Now, we combine multiple
vectors step by step to find the final resultant displacement. If a point
undergoes a series of successive displacements, moving from point P
to Q, then from Q to R, and further to points S , and finally T , each
displacement is represented by a vector.

The displacements can be denoted as follows:

• Displacement from P to Q is PQ ,

• Displacement from Q to R is QR ,

• Displacement from R to S is RS ,

• Displacement from S to T is ST

The final displacement, which represents the total movement from the
starting point P to the final point T , is represented by the vector PT .
According to the principle of vector addition, the final displacement
vector PT is the sum of all the individual displacement vectors (see Fig.
5):
PQ + QR + RS + ST = PT

Fig. 5

This shows that the total displacement is obtained by adding up all the
successive displacement vectors in the sequence. Graphically, this can
be visualized by connecting the vectors head-to-tail, and the resultant
vector is the straight line from the starting point P to the final point T .

In general, for n successive displacements, the resultant vector is the

sum of all the individual displacement vectors:
r r r r
a1 + a2 + ... + an = r
r r r
where a1 , a2 ,..., an are the individual displacement vectors.

The above rule of addition can be converted into law of addition for two
vectors. Here we learn two laws of vector addition: Triangular law and
Parallelogram law.
49
Block 1 Vector Functions
Triangular law of vector addition: The triangular law of vector
addition states that if two vectors are represented as two sides of a
triangle, taken in order, then the resultant vector can be represented by
the third side of the triangle taken in opposite direction. This is nothing
but the same principle what we have seen in Fig. 4.

The Parallelogram Law of Vector Addition is another fundamental

geometric method to combine two vectors.

Parallelogram law of vector addition: If two vectors are represented

as adjacent sides of a parallelogram, the diagonal of the parallelogram
starting from the common point represents their resultant vector.

Fig. 6

Now, let us understand it analytically.

r r
Let a = (a1 , a2 ) and b = (b1 , b2 ) be any two given vectors. Now let us
construct a parallelogram OARB by taking these two vectors as
adjacent sides as shown in Fig. 7. Then, by using the properties of
parallelogram, we can find the coordinate of the point R
as (a1 + b1 , a2 + b2 ) . Now, as per the parallelogram law of vector
r r r
addition, a + b = r = (a1 + b1, a2 + b2 ) .

Fig.7

Hence for any two 2 − dimensional vectors (a1, a2 ) and (b1, b2 ) , the
addition of these vectors is defined by (a1 + b1 , a2 + b2 ) . Similarly, if
(a1 , a2 ,..., an ) and (b1 , b2 ,..., bn ) are two n − dimensional vectors then the
addition of these two vectors is defined by (a1 + b1, a2 + b2 ,..., an + bn ) . So, it
is very simple when we define addition analytically.
50
Unit 1 Introductions to Vectors
r r r
Using this approach, we can easily show that, a + 0 = a . Analytically null
vector is represented as origin in any coordinate system. Therefore,
r r r r
a + 0 = (a1 , a2 ) + (0, 0) = (a1 + 0, a2 + 0) = (a1 , a2 ) = a , where, a = (a1 , a2 ) .
r r r
Similarly, we can show that 0 + a = a .
r r r r r r
Now you try and show a + (−a ) = 0 and (− a ) + a = 0 (see E6).

Let us now prove that vector addition is commutative as well as

associative.
r r r r Notice that we have used
The vector addition is commutative i.e., a + b = b + a .
r r the analytical definition
a + b = (a1, a2 ) + (b1 , b2 ) = (a1 + b1, a2 + b2 ) and properties of real
r r numbers only.
= (b1 + a1, b2 + a2 ) = (b1 , b2 ) + (a1 , a2 ) = b + a Try to find out them in
each line of proof.
On similar lines you can prove the following (see E7):
r r r r r r
The vector addition is associative i.e., (a + b ) + c = a + (b + c ) .
r r
Multiplication of a vector with a scalar is distributive i.e. (a + b )
r r r r r r
m(a + b ) = ma + mb , where m is a scalar and a = (a1 , a2 ) and b = (b1, b2 )
are vectors.
r r
m(a + b ) = m[(a1 , a2 ) + (b1, b2 )] = m(a1 + b1 , a2 + b2 )
= (ma1 + mb1, ma2 + mb2 )
= (ma1, ma2 ) + (mb1 , mb2 )
= m(a1 , a2 ) + m(b1, b2 )
r r
= ma + mb

r r r
Similarly, we can also show that (see E8) (k + m)a = ka + ma , where k, m
are two scalars.

Now you try the following exercises.

r r r r r r
E6) Show that a + (−a ) = (− a ) + a = 0 , where a is a 2 -dimensional
vector.
r r r r r r r r r
E7) Show that (a + b ) + c = a + (b + c ) , where a , b and c are 2 -
dimensional vectors.
r r r r
E8) Show that (k + m)a = ka + ma , where k, m are two scalars and a is
a 2 -dimensional vector.

Properties of vector addition can be derived using either approach. We

will follow the analytical approach, for which, it helps to express vectors
in terms of unit vectors. In the next section we learn about unit vectors
and representation of vectors in terms of unit vectors.
51
Block 1 Vector Functions

1.3.1 Representation of vectors in terms of unit vectors:

Sometimes, we are only interested in the direction of a vector and not in
The unit vector in its magnitude. For such cases, we define unit vector.
r
the direction of a
is denoted by â . Definition 5: A vector with magnitude 1 (i.e., unity) is called unit
vector.
r r
Let a be a unit vector. This means the length is a = 1 . Now, let us see
r
how we can find an unit vector in the direction of a given vector. Let a
be a given vector then the corresponding unit vector in the same
r
r a r r
direction of a will be aˆ = r . So we can write a = | a | aˆ i.e., any vector
|a|
can be represented by multiplying the modulus or length with the unit
vector in the direction of the given vector. Verify | aˆ | = 1! For example, let
r
a = (1, 2) be a given vector then the unit vector in the direction of (1,2) is
1 1 2  1 2 
(1, 2) = ( , ) . So, we can write (1, 2) = 5  , .
12 + 22 5 5  5 5

Now you try the following exercise.

r
E9) Find the unit vector in the direction of the vector a = (3,4) .
r r
If b = (6,8) , explain whether it has the same direction as a .

Now, let us see representation of any given vector in terms of unit

vectors. Let OXYZ be a 3 − dimensional co-ordinate system.

Fig. 8

The unit vectors in positive direction of X , Y and Z are denoted iˆ, ˆj

and k̂ respectively (see Fig. 8).
Now, let us see that every vector can be represented as rthe sum of
some known vectors, using the idea of unit vectors. Let r = (a, b) be a
vector in 2 − dimension (See Fig. 9).

52 Fig. 9
Unit 1 Introductions to Vectors

So, if iˆ and ĵ are unit vectors along positive X and Y axes respectively,
then OA = aiˆ and OB = bˆj . Now, applying the parallelogram law of vector
r
addition on parallelogram OAPB , we have r = aiˆ + bˆj . Hence, any
2 − dimensional vector (a, b) can be represented as aiˆ + bˆj . Similarly,
any 3 − dimensional vector (a, b, c ) can be represented as
aiˆ + bˆj + ckˆ where, iˆ , ĵ and k̂ are unit vectors along positive X , Y and Z
axes respectively, using parallelogram law twice, once for vectors
r
OA = aiˆ and OB = bˆj and then for vectors r = aiˆ + bˆj and ckˆ .

Let us see some example where we use vector addition.

Example 1: If a ball is displaced from point A to B , then further

displaced from point B to C , find the resultant displacement vector
where AB = 3iˆ + 2 ˆj ; BC = 5iˆ − 7 ˆj .

Solution: The resultant vector AC is found by adding the two

displacement vectors AB and BC :
AC = AB + BC
= (3iˆ + 2 ˆj ) + (5iˆ − 7 ˆj )
= 8iˆ − 5 ˆj
Therefore, the resultant displacement vector is 8iˆ − 5 ˆj .
***

r r
Example 2: Let r = 3iˆ − 4 ˆj + 2kˆ and m = −2 are given, find mr and
interpret the result.
r
Solution: mr = −2(3iˆ − 4 ˆj + 2kˆ)

= −6iˆ + 8 ˆj − 4kˆ
r r
mr is in the opposite direction of the original vector r and has
r
magnitude twice of r . They are also collinear or parallel vectors.
***
Now you try the following exercise.

r r
E10) If a = 6iˆ + 3 ˆj and b = −3iˆ + 5 ˆj are two given vectors, find the
resultant vector.

In the next section, we see one way to multiply two vectors.

1.4 Dot Product of Vectors

The scalar product, or dot product, is a type of vector multiplication that
combines two vectors and results in a scalar, rather than a vector.
Before going into the formal definition, we need to recall that any two
53
Block 1 Vector Functions
vectors will either be parallel or intersect each other. If they are parallel
with same direction, we say that the angle between them is 0 . If they
are parallel with opposite direction we say that the angle between them
is π . If the vectors are not parallel and they lie on the same plane, then
they will intersect. So, we will be able to find the angle between them. If
the vectors are not parallel vectors and they do not lie on the same
plane, then we shall draw a parallel vector of one vector on the plane of
the other vector to find the angle between them. In this way we can find
the angle between any two vectors.
r
Definition 6: The scalar (or dot or inner) product of two vectors a and
r r r
b , denoted by a ⋅ b , is defined as
r r r r
The projection of a line a ⋅ b = | a | | b | cosθ
segment can be where θ is the angle between the two vectors.
visualized as the
"shadow" of the line We can also present the dot product in the following manner to
segment cast onto a understand the geometrical interpretation (see Fig. 10):
line or plane. In Fig. 8, r r r r r r
a ⋅ b = | a | (| b | cosθ ) or | b | (| a | cosθ )
a perpendicular line is r r r
drawn from Q on OP . = length of a × length of the projection of b on a or, length of
r r r
Hence, ON is the b × length of the projection of a on b .
projection of OQ
on OP . We shall learn
more about projection
in the next unit.

Fig. 10

Just observing the definition of dot product, we can list some important
properties of dot product.
Notice that scalars are
real numbers and so Properties of Scalar Product
satisfy all algebraic
properties of real r r
numbers. 1. We can observe that | a |, | b | and cosθ all are scalars. Hence,
r r
a ⋅ b is finally a scalar quantity. Dot product is also called scalar
product as dot product of two vectors turns out to be a scalar.
r r r r
2. a ⋅ b = | a | | b | cosθ
r r rr
= | b | | a | cosθ = b .a
Hence, the dot product is commutative.

r r π
3. If the angle between the vectors a and b is i.e., if these two
2
vectors are perpendicular then
r r r r π
a ⋅ b = a b cos = 0 .
54 2
Unit 1 Introductions to Vectors
r r
4. The scalar product a ⋅ b vanishes if either one of the vectors is a
r r
null vector or if the vectors a and b are perpendicular to each
other.
r r r r
5. k (a ⋅ b ) = k | a | | b | cosθ ,
r r r r
= (k | a |) | b | cos θ = (ka ) ⋅ b
r r r r r r
Again k (a ⋅ b ) = | a | | kb | cos θ = a ⋅ (kb )
r r r r r r
Hence, k (a ⋅ b ) = (ka ) ⋅ b = a ⋅ (kb ) .
r r r r
Similarly, it can be easily shown that (ma ) ⋅ (nb ) = (mn) (a ⋅ b )

r r
6. If the vectors a and b are collinear then θ = 0 or π and so
r r r r r r
a ⋅ b = ± | a | | b |; the plus sign is taken if a , b have the same
direction and the minus sign is taken if they are in opposite
directions.
r r r r r r r r r r
7. Let a , b and c be any three vectors, then a.(b + c ) = a ⋅ b + a ⋅ c .
Now you try to proof this property (See E11). This property may be
extended for any number of vectors.
r r r r
For example, for any four vectors, a , b , c and d , we get
r r r r r r r r r r
(a + b + c ) ⋅ d = a ⋅ d + b ⋅ d + c ⋅ d .

Let us see some examples where we apply dot product.

r r r r
Example 3: If a + 2b and a − mb are two vectors which are
perpendicular to each other then find the value of the scalar m where
r r rr
| a | = 6 , | b | = 3 and a.b = 2 .

r r r r
Solution: Since two vectors a + 2b and a − mb are perpendicular to
each other, therefore,
r r r r
(a + 2b ).(a − mb ) = 0
r r r r r r
or, | a | 2 +2b ⋅ a − ma ⋅ b − 2m | b | 2 = 0
r r r r r r
or, 36 + (2 − m)2 − 18m = 0 [since 2 = a ⋅ b = b ⋅ a , | a | = 6 and | b | = 3 ]
or, 40 − 20m = 0
or, m = 2.
***

Now, we list the dot products of the known unit vectors which will help
us to calculate the dot product of any two vectors given in analytical
form. Using the definition, we have
iˆ ⋅ iˆ = iˆ iˆ cos 0 = 1 as iˆ = 1 and cos 0 = 1 ;
and
π π
iˆ ⋅ ˆj = ˆj ⋅ iˆ = iˆ ˆj cos = 0 as cos = 0 .
2 2
Similarly, j ⋅ j = 1; k ⋅ k = 1; j ⋅ k = kˆ ⋅ ˆj = 0 and kˆ ⋅ iˆ = iˆ ⋅ kˆ = 0.
ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ

55
Block 1 Vector Functions
r r r
Let a = (a1 , a 2 , a3 ) and b = (b1 , b2 , b3 ) i.e., a = a1iˆ + a 2 ˆj + a3 kˆ and
r
b = b1iˆ + b2 ˆj + b3 kˆ where iˆ, ˆj , kˆ be unit vectors along three mutually
perpendicular axes then
r r
a ⋅ b = ( a1i + a2 ˆj + a3 kˆ) ⋅ (b1iˆ + b2 ˆj + b3 kˆ )
ˆ

= a b iˆ.iˆ + a b ˆj. ˆj + a b kˆ ⋅ kˆ + (a b + a b )iˆ. ˆj

1 1 2 2 3 3 1 2 2 1

+ ( a1b3 + a3b1 )iˆ.kˆ + ( a2b3 + a3b2 ) ˆj.kˆ

= a1b1 + a 2 b2 + a3b3 (using the above dot products of the unit vectors
iˆ, ˆj , kˆ )

Now, let us see how we can calculate the angle between two vectors by
using dot product. r
r
If θ be the angle between the vectors a = (a1 , a2 , a3 ) and b = (b1, b2 , b3 )
r r r r
then a ⋅ b = | a | | b | cos θ .
Therefore,
r r
a ⋅b a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3
cos θ = r r =
|a| |b | a12 + a22 + a32 b12 + b22 + b32
r r
If a and b are perpendicular to each other then cos θ = 0 and we have
a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3 = 0.

Example 4: Find a unit vector parallel to the XY -plane and

perpendicular to the vector 2iˆ − ˆj + kˆ.

Solution: Let xiˆ + yˆj be a vector parallel to XY -plane. (Think, why in

this form!)
Since the required vector is perpendicular to 2iˆ − ˆj + kˆ , we have
( xiˆ + yˆj + 0kˆ) ⋅ (2iˆ − ˆj + kˆ) = 0 or, 2 x − y = 0 or 2 x = y
Let, x = r , then y = 2r.
Hence, the above vector takes the form riˆ + 2rˆj . Therefore, the unit
vector in this direction
riˆ + 2rˆj 1 1 ˆ
= = (riˆ + 2rˆj ) = (i + 2 ˆj ) .
2 2
( r ) + ( 2r ) r 5 5
***

Example 5: Find the sides and angles of the triangle whose vertices are
the coordinates of the end points of the vectors iˆ + ˆj + kˆ, iˆ + ˆj and ˆj + kˆ
from origin.
Solution: Let O be the vector origin and A, B, C be the vertices of the
triangle. Then the position vectors of the vertices A, B, C are given by
OA = iˆ + ˆj + kˆ
OB = iˆ + ˆj
OC = ˆj + kˆ.
Then, by triangular law of vector addition, we have

56
Unit 1 Introductions to Vectors

OA + AB = OB (see Fig. 11)

 AB = OB − OA = (iˆ + ˆj ) − (iˆ + ˆj + kˆ) = −kˆ
 BA = − AB = kˆ
Similarly,
BC = OC − OB = ( ˆj + kˆ) − (iˆ + ˆj ) = −iˆ + kˆ
 CB = iˆ − kˆ
CA = OA − OC = (iˆ + ˆj + kˆ) − ( ˆj + kˆ) = iˆ
 AC = −iˆ

Fig. 11

Therefore,
| AB | =| BA | = 1 = 1
| BC | =| CB | = 1 + 1 = 2
| CA | =| AC |= 1 = 1
Now, let θ1 be the angle (see Fig. 12) between BA and BC which is
given by

Fig. 12

BA ⋅ BC ( kˆ ) ⋅ ( −iˆ + kˆ) 1
cos θ1 = = =
| AB | | BC | 1⋅ 2 2
 1  π
Hence, θ1 = cos −1  = .
 2 4
 1  π
Similarly angles between CB and CA is cos −1   = and angle
 2 4
π
between AC and AB is cos −1 (0) = .
2
***

57
Block 1 Vector Functions
r
Example 6: Find a vector α which is perpendicular to both
r r r r
a = 4iˆ + 5 ˆj − kˆ and b = iˆ − 4 ˆj + 5kˆ, such that α ⋅ β = 21, where
r r r r
β = 3i + j − k .
r r r
Solution: Let α = xiˆ + yˆj + zkˆ, since α is perpendicular to both a and
r r r r r
b , we have α ⋅ a = 0 and α ⋅ b = 0 i.e.,
4x + 5 y − z = 0
x − 4 y + 5 z = 0.
From the above two equations, we get x = − y = − z = λ (say).
r
Therefore, α = λiˆ − λˆj − λkˆ.
r r
Also, we have α ⋅ β = 21.
So, (λiˆ − λˆj − λkˆ ) ⋅ (3iˆ + ˆj − kˆ ) = 21 or, 3λ − λ + λ = 21 or, λ = 7.
r
Hence, α = 7iˆ − 7 ˆj − 7 kˆ = 7(iˆ − ˆj − kˆ ).
***

Now you try the following exercises.

r r r
E11) Let a , b and c be any three vectors, then show that
r r r r r r r
a.(b + c ) = a ⋅ b + a ⋅ c .

r r r r r r r r
E12) Does a ⋅ b = a ⋅ c , a ≠ 0 implies b = c ? Explain.
r r r r
E13) If a + mb is perpendicular to a − 3b then find the value of the
r r rr
scalar m where | a | = 4 , | b | = 2 and a.b = 1 .

E14) Find a unit vector parallel to the XY -plane and perpendicular to

the vector 3iˆ − 2 ˆj + kˆ.

E15) Find the sides and angles of the triangle whose vertices are the
coordinates of the end points of the vectors iˆ + ˆj + kˆ, iˆ − ˆj and
ˆj − kˆ from origin.

In the next section, we see another type of vector multiplication which is

called cross product of two vectors.

1.5 Cross Product of Vectors

The cross product is a vector multiplication. Unlike the dot product,
which gives a scalar, the cross product yields a vector that is
perpendicular
r to the plane formed by the original two vectors.
r
Let a and b be two vectors and θ be the angle between them (see Fig.
13).

58
Unit 1 Introductions to Vectors

Fig. 13
r
Definition 7: The vector product or cross product of two vectors a
r r r
and b , denoted by a × b , is defined by
r r r r
a × b = | a | | b | sin θ nˆ
where θ is the angle between the vectors and n̂ is the unit vector
r r
perpendicular to the plane containing a and b . Here the direction of
r r
a × b that means the direction of n̂ is given by the right-hand rule (see
Fig. 14): if the fingers of your right hand curl in ther direction of a
r
rotation( through an angle less than π ) from a to b , then your thumb
r r
points in the direction of a × b .

Fig. 14

Now from rthe definition

r r r
| a × b | = | a | | b | sin θ [since | nˆ | = 1 ]
r
r r  ar × b 
or, sin θ = r r or, θ = sin −1  r r 
| a ×b |
|a| |b | | a | | b |
 
In this way also we can find out the angle between the two vectors.

Properties of vector product

1. The vector product does not obey the commutative property i.e.,
r r r r r r r r
a × b ≠ b × a. As, b × a = | b | | a | sin θ (− nˆ )
r r r r
= − | a | | b | sin θ nˆ = − (a × b ).
r r
2. Let OA = a and OB = b be two vectors.
r r r r 1 r r
Then, | a × b | = | a | | b | sin θ = 2( | a | ( | b | sin θ )) = 2 × area of
2
∆OAB = area of a parallelogram with OA and OB as adjacent
sides (see Fig. 15).
59
Block 1 Vector Functions
r r
Thus, | a × b | is the area of a parallelogram whose adjacent sides
r r
are a and b .

Fig 15
r r r r r
3. 0 × a = | 0 | | a | sin θ nˆ = 0nˆ = 0 .
r r r
Similarly, a × 0 = 0 .
r r r r r
Hence, a × 0 = 0 × a = 0 .
r r r
4. Now if θ = 0 i.e., two vectors are collinear then a × b = 0 . Clearly
r r r r r r
a × a = 0. we can also say if a × b = 0 then either at least one of
r r
the vectors is a null vector or a and b are parallel.
r r r r r r r r
5. Similarly, we can show m(a × b ) = (ma ) × b = a × (mb ) = m(a × b ), m is
a scalar.
r r r r
6. (ma ) × (nb ) = mn(a × b ), m, n are scalars.

7. For the three unit vectors iˆ, ˆj, kˆ along three rectangular axes, we
r
get iˆ × iˆ = ˆj × ˆj = kˆ × kˆ = 0 . Also, iˆ × ˆj = kˆ = − ˆj × iˆ, as k̂ is
perpendicular to both iˆ and ĵ . Similarly ˆj × kˆ = iˆ = − kˆ × ˆj and
kˆ × iˆ = ˆj = −iˆ × kˆ.

Vector product using unit vectors

r r
Let a = (a1 , a2 , a3 ) and b = (b1 , b2 , b3 ) be given vectors then we can
r r
write a = a1iˆ + a2 ˆj + a3kˆ and b = b1iˆ + b2 ˆj + b3kˆ .
r r
So, | a | = a12 + a22 + a32 and | b | = b12 + b22 + b32 .
Again,
r r
a × b = (a1iˆ + a2 ˆj + a3kˆ) × (b1iˆ + b2 ˆj + b3kˆ)
= a b (iˆ × iˆ) + a b (iˆ × ˆj ) + a b (iˆ × kˆ)
1 1 1 2 1 3

+ a2b1 ( ˆj × iˆ) + a2b2 ( ˆj × ˆj ) + a2b3 ( ˆj × kˆ)

+ a3b1 (kˆ × iˆ) + a3b2 (kˆ × ˆj ) + a3b3 (kˆ × kˆ)
= (a2b3 − a3b2 )iˆ + (a3b1 − a1b3 ) ˆj + (a1b2 − a2b1 )kˆ
[Since iˆ × iˆ = 0, iˆ × ˆj = kˆ, ˆj × iˆ = − kˆ etc.]

60
Unit 1 Introductions to Vectors

iˆ ˆj kˆ
= a1 a2 a3
b1 b2 b3
r r
So the magnitude of the vector a × b will be

(a2b3 − a3b2 ) 2 + (a3b1 − a1b3 ) 2 + (a1b2 − a2b1 ) 2

So the angle between these two vector θ will be given by

r r  Σ(a b − a b ) 2 
| a ×b | Σ(a1b2 − a2b1 ) 2
sin θ = r r = i.e., θ = sin −1  1 2 2 1 
| a || b | 2
Σa1 Σb1 2  Σa1 Σb12
2 
 
In particular, these two vectors are parallel when θ = 0 or π and then
a a a
sin θ = 0 i.e.,  (a1b2 − a2b1 ) 2 = 0 i.e., 1 = 2 = 3 .
b1 b2 b3
Now, let us note one more important property of vector multiplication.
Vector multiplication
r r
is distributive with respect to addition i.e., for any
three vectors a , b , c
r r r r r r r r r r r r r r
(a) a × (b + c ) = a × b + a × c (b) (b + c ) × a = b × a + c × a
Clearly the distributive law (b) is different from (a) since vector product
is not commutative. Try the proof yourself using representation of vector
in terms of unit vectors (see E16).

Now, let us see some examples.

r r r r
Example 7: If a = iˆ − ˆj , b = ˆj + kˆ then find a × b .

iˆ ˆj kˆ
r r
Solution: a × b = 1 − 1 0 = (−1 − 0)iˆ + (0 − 1) ˆj + (1 − 0)kˆ = −iˆ − ˆj + kˆ .
0 1 1
***

Example 8: Find the area of parallelogram whose adjacent sides are

r r
two vectors a = 2iˆ − ˆj + kˆ and b = 3iˆ + 2 ˆj − kˆ.

iˆ ˆj kˆ
r r
Solution: a × b = 2 − 1 1 = (1 − 2)iˆ + (3 + 2) ˆj + (4 + 3)kˆ = −iˆ + 5 ˆj + 7kˆ.
3 2 −1
r r
Therefore, a × b = (−1) 2 + 52 + 7 2 = 5 3 which is the measure of the
r r
area of the parallelogram whose adjacent sides are a and b .
***

r r r
Example 9: If a , b , c are the position vectors of three points A, B and
C.
Show that the vector
r r r r r r
(b × c + c × a + a × b )
61
Block 1 Vector Functions
is perpendicular to the plane ABC.

r r r
Solution: Let O be the vector origin then OA = a , OB = b and OC = c
and
r r
AB = OB − OA = b − a
r r
AC = OC − OA = c − a .
Now
r r r r r r r r r r r r
AB × AC = (b − a ) × (c − a ) = b × c − b × a − a × c + a × a
r r r r r r
= b ×c + c × a + a ×b
which is therefore, perpendicular to AB and AC i.e.,
r r r r r r
(b × c + c × a + a × b ) is perpendicular to plane containing lines AB and
r r r r r r
AC . Therefore, the vector (b × c + c × a + a × b ) is perpendicular to the
plane ABC.
***
Example 10: Using cross product, find the unit vectors which are
perpendicular to the vectors iˆ − 2 ˆj + kˆ and iˆ + ˆj − 2kˆ .
Solution: The required vector is given by
iˆ ˆj kˆ
1 − 2 1 = (4 − 1)iˆ + (1 + 2) ˆj + (1 + 2)kˆ = 3(iˆ + ˆj + kˆ)
1 1 −2
Therefore, the required unit vectors are
± 3(iˆ + ˆj + kˆ) 1 ˆ ˆ ˆ
=± (i + j + k ) .
3 12 + 12 + 12 3
***

Now you try the following exercises.

r r r r r r r r r r r r r r
E16) Show that a × (b + c ) = a × b + a × c and (b + c ) × a = b × a + c × a ,
r r r
where a , b and c are three dimensional vectors.

E17) Using cross product, find the area of the triangle where the
position vectors of the vertices are 2iˆ + ˆj + kˆ, iˆ + 2 ˆj + kˆ and
iˆ − ˆj − kˆ .

E18) Find the area of parallelogram whose adjacent sides are

r r
a = iˆ − ˆj + 2kˆ and b = iˆ + 2 ˆj − kˆ.

E19) Using cross product, find the unit vector which is perpendicular to
the vectors iˆ − 2 ˆj + 3kˆ and 3iˆ + ˆj − 2kˆ .

We now end this unit by giving a summary of what we have covered in

it.

1.6 SUMMARY
62
Unit 1 Introductions to Vectors

• Scalars only have magnitude and are described by a numerical

value with a unit, such as mass, volume, time, and temperature.
Vectors have both magnitude and direction. Examples of vectors
are displacement, velocity, acceleration, and force.

• A directed line segment characterized by its length and direction is

called a vector.

• Multiplication of a vector by a scalar allows us to scale a vector by

multiplying it with a real number (called scalar). This operation
changes the magnitude of the vector, making it either longer or
shorter, while its direction remains unchanged—unless the scalar
is negative, in which case the direction is reversed.

• The scalar product, also known as the dot product, produces a

scalar.
• The cross product gives a vector that is perpendicular to the plane
defined by the original two vectors.

1.7 SOLUTIONS/ANSWERS
E1) The length of a vector is called modulus or magnitude of a vector.
r
For a given vector a = (a1 , a2 ,..., an ) , we can calculate it by using
the following formula
r
a = (a1 ) 2 + (a2 ) 2 + ... + (an ) 2

E2) a) (1)2 + (2)2 = 5 b) (−2) 2 + (1) 2 = 5

c) (2)2 + (1)2 + (3)2 = 14 d) (−1) 2 + (−2) 2 + (1)2 = 6

r
E3) Let a = (a1 , a2 ,..., an ) then
r r
a) (−1)a = (−a1, − a2 ,..., − an ) = −a . We call it opposite vector or
r
negative vector of a . This means that while both vectors
have the same length but their directions are opposite to
each other.
r
b) (0)a = (0, 0,..., 0) . This vector (0, 0,..., 0) is called null vector
r
and it is denoted by 0 .This means that the initial point (where
the vector starts) and the terminal point (where the vector
ends) are the same. Since the length is zero, it does not point
in any specific direction. Unlike other vectors which have a
specific direction, the direction of a null vector is considered
undefined or arbitrary, it can be considered to point in any
direction.
r
E4) m(ka ) = m(ka1, ka2 ,..., kan )
= (mka1, mka2 ,..., mkan )
63
Block 1 Vector Functions

= (kma1, kma2 ,..., kman ) [since, multiplication of real numbers

is commutative]
= km(a1 , a2 ,..., an )
r
= (km)a
Also,
r
k (ma ) = k (ma1 , ma2 ,..., man )
= (kma1, kma2 ,..., kman )
= km(a1 , a2 ,..., an )
r
= (km)a
r r r
Therefore, m(ka ) = k (ma ) = (km)a , where k, m are two scalars and
r
a is an n − dimensional vector.
r r r r r
E5) a = (2,3) and b = (4,6) are collinear as b = 2a , b is a scalar multiple
r
of a .
r r
E6) Let a = (a1 , a2 ) then − a = (−a1 , − a2 ) .
r r
So, a + (−a ) = (a1 , a2 ) + (−a1, − a2 ) = (a1 − a1, a2 − a2 )
r
= (0,0) = 0 .
r r r
E7) Let a = (a1 , a2 ) , b = (b1, b2 ) and c = (c1, c2 ) .
r r r
So, (a + b ) + c = [(a1, a2 ) + (b1, b2 )] + (c1 , c2 )
= (a1 + b1, a2 + b2 ) + (c1, c2 )
= ((a1 + b1 ) + c1 , (a2 + b2 ) + c2 )
= (a1 + (b1 + c1 ), a2 + (b2 + c2 )) (As, addition of real
numbers is associative)
= (a1 , a2 ) + (b1 + c1 , b2 + c2 )
= (a1, a2 ) + [(b1, b2 ) + (c1, c2 )]
r r r
= a + (b + c )
r
E8) Let a = (a1 , a2 ) .
r
(k + m)a = ((k + m)a1, (k + m)a2 )
= (ka1 + ma1 , ka2 + ma2 )
= (ka1, ka2 ) + (ma1 , ma2 )
= k (a1 , a2 ) + m(a1, a2 )
r r
= ka + ma
r r
E9) The magnitude of vector a is a = (3) 2 + (4) 2 = 5 . Therefore the
r
r a 1 3 4
unit vector in the direction of the vector a is aˆ = r = (3, 4) = ( , ).
a 5 5 5
r r
The magnitude of the vector b is b = (6) 2 + (8) 2 = 10 .So, the unit
r 6 8 3 4
vector in the direction of b is bˆ = ( , ) = ( , ) . Since both the
10 10 5 5
vectors have same unit vectors in their directions, they have same
direction.
r
E10) According to the law of vector addition, the resultant vector r is
r r
64 the sum of vectors a and b :
Unit 1 Introductions to Vectors
r
r = (6iˆ + 3 ˆj ) + (−3iˆ + 5 ˆj )
= 3iˆ + 8 ˆj
r
Thus, the resultant vector r is 3iˆ + 8 ˆj .
r r r
E11) Let a = (a1 , a2 , ..., an ) , b = (b1 , b2 , ..., bn ) and c = (c1 , c2 , ..., cn ) .
r r r
Then, a.(b + c ) = (a1 , a2 , ..., an ).(b1 + c1 , b2 + c2 , ..., bn + cn )
= (a1b1 + a1c1 , a2b2 + a2c2 , ..., anbn + an cn )
= (a1b1 , a2b2 , ..., anbn ) + (a1c1 , a2c2 ,..., an cn )
= (a1 , a2 , ..., an ).(b1 , b2 , ..., bn ) + (a1 , a2 , ..., an ).(c1 , c2 ,..., cn )
r r r r
= a ⋅b + a ⋅c
r r r r r r r
E12) a ⋅ b = a ⋅ c  a ⋅ (b − c ) = 0.
r r r r r r r r
Therefore, either b − c = 0 i.e., b = c or a is perpendicular to b − c .
r r r r
E13) Since two vectors a + mb and a − 3b are perpendicular to each
other, rtherefore,
r r r
(a + mb ).(a − 3b ) = 0
r r r rr r
or, | a | 2 − a.3b + mb .a − 3m | b |2 = 0
r r r r
or, 16 + (m − 3)1 − 12m = 0 [since a ⋅ b = b ⋅ a ]
13 − 11m = 0
13
or, m = .
11

E14) Let xiˆ + yˆj be a vector parallel to XY -plane.

Since the required vector is perpendicular to 3iˆ − 2 ˆj + kˆ , we have
x y
( xiˆ + yˆj + 0kˆ) ⋅ (3iˆ − 2 ˆj + kˆ) = 0 or, 3 x − 2 y = 0 or, = = r (say)
2 3
or, x = 2r , y = 3r
Hence the above vector takes the form 2riˆ + 3rˆj . Therefore, the
required unit vector
2riˆ + 3rˆj 1 1
= = (2riˆ + 3rˆj ) = (2iˆ + 3 ˆj ) .
(2r ) 2 + (3r ) 2 r 13 13

E15) Let O be the vector origin and A, B, C be the vertices of the

triangle. Then,
AB = OB − OA = (iˆ − ˆj ) − (iˆ + ˆj + kˆ) = −2 ˆj − kˆ
 BA = − AB = 2 ˆj + kˆ
Similarly,
BC = OC − OB = ( ˆj − kˆ) − (iˆ − ˆj ) = −iˆ + 2 ˆj − kˆ
 CB = iˆ − 2 ˆj + kˆ
CA = OA − OC = (iˆ + ˆj + kˆ) − ( ˆj − kˆ) = iˆ + 2kˆ
 AC = −iˆ − 2kˆ
Therefore,
| AB | =| BA | = 5
65
Block 1 Vector Functions

| BC | =| CB | = 6
| CA | =| AC |= 5
Let θ1 be the angle between BA and BC. Then,

BA ⋅ BC 4 −1 3
cos θ1 = = =
| AB | | BC | 5⋅ 6 30
 3 
Hence, θ1 = cos −1  .
 30 
 3 
Similarly, angles between CB and CA is cos −1   and angle
 30 
 2 
between AC and AB is cos −1  .
 25 
r r r
E16) Let a = (a1 , a2 , a3 ) , b = (b1 , b2 , b3 ) and c = (c1 , c2 , c3 ) .
r r
Then, (b + c ) = (b1 + c1 , b2 + c2 , b3 + c3 )
iˆ ˆj kˆ
r r r
a × (b + c ) = a1 a2 a3
b1 + c1 b2 + c2 b3 + c3
iˆ ˆj kˆ iˆ ˆj kˆ
= a1 a 2 a3 + a1 a 2 a3
b1 b2 b3 c1 c 2 c3
r r r r
= a×b + a ×c
r r r r r r r
Similarly, you can show (b + c ) × a = b × a + c × a .

E17) Let ABC be a triangle and O be the vector origin. Let

2iˆ + ˆj + kˆ, iˆ + 2 ˆj + kˆ and iˆ − ˆj − kˆ be the position vectors of points
A, B and C respectively.
Then
OA = 2iˆ + ˆj + kˆ
OB = iˆ + 2 ˆj + kˆ
and OC = iˆ − ˆj − kˆ
Therefore, BC = OC − OB = −3 ˆj − 2kˆ and
CA = OA − OC = iˆ + 2 ˆj + 2kˆ.
iˆ ˆj kˆ
1
Now, ( BC × CA) = 0 − 3 − 2 = (−2iˆ − 2 ˆj + 3kˆ)
2
1 2 2
Hence the required area of the triangle ABC is
1 1 1
BC × BA = | −2iˆ − 2 ˆj + 3kˆ | = 17 .
2 2 2

66
Unit 1 Introductions to Vectors

iˆ ˆj kˆ
r r
E18) a × b = 1 − 1 2 = (1 − 4)iˆ + (2 + 1) ˆj + (2 + 1)kˆ = −3kˆ + 3 ˆj + 3kˆ.
1 2 −1
r r
Therefore, a × b = 3 (−1) 2 + 12 + 12 = 3 3. Hence, the area of the
r r
parallelogram whose adjacent sides are a and b is 3 3.

E19) The required vector is given by

iˆ ˆj kˆ
1 − 2 3 = (4 − 3)iˆ + (9 + 2) ˆj + (1 + 6)kˆ = iˆ + 11 ˆj + 7kˆ
3 1 −2
Therefore, the required unit vector is
iˆ + 11 ˆj + 7 kˆ 1 ˆ
=± (i + 11 ˆj + 7 kˆ) .
2 2 2
± 1 + 11 + 7 171

67
 UNIT 2

GEOMETRY AND VECTORS

VECTORS

Structure Page No.

2.1 Introduction
Objectives
2.2 Direction Cosines and Ratios
2.3 Orthogonal Projection
2.4 Equation of Line and Plane
2.5 Summary
2.6 Solutions / Answers

2.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit, we have discussed vectors and its properties. We
have seen how scalar multiplication changes the magnitude of a vector.
Geometrically it means that scalar multiplication increases or decreases
the length of the line segment representing the vector which is
multiplied by the scalar.

In this unit we will study some of the geometric concepts which can be
represented by vectors.

In section 2.2, we learn about direction cosines and direction ratios and
its properties. The direction cosines of a vector give a precise
geometrical understanding of the position of the vector with respect to a
given coordinate axis.

We see how to project a vector on an another vector in section 2.3.

Since a given vector have two properties magnitude and direction, we
learn two types of orthogonal projections of one vector on another
vector. These are scalar projection and vector projection.

In section 2.4, we study applications of vectors in representing the

equations of straight lines and planes.

Objectives:
Block 1 Vector Functions
After going through this unit, you will be able to:

• understand and explain the conepts: direction cosines and

direction ratios of a vector; scalar projection and vector projection
of one vector to another vector;
• represent the equations of straight lines and planes using vectors.

2.2 DIRECTION COSINES AND RATIOS

In this study of vector and their properties, one of the most important
concepts is to understand the position of a vector in space. The
direction cosines of a vector give a precise geometrical understanding
of the position of the vector with respect to a given coordinate axis.
Before going into the formal definition of direction cosines, we need to
recall the concept of finding angle between two vectors. In section 1.4 of
Unit 1, we have see that if two vectors are parallel with same direction,
then the angle between them is 0. If they are parallel with opposite
r
direction, then angle between them is π . If the vectors, suppose a and
r r
b , are not parallel then we draw a parallel vector (say a1 ) of one vector
r r r
(say a ) on the plane of other vector, b , from the initial point of b .

r r
Now, we can measure the angle between a1 and b . The angle between
r r r r
a1 and b are considered as angle between a and b .

Let us see the mathematical definition of the direction cosines.

Definition 1: If α , β , γ are the angles between a given vector OP and

the positive directions of the coordinate axes OX , OY , OZ respectively,
then cos α , cos β , cos γ are called direction cosines of OP and are
generally denoted by the letters l , m, n respectively.
∴ l = cos α , m = cos β , n = cos γ
The angles α , β , γ are known as the direction angles. In the above
definition, the vector OP has its initial point at the origin (see Fig. 1).
r π π π
For example, suppose a vector r makes angles , and with
4 3 3
r
OX , OY and OZ respectively. Then the direction cosines of r are
π  π  π  1 1 1
cos  , cos , cos  i.e., , , .
4 3 3 2 2 2

If a given vector does not have its initial point at the origin, then we can
draw a parallel vector of same magnitude in the direction of the given
vector having initial point at the origin.

44
Unit 2 Geometry and Vectors

Fig. 1

From Fig. 1, we can also calculate the direction cosines of PO. Clearly,
PO makes angles π − α , π − β , π − γ with OX , OY , OZ respectively.
Therefore, direction cosines of PO are
cos(π − α ), cos(π − β ), cos(π − γ )
or, − l , − m, − n.

Let us see one example.

Example 1: Find the direction cosines of the coordinate axes.

π π
Solution: As the x -axis makes angles 0, , with OX , OY and OZ
2 2
respectively. Therefore, direction cosines of x -axis are:
π  π 
cos(0), cos , cos  i.e., 1, 0, 0.
2 2

Fig. 2

Similarly, the direction cosines of y and z -axes are 0, 1, 0 and 0, 0, 1

respectively.
***

The following theorem gives a relationship between direction cosines of

a vector.
r
Theorem 1: Let P( x, y, z ) be a point in space such that r = OP has
direction cosines l , m, n. Then, l 2 + m 2 + n 2 = 1

45
Block 1 Vector Functions
r
Proof: We have r = xiˆ + yˆj + zkˆ. Let α , β , γ be the angles between OP
and the positive directions of the coordinate axes OX , OY , OZ
respectively. Then l = cos α , m = cos β , n = cos γ .
Now, r
OP = | r |
r
or, x2 + y2 + z2 = | r |
r
∴ x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = | r |2 (1)

Fig. 3

From Fig. 3, we have

r r r
x = OL = | r | cos α , y = OM = | r | cos β , z = ON = | r | cos γ
r
So, x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = | r |2 (cos2 α + cos 2 β + cos2 γ )
r r
or, | r |2 = | r |2 (cos2 α + cos2 β + cos2 γ ) [using (1)]
 cos α + cos β + cos γ = 1.
2 2 2

Therefore, l 2 + m 2 + n 2 = 1.

From this theorem, we can observe that some given numbers l , m, n

can be the direction cosines of some vector only if it satisfy
1
l 2 + m 2 + n 2 = 1. For example, 1, , 1 cannot be the direction cosines of
2
2
1
any vector as 1 +   + 12 ≠ 1.
2

2

Now, you try the following exercise.

E1) Find whether the following numbers can be the direction cosines
of a vector:
1 1
a) 1, − 1, 1 b) 0, ,
2 2
1 1 1
c) ,− , d) 1, 0, 1
2 2 2

We have seen that if l , m, n are direction cosines of a vector, then

l 2 + m 2 + n 2 = 1. Therefore, l , m, n usually involve fractions and radical
46
Unit 2 Geometry and Vectors
signs. Also, it is slightly cumbersome to use direction cosines l , m, n as
such. So, we now introduce the concept of direction ratios of a vector.
r
Definition 2: Let l , m, n be the direction cosines of a vector r and
a, b, c be three numbers such that
l m n
= =
a b c
Then, we say that a, b, c are direction ratios or direction numbers of
r
vector r .

1 1 1
For example, if ,− , are direction cosines of a vector then its
3 3 3
direction ratios can be 1, − 1, 1 or − 1, 1, − 1 or 2, − 2, 2 because
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
− − −
3 = 3 = 3, 3 = 3 = 3, 3 = 3 = 3.
1 −1 1 −1 1 −1 2 −2 2

From the above example, it can clearly be observed that the direction
ratios are just a scalar multiple of direction cosines. It can be also seen
that there can be infinitely many sets of direction ratios for a given
vector. But the direction cosines are unique.

Let us learn to compute the direction cosines of a given vector.

r
Theorem 2: Let, r = aiˆ + bˆj + ckˆ, be any given vector then show that its
direction cosines are
a b c
, ,
a 2 + b2 + c 2
a 2 + b2 + c2 a2 + b2 + c2
r
and the direction ratios of r are proportional to a, b, c.

r
Proof: Let r = aiˆ + bˆj + ckˆ be a vector having direction cosines l , m, n.
r
If r makes angles α , β , γ with the positive direction of OX , OY and
OZ respectively. Then, we have
r r r
r ⋅ iˆ r ⋅ ˆj r ⋅ kˆ
cos α = r , cos β = r , cos γ = r
| r | | iˆ | | r | | ˆj | | r | | kˆ |
Remember that iˆ, ˆj, kˆ
(aiˆ + bˆj + ckˆ) ⋅ iˆ (aiˆ + bˆj + ckˆ) ⋅ ˆj (aiˆ + bˆj + ckˆ) ⋅ kˆ
 cos α = r , cos β = r , cos γ = r are unit vectors in the
|r | |r | |r | positive direction of the
a b c coordinate axes
 l= r , m= r , n= r [Q cos α = l , cos β = m, cos γ = n ] OX , OY , OZ
|r | |r | |r |
respectively. And,
r a b c
Thus, direction cosines of r = aiˆ + bˆj + ckˆ are r , r , r where, | iˆ | = | ˆj | = | kˆ | = 1,
|r | |r | |r | and
r r r r r
| r | = a 2 + b 2 + c 2 and hence its direction ratios are proportional to a ⋅ b = | a | | b | cos θ ,
a, b, c. where θ is the angle
r r
between a and b .
r
For example, the direction cosines of r = 2iˆ − ˆj + 2kˆ are

47
Block 1 Vector Functions
2 −1 2 2 −1 2
, , or , , .
2 2
2 + (−1) + 2 2 2 2
2 + (−1) + 2 2 2 2
2 + (−1) + 2 2 3 3 3

And, it has direction ratios proportional to 2, − 1, 2.

Let us see some more theorems on direction cosines.

r
Theorem 3: Let r = aiˆ + bˆj + ckˆ be a given vector and l , m, n are the
r
direction cosines of the vector r . Then liˆ + mˆj + nkˆ is the unit vector in
r
the direction of r .

Proof: By Theorem 2,
a b c
l= , m= , n= .
a 2 + b2 + c 2 a2 + b2 + c2 a 2 + b2 + c 2
r
Now, the unit vector in the direction of r is
r
r
rˆ = r
|r |
aiˆ + bˆj + ckˆ r
= [As | r | = a 2 + b 2 + c 2 ]
2 2 2
a +b +c
a b c
= iˆ + ˆj + kˆ
2 2 2 2 2 2
a +b +c a +b +c a + b2 + c2
2

= liˆ + mˆj + nkˆ.

1 1 1 r
For example, if ,− , are the direction cosines of a vector r
3 3 3
1 ˆ 1 ˆ 1 ˆ r
then i− j+ k is the unit vector in the direction of r .
3 3 3
r
Theorem 4: If l1 , m1 , n1 are the direction cosines of a and l2 , m2 , n2 are
r r r
the direction cosines of b then the angle θ between a and b is given
by cosθ = l1l2 + m1m2 + n1n2 .

r r
Proof: The angle between a and b is the angle between â and b̂.
Now, aˆ = l1iˆ + m1 ˆj + n1kˆ [by Theorem 3]
and bˆ = l2iˆ + m2 ˆj + n2 kˆ [by Theorem 3]
aˆ ⋅ bˆ
Therefore, cos θ =
| aˆ | | bˆ |
= aˆ ⋅ bˆ [As, | aˆ | = | bˆ | = 1]
= l1l2 + m1m2 + n1n2 .

1 2 3 r
For example, let , and be the direction cosines of a and
14 14 14
1 2 1 r r
, , be the direction cosines of b . Then the angle between a
6 6 6
r
and b , θ (say), is given by
48
Unit 2 Geometry and Vectors
1 1 2 2 3 1
cosθ = × + × + ×
14 6 14 6 14 6
1 2 3
= + + .
2 21 21 2 21

Now, let us see some more examples.

Example 2: Find the direction cosines and a set of direction ratios of

r
the vector r = iˆ − ˆj + 2kˆ.

r
Solution: By Theorem 2, the direction cosines of r = iˆ − ˆj + 2kˆ are
1 −1 2 1 −1 2
, , i.e., , , and
12 + (−1) 2 + 2 2 12 + (−1) 2 + 2 2 12 + (−1) 2 + 2 2 6 6 6
direction ratios are 1, − 1, 2.
***

Example 3: Find the direction cosines of the vector from A(1, 0, 1) to

B(2, 1, 3).

Solution: AB = (2iˆ + ˆj + 3kˆ) − (iˆ + kˆ)

= iˆ + ˆj + 2kˆ
Therefore, by Theorem 2, the direction cosines are
1 1 2 1 1 2
, , i.e., , , .
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1 +1 + 2 1 +1 + 2 1 +1 + 2 6 6 6
***

1 1 1 r
Example 4: If − , , − are the direction cosines of a vector a ,
2 2 2
r
then find the unit vector in the direction of a.
r
Solution: By Theorem 3, the unit vector in the direction of a is
1 ˆ 1ˆ 1 ˆ
− i + j − k.
2 2 2
***

1 1 1 r
Example 5: If , , are the direction cosines of a and
2 2 2
1 1 1 r
,− , are the direction cosines of b then find the angle
3 3 3
r r
between a and b .
r r
Solution: Let θ be the angle between a and b . Then by Theorem 4,
we have
1 1 1 1 1 1
cosθ = × − × + ×
2 3 2 3 2 3

49
Block 1 Vector Functions

1− 2 +1
=
2 3
2− 2
=
2 3
2− 2
∴ θ = cos −1  .

 2 3 
***

Now, try the following exercises.

E2) Find the direction cosines and a set of direction ratios of the vector
r
r = 3iˆ − 4 ˆj + 12kˆ.

E3) Find the direction cosines and a set of direction ratios of the vector
from A(1, 2, 3) to B(4, 5, 6) .

1 2 3
E4) If ,− ,− are the direction cosines of a given vector,
14 14 14
then find the unit vector in the direction of the given vector.

1 1 r 1 1 1
E5) If , 0, are the direction cosines of a and , − , are
2 2 2 2 2
r r r
the direction cosines of b , then find the angle between a and b .

Now, let us see one more theorem related to direction cosines and
direction ratios.

Theorem 5: Show that two parallel vectors have proportional direction

ratios.
r r
Proof: Let a and b be two parallel vectors. Then,
r r
b = λa for some scalar λ .
r
If a = a1iˆ + a2 ˆj + a3kˆ, then
r r r
b = λa  b = (λa1 )iˆ + (λ a2 ) ˆj + (λa3 )kˆ.
r
This shows that the direction ratios of λa are proportional to
λa1 , λa2 , λa3 or a1 , a2 , a3 because
λa1 λa2 λa3
= = .
a1 a2 a3
r r
Thus, a and b have proportional direction ratios.

Let us see one example.

r
Example 6: Let a = iˆ + ˆj + kˆ be a given vector. Find the direction
r r
cosines of a and − a.
50
Unit 2 Geometry and Vectors
r r
Solution: a = iˆ + ˆj + kˆ and − a = −iˆ − ˆj − kˆ. so, by Theorem 2, the
r 1 1 1
direction cosines of a are , , and the direction cosines of
3 3 3
r 1 1 1
−a =− ,− ,− .
3 3 3
***
r r
In Example 6, note that a and − a vectors are parallel vectors. So, by
Theorem 5, they have proportional direction ratios. But they have
different direction cosines.

Let us now learn about orthogonal projection of a vector onto another

vector.

2.3 ORTHOGONAL PROJECTION

The projection of a vector onto another vector in geometry refers to the
orthogonal shadow or footprint of one vector mapped onto the second.
Now, for finding the projection of one vector on another vector, we need
to know the angle between them and they need to be in the same
plane. So, if two arbitrary vectors are given where the vectors does not
lie on the same plane, we use the same technique that we have used to
find the angle between them. We draw a parallel vector of one vector
from the initial point of the other vector in the plane of second vector. So
in general we are assuming that we can draw Fig. 4 for any two given
vectors. Let OP and OA be two vectors and θ be the angle between
them. Then, we define the orthogonal projection of OP on OA to be
OP cos θ (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4

Note that if N is the foot of the perpendicular from P to OA (produced

if necessary beyond O or beyond A), then ON = OP | cos θ | . There are
two types of projections: Scalar projection and Vector Projection.
From the geometrical perspective, the scalar projection represents the
length of the projection of OP onto OA (without direction) i.e., OP cos θ
while the vector projection represents a vector in the direction of OA
with length OP cos θ . Therefore, the scalar projection of OP and OA is
OP cos θ .

51
Block 1 Vector Functions

OA
The vector projection of OP on OA will be OP cos θ nˆ , where nˆ = ,
OA
the unit vector in the direction of OA. We can also define scalar
projection and vector projection by using dot product. Let us now define
them by using dot product.

r r r
r a ⋅b
Definition 3: Let a and b be two given vectors. Then r is called
|b |
r r
the scalar projection of a on b .
r r r
So, the scalar projection of a on b is given by the dot product of a and
r r r
b a ⋅b r
the unit vector r . Note that r = | a | cos θ , where θ is the angle
|b | |b |
r r
between a and b . So, this is nothing but the same that we have seen in
Fig. 4.
r
r r r r b 
Definition 4: Let a and b be two given vectors then a ⋅ b  r 2  is
| b | 
r r
called the vector projection of a on b .
r r
r r b  r b
Note that a ⋅ b  r 2  = | a | cosθ r . So, this is the same vector
| b |  |b |
projection that we have just explained after Fig. 4.

Now, let us see some examples.

r r
Example 7: Find the scalar projection of a = 2iˆ + ˆj + kˆ on b = iˆ − 2 ˆj + kˆ.

r
Solution: | b | = 12 + (−2) 2 + 12 = 6 .
r r
Now, by Definition 3, the scalar projection of a on b is
r r
a ⋅b
= r
|b |
(2iˆ + ˆj + kˆ) ⋅ (iˆ − 2 ˆj + kˆ)
=
6
2 − 2 +1 1
= = .
6 6
***
r r r r
Example 8: Find the vector projection of a on b , where a and b are
given in Example 7.
r r
Solution: By Definition 4, the vector projection of a on b is
r r r
a ⋅b  b 
= r  r 
|b | |b |

52
Unit 2 Geometry and Vectors

1 (iˆ − 2 ˆj + kˆ)
= ×
6 6
1
= (iˆ − 2 ˆj + kˆ).
6
***
r r
So, the vector projection of a on b is a vector, where the length is
r r
given by the scalar projection of a on b and the direction is the
r
direction of b . So, we can find the vector projection by multiplying the
r
scalar projection with the unit vector in the direction of b .

Now, you try the following exercises.

r r
E6) Find the scalar projection of a = iˆ + ˆj + kˆ on b = iˆ − 2 ˆj + kˆ.

r r
E7) Find the vector projection of a = iˆ + ˆj − kˆ on b = −iˆ + ˆj + kˆ.

Let us see the following theorem that gives significant information about
the orthogonal projections of OP on rectangular Cartesian axes with
origin O. Let OA, OB and OC be any three vectors in the direction of
the positive coordinate axes OX , OY and OZ respectively.

r
Theorem 6: Let P( x, y, z ) be a point in space such that r = OP has
direction cosines l , m, n. Then,
r r r r
i) l | r |, m | r |, n | r | are the scalar projections of r on OA, OB and r̂ represents the unit
OC respectively. vector in the direction
r
r r r of r
ii) x = l | r |, y = m | r |, z = n | r |
r r
iii) r =| r | (liˆ + mˆj + nkˆ) and rˆ = liˆ + mˆj + nkˆ

Proof: We have
r
r = xiˆ + yˆj + zkˆ.
Suppose OP makes angles α , β , γ with OX , OY and OZ respectively,
Then, l = cos α , m = cos β , n = cos γ .
r
i) We have scalar Projection of r on OA
r OA ˆ
= r ⋅ iˆ [As, =i ]
| OA |
r
= | r | | iˆ | cos α
r
= l | r | [Q l = cos α and | iˆ | = 1 ]
r r
Similarly, scalar projections of r on OB and OC are m | r | and
r
n | r | respectively.

53
Block 1 Vector Functions
r r
ii) We have scalar projection of r on OA = r ⋅ iˆ = ( xiˆ + yˆj + zkˆ) ⋅ iˆ = x
r
Similarly, scalar projections of r on OB and OC are y and z
respectively.
r
But, by (i), scalar projections of r on OA, OB and OC are
r r r
l | r |, m | r | and n | r | respectively.
r r r
∴ x = l | r |, y = m | r |, z = n | r |

r r r r
iii) Putting x = l | r |, y = m | r |, z = n | r | in r = xiˆ + yˆj + zkˆ, we obtain
r r
r = | r | (liˆ + mˆj + nkˆ)
r
r
 r = liˆ + mˆj + nkˆ
|r |
 rˆ = liˆ + mˆj + nkˆ.

We now extend this result to find the scalar projection of OP on a

vector OA which is not necessarily part of one of the coordinate axes.

Theorem 7: Let the direction cosines of OA be l , m, n and let P be the

point ( x, y, z ). Then the scalar projection of OP on OA is
lx + my + nz.

Proof: By Theorem 6, property (ii), the direction cosines of OP are

x / r , y / r , z / r , where r = OP. Hence, by Theorem 4, the angle θ
between OP and OA is given by
cos θ = (lx + my + nz ) / r.

Therefore, the scalar projection of OP on OA = r cos θ = lx + my + nz.

Now, let us see some examples.

r
Example 8: Let a be a vector with length 5 and direction cosines
1 1 1 r
,− , . Find a.
2 2 2

1 1 1 r
Solution: It is given that , − , are direction cosines of a and
2 2 2
r
| a | = 5.
Then by property (iii) of Theorem 6, we can write
r r 1 1 ˆ 1 ˆ
a = | a |  iˆ − j+ k
2 2 2 
1 1 ˆ 1 ˆ
= 5  iˆ − j + k
2 2 2 
5 r 5 ˆ 5ˆ
= i− j+ k
2 2 2
***
54
Unit 2 Geometry and Vectors
1 1 1
Example 9: Let P be the point (1, 1, 1) and , ,− be the
3 3 3
r r r
direction cosines of b . Find the scalar projection of a = OP on b , O is
the origin.
r r
Solution: By Theorem 7, we have the scalar projection of a on b
 1   1   1 
= 1×   + 1×   + 1 − 
 3  3  3
1
= .
3
***

Now, try the following exercise.

r 1 1 1 r
E8) Let a = iˆ − ˆj + kˆ and , , are the direction cosines of b . Find
2 2 2
r r
the vector projection of a on b .

Now, let us see some applications of vectors. In the next section, we

see the equation of straight lines and planes by using vector.

2.4 EQUATION OF LINE AND PLANE

We can write the equation of a straight line when two things, a point on
the line and the direction of the line (slope), are given. This equation is
called point-slope form. Let L be a line in three-dimensional space and
Po ( xo , yo , z o ) be a point on L. Let the direction of the line L be given by
r
a vector v which is parallel to L. Let P( x, y, z ) be any point on the line
r r
L. Let ro and r be the position vectors of P0 and P respectively (i.e.,
r r
ro = OP o and r = OP , where O is the origin). (see Fig. 5).

Fig. 5

r r r r
Let, a = Po P. By Triangle Law of vector addition, we have r = ro + a.
r r
Now, a and v are parallel vectors. So, there is a scalar t such that
r r r r r
a = t v . Therefore, r = ro + t v is a vector equation of L. Hence, for each
r
value of the parameter t , we get a fixed position vector r .
55
Block 1 Vector Functions

Let us see the following example.

Example 10: Find a vector equation of the line that passes through the
point (1, 2,1) and parallel to the vector iˆ + 2 ˆj − kˆ.

r r
Solution: Here, ro = iˆ + 2 ˆj + kˆ and v = iˆ + 2 ˆj − kˆ. Therefore, a vector
equation of the line is
r r r
r = ro + t v
= (1̂ + 2 ˆj + kˆ) + t (1̂ + 2 ˆj − kˆ)
= (1 + t )iˆ + 2(1 + t ) ˆj + (1 − t )kˆ.
***

Now, if two points Po ( xo , yo , z o ) and P1 ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) on the line are given

then also we can write the equation of line in vector form. In this case
r
we take v = P0 P1 = ( x1 − x0 )iˆ + ( y1 − y0 ) ˆj + ( z1 − z 0 )kˆ.
Therefore, the equation of the line is
r r
r = r0 + t {( x0 − x0 )iˆ + ( y1 − y0 ) ˆj + ( z1 − z 0 )kˆ}, where position vector of P0
r
or P1 can be taken as r0 .

Let us see the following example.

Example 11: Find a vector equation of the line that passes through the
points A(1, 2, − 1) and B(2, 1, 3).

r
Solution: Here, r0 = iˆ + 2 ˆj − kˆ.
r
v = AB = (2 − 1)iˆ + (1 − 2) ˆj + (3 + 1)kˆ
= iˆ − ˆj + 4kˆ.
Therefore, a vector equation of the line is
r r r
r = r0 + t v
= (iˆ + 2 ˆj − kˆ) + t (iˆ − ˆj + 4kˆ)
= (1 + t )iˆ + (2 − t ) ˆj − (1 − 4t )kˆ.
***

Now, you try the following exercises.

E9) Find a vector equation of the line that passes through the point
(1, 1, 1) and parallel to the vector iˆ − ˆj + 2kˆ.

E10) Find a vector equation of the line that passes through the points
A(1, − 1, 1) and B(2, 1, 2).

Let us now see how we can write the vector equation of a plane. Now,
let us understand the minimum information that is required to describe
the equation of a plane. A plane in space can be determined by a point
56
Unit 2 Geometry and Vectors
r
P0 ( x0 , y0 , z 0 ) in the plane and a vector n that is perpendicular to the
r
plane. This perpendicular vector n is also called normal vector. Let
r r
P( x, y , z ) be any arbitrary point in the plane, and let r0 and r be the
r r
position vectors of P0 and P respectively. Then the vector r − r0 = P0 P
(see Fig. 6).

Fig. 6

When we say a vector is perpendicular to a plane, we do not associate

the perpendicular to any particular point in the plane. It can be drawn at
any point on the plane. Here we are mainly concerned with the direction
r
of the perpendicular vector. So, n can be considered as perpendicular
r
to any vector in the given plane. Since the normal vector n is
perpendicular to every vector in the given plane, therefore, we can write
the equation of the plane as follows:
r r r
n ⋅ (r − r0 ) = 0.

Let us see some examples.

Example 12: Find an equation of the plane that passes through the
point (2, 1, − 1) and perpendicular to the vector iˆ − 2 ˆj + kˆ.

Solution: Here, the position vector of the point (2, 1, − 1) is

r r
r0 = 2iˆ + ˆj − kˆ and the normal vector is n = iˆ − 2 ˆj + kˆ.
r r r
Therefore, an equation of the plane is n ⋅ (r − r0 ) = 0.
r
or, (iˆ − 2 ˆj + kˆ) ⋅ [( xiˆ + yˆj + zkˆ) − (2iˆ + ˆj − kˆ)] = 0 [As, r = xiˆ + yˆj + zkˆ ]
or, (iˆ − 2 ˆj + kˆ) ⋅ [( x − 2)iˆ + ( y − 1) ˆj + ( z + 1)kˆ] = 0
or, ( x − 2) − 2( y − 1) + ( z + 1) = 0
or, x − 2 − 2 y + 2 + z − 1 = 0
∴ x − 2 y + z − 1 = 0.
***

We can also write an equation of a given plane if three points on the

plane are given. Let see the following example.

Example 13: Find an equation of the plane passes through the points
A(1, 2,1), B(2,1, 2) and C (1, − 1, 3).
57
Block 1 Vector Functions

Solution: AB = (2 − 1)iˆ + (1 − 2) ˆj + (2 − 1)kˆ

= iˆ − ˆj + kˆ and
AC = (1 − 1)iˆ + (−1 − 2) ˆj + (3 − 1)kˆ
= −3 ˆj + 2kˆ
From the definition of cross product, we know that AB × AC is
perpendicular to the plane containing AB and AC. Hence AB × AC is
perpendicular to the plane passes through the points A, B and C.
Hence,
iˆ ˆj kˆ
r
n = AB × AC = 1 − 1 1 = iˆ − 2 ˆj − 3kˆ .
0 −3 2
r
We can take the position vector of any given point as r0 . Let us take
r
r0 = the position vector of A
= iˆ + 2 ˆj + kˆ
Therefore, an equation of the plane can be written as
r r r
n ⋅ (r − r0 ) = 0
or, (iˆ − 2 ˆj − 3kˆ) ⋅ [( xiˆ + yˆj + zkˆ) − (iˆ + 2 ˆj + kˆ)] = 0
or, (iˆ − 2 ˆj − 3kˆ) ⋅ [( x − 1)iˆ + ( y − 2) ˆj + ( z − 1)kˆ] =
or, ( x − 1) − 2( y − 2) − 3( z − 1) = 0
∴ x − 2 y − 3 z + 6 = 0.
***

Now, you try the following exercises.

E11) Find an equation of the plane that passes through the point
(−1, 1, − 1) and perpendicular to the vector 2iˆ − ˆj + 3kˆ.

E12) Find an equation of the plane that passes through the points
A(1, 1, 1), B(0, 2, 3) and C (2, 2, − 1).

We now end this unit by giving a summary of what we have covered in

it.

2.5 SUMMARY
• The direction cosines of a vector are unique. But the direction
ratios of a vector are not unique.

• The scalar projection represents the length of the projection.

r r
• The vector projection of a on b represents a vector in the
r r
direction of b with length represented by scalar projection of a on

58
Unit 2 Geometry and Vectors
r
b.

• An equation of a line that passes through a point with position

r r r r r
vector r0 and parallel to a vector v is given by r = r0 + t v , where,
r
for each value of the parameter t , we get a fixed position vector r .

• An equation of a plane that passes through a point with position

r r
vector r0 and normal to n is given by
r r r
n ⋅ (r − r0 ) = 0.

2.6 SOLUTIONS/ANSWERS

1. a) 1, − 1,1 can not be direction cosines as 12 + (−1) 2 + 12 ≠ 1.

2 2
 1   1  1 1
b) As, 0 + 
2
 +  = 1; 0, , can be direction
 2  2 2 2
cosines.
2 2 2
1  1  1 1 1 1
c) As,   +  −  +   = 1; , − , can be direction
2  2  2 2 2 2
cosines.
d) As, 12 + 02 + 12 ≠ 1; 1, 0, 1 can not be direction cosines.

E2) Direction cosines are

3 −4 12
, ,
2 2 2
3 + (−4) + (12) 3 + (−4) 2 + (12) 2
2
3 + (−4) 2 + (12) 2
2

3 − 4 12
i.e., , , .
13 13 13
Direction ratios are 3, − 4, 12.

E3) AB = (4 − 1)iˆ + (5 − 2) ˆj + (6 − 3)kˆ

= 3iˆ + 3 ˆj + 3kˆ
1 1 1
∴ Direction cosines are , ,
3 3 3
∴ Direction ratios are 1, 1, 1.

E4) The required unit vector is

1 ˆ 2 ˆ 3 ˆ
i− j− k.
14 14 14

 1 
E5) The required angle = cos −1  
 2
π
= .
4
r r
E6) Scalar projection of a on b

59
Block 1 Vector Functions
r r
a ⋅b
= r
|b |
(iˆ + ˆj + kˆ) ⋅ (iˆ − 2 ˆj + kˆ)
=
6
1− 2 +1
= =0
6
r r
Note that the scalar projection can also be zero when a ⋅ b = 0.
Remember that the dot product of two non-zero vectors can be 0
when they are perpendicular to each other.
r r
E7) The vector projection of a on b
r
s r  b 
= (a ⋅ b )  r 2 
| b | 
 − iˆ + ˆj + kˆ 
= (iˆ + ˆj − kˆ) ⋅ (−iˆ + ˆj + kˆ)  2 2

2 
 ( −1) + 1 + 1 
 − iˆ + ˆj + kˆ 
= (−1 + 1 − 1)  

 3 
1 ˆ ˆ ˆ
= (i − j − k ).
3
r r
E8) We know that the vector projection of a on b
r r
= (The scalar projection of a on b ) (the unit vector in the direction
r
of b )
r r
Now, by Theorem 7, the scalar projection of a on b
1  1  1
= 1  − 1 ×   + 1×  
2  2 2
1
= 1−
2
By Theorem 3, the unit vector in the direction of
r 1 1 ˆ 1ˆ
b = iˆ + j+ k
2 2 2
r r
∴ The vector projection of a on b
 1   1 ˆ 1 ˆ 1 ˆ
= 1 −  i+ j + k
 2 2 2 2 
2 −1 ˆ 2 −1 ˆ 2 −1 ˆ
= i+ j+ k.
2 2 2 2 2
r r
E9) Here, r0 = iˆ + ˆj + kˆ and v = iˆ − ˆj + 2kˆ.
Therefore, vector equation of the line is
r r r
r = r0 + t v
= (iˆ + ˆj + kˆ) + t (iˆ − ˆj + 2kˆ)
= (1 + t )iˆ + (1 − t ) ˆj + (1 + 2t )kˆ

60
Unit 2 Geometry and Vectors
r
E10) Here, r0 = iˆ − ˆj + kˆ and
r
v = AB
= (2 − 1)iˆ + (1 + 1) ˆj + (2 − 1)kˆ
= iˆ + 2 ˆj + kˆ
Therefore, a vector equation of the line is
r r r
r = r0 + t v
= (iˆ − ˆj + kˆ) + t (iˆ + 2 ˆj + kˆ)
= (1 + t )iˆ + (−1 + 2t ) ˆj + (1 + t )kˆ
= (1 + t )iˆ + (2t − 1) ˆj + (1 + t )kˆ

r
E11) Here, r0 = −iˆ + ˆj − kˆ and
r
n = 2iˆ − ˆj + 3kˆ
Therefore, an equation of the plane is
r r r
n ⋅ (r − r0 ) = 0
or, (2iˆ − ˆj + 3kˆ) ⋅ [( xiˆ + yˆj + zkˆ) − (−iˆ + ˆj − kˆ)] = 0
or, (2iˆ − ˆj + 3kˆ) ⋅ [( x + 1)iˆ + ( y − 1) ˆj + ( z + 1)kˆ] = 0
or, 2( x + 1) − ( y − 1) + 3( z + 1) = 0
∴ 2 x − y + 3z + 6 = 0

E12) AB = −iˆ + ˆj + 2kˆ

AC = iˆ + ˆj − 2kˆ
iˆ ˆj kˆ
r
n = AB × AC = − 1 1 2
1 1 −2
= −4iˆ − 2kˆ
r
r0 = iˆ + ˆj + kˆ
Therefore, an equation of the plane is
r r r
n ⋅ (r − r0 ) = 0
or, (−4iˆ − 2kˆ) ⋅ [( xiˆ + yˆj + zkˆ) − (iˆ + ˆj + kˆ)] = 0
or, (−4iˆ − 2kˆ) ⋅ [( x − 1)iˆ + ( y − 1) ˆj + ( z − 1)kˆ] = 0
or, − 4( x − 1) − 2( z − 1) = 0
or, − 4x − 2z + 6 = 0
∴ 2 x + z − 3 = 0.

61
 UNIT 3

VECTOR FUNCTIONS

Structure Page No.

3.1 Introduction
Objectives
3.2 Vector Functions
3.3 Derivatives of Vector Functions
3.4 Integrals of Vector Functions
3.5 Summary
3.6 Solutions / Answers

3.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit, we have discussed about direction cosines and
direction ratios and its properties. We have learnt about orthogonal
projections. We have also seen some applications of vectors in
representing equations of straight lines and planes.

In this section, we explore vector-valued functions of a real variable.

These functions map real numbers to vectors. We explore the vector
functions from the set of real number to three-dimensional vectors. Like
derivatives of real functions, we define the derivative of a vector
function. We also introduce the integration of continuous vector
functions. The key point is that both the derivative and integral of a
vector function are also vector functions.

You know the definition of real functions. A function assigns each

element from one set to exactly one element in another set. In Section
3.2, we learn about vector functions and its limit at a point. We also see
when a vector function is called continuous at a point.

Similar to real-valued functions, the derivative of a vector function

describes how the vector changes with respect to the independent
variable. In the next Section 3.3, we learn about derivatives of vector
functions. We also see some examples of finding derivative of a vector
function.
Block 1 Vector Functions
You are already familiar with the integration of real continuous function.
In Section 3.4, we define about integrals of continuous vector functions.
We also discuss some applications of vector functions, derivatives and
integrations.

Objectives:
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
• understand and explain the concepts of vector fucntions, limit,
continuity, deravatives, and integrals of vector functions;
• apply the properties of vector function and its derivatives and
integrations to find length and curvature of a curve which is given
by vector function.

3.2 VECTOR FUNCTIONS

Here, we shall learn about vector valued functions of scalar variables. A
function is a rule that assigns each element from one set (called the
domain) to exactly one from another set (called the co-domain). A
vector-valued function or vector function is a function whose domain is
a set of real numbers and whose co-domain is a set of vectors. In this
section, we discuss about the vector functions whose values are in
three-dimensional vectors.
r
Then a three dimensional vector function r (t ) from the set of real
numbers (R ) to the set of three dimensional vectors (V3 ) can be
defined as follows:

Definition 1: If f (t ), g (t ), and h(t ) are given real-valued functions then

r
a three-dimensional vector valued function r : R → V3 can be defined as
r
r (t ) = f (t ) iˆ + g (t ) ˆj + h(t ) kˆ
where t is the real independent variable.

Here the functions f (t ), g (t ), and h(t ) are known as component

r r
functions of r (t ). For example, if we consider r (t ) = t iˆ + t 2 ˆj + t 3 kˆ, then
f (t ) = t , g (t ) = t 2 , and h(t ) = t 3 are the component functions of the
r
vector function r . Since t , t 2 and t 3 are all well-defined in R , R is the
r
domain of r .
r
Note that r will be well-defined only if f (t ), g (t ) and h(t ) all are well-
r
defined. So the domain of r will be the intersection of the domains of
f (t ), g (t ), and h (t ).

Now you try the following exercise.

E1) Find the domain of the following vector functions:

a) t 2iˆ + t ˆj + sin t kˆ b) 2t iˆ + log(4 − t ) ˆj + t − 1 kˆ

44
Unit 3 Vector Functions

Now, let us discuss limit of a vector function. We can define the limit of
a vector function as follows:
r r
Definition 2: If r (t ) = f (t )iˆ + g (t ) ˆj + h(t )kˆ then the limit of r (t ) as t → a
r
( ) ( ) (
is denoted and defined as lim r (t ) = lim f (t ) iˆ + lim g (t ) ˆj + lim h(t ) kˆ .
t →a t →a t →a t →a
)
r
From the definition of vector function we can notice that lim r (t ) exists
t →a

iff lim f (t ), lim g (t ), and lim h(t ) exist.

t →a t →a t→a

We can also define limit of a vector function by using ε , δ -definition

(see E2).

Let us see some more examples.

r r sin t ˆ
Example 1: Find lim r (t ), where r (t ) = (1 + t )iˆ + t 2 e −t ˆj + k.
t →0 t

Solution: Using the definition of the limit of a vector function, we have

t →0
r
(
t →0
) ( t →0
) 
lim r (t ) = lim (1 + t ) iˆ + lim t 2 e −t ˆj +  lim
 t →0
sin t  ˆ
t 
k

= iˆ + kˆ.
***

r r et − 1 ˆ 1+ t −1 ˆ 3 ˆ
Example 2: Find lim r (t ), where r (t ) = i+ j+ k.
t →0 t t 1+ t

 et − 1  ˆ  1+ t −1
 ˆj +  lim
r 3  ˆ
Solution: lim r (t ) =  lim  i + lim   k
t →0
 t →0 t  t →0
 t   t →0 1 + t 
et  1  ˆ
= lim iˆ +  lim  j + 3kˆ [How! Notice that 1st
t →0 1
 t →0 2 1 + t

0
and 2nd limits are in form]
0
1
= iˆ + ˆj + 3kˆ
2
***

Now, you try the following exercises.

r r
E2) Show that lim r (t ) = b if and only if for every real number ∈> 0,
t →a
r r
there exist a real number δ > 0 such that | r (t ) − b | <∈ whenever
0 < | t − a | < δ.

r r  t − 1 tan t 
E3) Find lim r (t ), where r (t ) =  t + 1, 2 , .
t →1  t −1 t 

45
Block 1 Vector Functions
 t +1 1
E4) Find lim  e −t , , .
t →∞
 t −1 t

Now, let us learn about continuous vector function.

r
Definition 3: A vector function r is said to be continuous at real point
r r
a if lim r (t ) = r (a ).
t →a

r
Here also r (t ) is continuous at a point a if and only if its component
functions f , g , and h are continuous at a. We can also define
continuity by using δ - ∈ -definition (see E5).

Let us see some examples.

r
Example 3: Show that r (t ) = (t , t 2 , sin t ), is continuous in 0 ≤ t < ∞.

r
Solution: Since t , t 2 , and sin t are continuous for t in 0 ≤ t < ∞, r (t ) is
continuous for t in 0 ≤ t < ∞.
***

r  1
Example 4: Verify the continuity of r (t ) = 1, t ,  at t = 0.
 t

1
Solution: 1 and t are continuous at t = 0. But is not continuous at t = 0.
t
r
Hence, r (t ) is not continuous at t = 0.
***

Now, you try the following exercises.

r r
E5) Show that lim r (t ) = r (a) if and only if for every real number ∈> 0
t →a
r r
there exist a real number δ > 0 such that | r (t ) − r ( a ) | <∈
whenever | t − a | < δ .

r
E6) Show that r (t ) = (t 2 , e t , cos t ) is continuous for 0 ≤ t < ∞.

r  1 
E7) Verify the continuity of r (t ) =  e t , 2 , t 2  at t = 0.
 t 

There is a close connection between continuous vector functions and

space curves. Suppose that f , g , and h are continuous real-valued
functions on an interval I . Let C be the set of all points ( x, y, z ) in
space, where x = f (t ), y = g (t ), z = h(t ) for t ∈ I . Then the set C is
called a space curve. The equations x = f (t ), y = g (t ), z = h(t ) are called
a parametric equations of C , where t is called a parametric. We can
46
Unit 3 Vector Functions
trace out C (see Fig. 1) by moving particle whose position at t is
( f (t ), g (t ), h(t )) for t ∈ I .

r
Fig. 1: C is traced out by the tip of moving position of vector r .
r
Therefore, if we consider the vector function r (t ) = ( f (t ), g (t ), h(t )) then
r
r (t ) is the position vector of the point P( f (t ), g (t ), h(t )) on C. Hence,
r
any continuous function r denotes a space curve C that is traced out
r
by the tip of the moving vector r (t ), t ∈ I .

Now, let us see how we can define the derivative of a vector function.

3.3 DERIVATIVES OF VECTOR FUNCTIONS

Just like real functions, the derivative of a vector function describes how
the vector changes with respect to the independent variable.
r
Definition 4: A vector function r (t ) is said to be differentiable if the limit
r r
r (t + k ) − r (t )
lim exists.
k →0 k

We can see that the differentiability of a vector function is defined in the

same way we define the differentiability of a real function. So, like real
functions, we first check the differentiability of a vector function and if
r r
r (t + k ) − r (t ) r
the limit lim exists then we say that the derivative of r (t )
k →0 k
r r r
dr r (t + k ) − r (t ) r
is = lim . We also denote the derivative by r ′(t ). We
dt k →0 k
can see the geometric significance of the derivative of the vector
function in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2: (a) The secant vector (b) The tangent vector

47
Block 1 Vector Functions

r r
If the points A and B have position vectors r (t ) and r (t + k ), then AB
r r
represents the vector r (t + k ) − r (t ), which can be considered as secant
1 r r
vector. If k > 0, (r (t + k ) − r (t )) has the same direction as
k
r r 1 r r
r (t + k ) − r (t ). As k → 0, (r (t + k ) − r (t )) approaches towards a vector
k
r
that lies on the tangent line at A. Therefore, the vector r ′(t ) is called
r
the tangent vector to the curve C defined by r (t ) at the point A,
r r r
provided that r ′(t ) exists and r ′(t ) ≠ 0.

Now, let us see one theorem which will help us to calculate the
derivative of a vector function.
r
Theorem 1: If r (t ) = ( f (t ), g (t ), h (t )), where f , g and h are
differentiable
r real functions, then
r ′(t ) = ( f ′(t ), g ′(t ), h′(t )).
r
Proof: r ′(t )
r r
r (t + k ) − r (t )
= lim
k →0 k
1
= lim [( f (t + k ), g (t + k ), h(t + k )) − ( f (t ), g (t ), h(t )) ]
k →0 k

1
= lim ( f (t + k ) − f (t ), g (t + k ) − g (t ), h(t + k ) − h(t ))
k →0 k

 f (t + k ) − f (t ) g (t + k ) − g (t ) h(t + k ) − h(t ) 
=  lim , lim , lim 
 k →0 k k → 0 k k → 0 k 
= ( f ′(t ), g ′(t ), h′(t )).

Let us see some examples.

r
Example 5: Find the derivative of r (t ) = (1 + t 2 , te t , cos 2t ).

Solution: By using Theorem 1, we have

r d d d
r ′(t ) = (1 + t 2 ), (te t ), (cos 2t )
dt dt dt
= (2t , te t + e t , − 2 sin 2t ).
Here, you can notice that the derivative of a vector function is also a
vector function.
***

Example 6: Suppose a particle P moves along a curve whose

parametric equations are given as follows:
x = 3 sin 2t , y = 9t 2 + 6t , z = 3 cos 2t , where t is the time.
Determine the velocity at any time t.

Solution: The position vector of the particle P is

r
r (t ) = 3 sin 2t iˆ + (9t 2 + 6t ) ˆj + 3 cos 2t kˆ
r
Then the velocity v is given as follows:
48
Unit 3 Vector Functions
r
r dr d d d
v= = (3 sin 2t ) iˆ + (9t 2 + 6t ) ˆj + (3 cos 2t ) kˆ
dt dt dt dt
ˆ
= 6 cos 2t iˆ + (18t + 6) ˆj − (6 sin 2t ) k
***

r r d r r
Example 7: Let a = (5t , 3, t 2 ) and b = (0, sin t , cos t ). Find (a × b ) and
dt
d r r
(a ⋅ b ).
dt

iˆ ˆj kˆ
r r
Solution: a × b = 5t 3 t2
0 sin t cos t
= (3 cos t − t 2 sin t ) iˆ − 5t cos t ˆj + 5t sin t kˆ.
Therefore,
d r r
(a × b ) = (−3 sin t − 2t sin t − t 2 cos t ) iˆ − (5 cos t − 5t sin t ) ˆj
dt
+ (5 sin t + 5t cos t ) kˆ
= − (3 sin t + 2t sin t + t 2 cos t ) iˆ + 5(t sin t − cos t ) ˆj
+ 5(sin t + t cos t ) kˆ
r r
Now, a ⋅ b = 0 + 3 sin t + t 2 cos t

Therefore,
d r r
(a ⋅ b ) = 3 cos t + 2t cos t − t 2 sin t.
dt
d r r r r
Here, you can observe that (a × b ) is a vector function as a × b is a
dt
d r r r r
vector function. But (a ⋅ b ) is a real function as a ⋅ b is a real function.
dt
***

Example 8: Find the tangent vector to the curve C with parametric

π
equations x = cos t , y = t , z = e t , at the point where t = .
2

Solution: The vector equation of the curve C is given by

r
r (t ) = (cos t , t , e t ).
r
Hence, r ′(t ) = (− sin t , 1, e t ).
r π 
Therefore, the tangent vector is r ′  = (−1, 1, eπ / 2 ).
2
***

Now you try the following exercises.

r
E8) Find the derivative of r (t ) = (t , t + e t , sin t ).

49
Block 1 Vector Functions
E9) Suppose a particle P moves along a curve whose parametric
equations are given by x = 2e t , y = t , z = t 2 , where t is the time.
Find the velocity and acceleration at any time t.

r r d r r d r r
E10) Let a = (t , t 2 , t 3 ) and b = (1, e t , sin t ). Find (a × b ) and (a ⋅ b ).
dt dt
r
E11) Let the curve C is defined by r (t ) = 2t iˆ + te t ˆj + cos 3t kˆ. Find the
unit tangent vector of C at the point where t = 0.

You are already familiar with the integration of real continuous functions
of one variable. Next, we shall discuss about the integration of a
continuous vector function.

3.4 INTEGRALS OF VECTOR FUNCTIONS

We can define the integral of a continuous vector functions in the same
way as we define the integral of continuous real functions. The only
difference is that the integral of a vector function is a vector function.
We can define the integral of a vector function in terms of the integrals
of its component functions as follows.
r
Definition 5: Let r (t ) = f (t ) iˆ + g (t ) ˆj + h(t ) kˆ be a vector function
depending on a single variable t , where f (t ), g (t ), and h(t ) are
assumed to be continuous in a specific interval. Then
r
( ) ( ) ( )
 r (t ) dt =  f (t ) dt iˆ +  g (t )rdt ˆj +  h(t ) dt kˆ
is called an indefinite integral of r (t ).

r r d r
Note that if there exists a vector R (t ) such that r (t ) = R (t ), then
dt
r d r r r
 r (t )dt =  dt ( R(t )) dt = R(t ) + C
r
where C is an arbitrary constant vector independent of t.

We can also define the definite integral between limits t = a and t = b

as follows.
r
Definition 6: Let r (t ) = f (t ) iˆ + g (t ) ˆj + h(t ) kˆ be a vector function
depending on a single variable t , where f (t ), g (t ), and h(t ) are
assumed to be continuous in [ a , b ]. Then
b
r b  b  b 
a r (t ) dt = 

a
 f ( t ) dt  i
 
 a
 


a

ˆ +  g (t )dt  ˆj +  h(t )dt  kˆ


r
is called the definite integral of r (t ) between the limits t = a and t = b.

We can also extend the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus to

continuous vector functions as follows.

50
Unit 3 Vector Functions
b
r r b r r

a
r ( t ) dt = [ R (t )] a = R ( b ) − R (a ),
r r r r
where R (t ) is an anti-derivative of r , that is R ′(t ) = r (t ).

r
Example 9: Suppose r (t ) = t iˆ + 2t 2 ˆj − 3kˆ. Find
2
r r
(a)  r (t )dt (b)  r (t )dt.
1

r
Solution: (a)  r (t )dt =  (t iˆ + 2t 2 ˆj − 3kˆ) dt
= ( t dt )iˆ + ( 2t dt ) ˆj + ( − 3dt )kˆ
2

t2  ˆ  2t 3 
=  + C1  i +  + C 2  ˆj + (−3t + C3 ) kˆ,
2   3 
where C1 , C 2 , C3 are arbitrary real constants.
t 2 ˆ 2t 3 ˆ
= i+ j − 3t kˆ + (C1iˆ + C2 ˆj + C3kˆ)
2 3
t ˆ 2t 3 ˆ
2 r
= i+ j − 3t kˆ + C
2 3
r
where C = C1iˆ + C2 ˆj + C3kˆ is an arbitrary constant
vector.

2
2
r  t 2 ˆ 2t 3 ˆ ˆ
(b) 1 r (t ) dt = 
2
i +
3
j − 3t k 
1
 22 2  1 2 
=  iˆ + 23 ˆj − 3 × 2 kˆ  −  iˆ + ˆj − 3 kˆ 
 2 3  2 3 
 1   16 2 
=  2 −  iˆ +  −  ˆj − (6 − 3) kˆ
 2  3 3
3 14 ˆ
= iˆ + j − 3 kˆ.
2 3
***

Now, you may try the following exercise.

r
E12) Let r (t ) = iˆ + t ˆj + e t kˆ. Find
1
r r
a)  r (t )dt b)  r (t )dt.
0

Now, let us see some applications of vector functions, its derivatives A smooth curve or
and integrations. Let C be a given curve that has the vector equation function is a
r
r (t ) = ( f (t ), g (t ), h(t )), a ≤ t ≤ b or equivalently, the parametric equations function whose first
r
x = f (t ), y = g (t ), z = h (t ), where r ′(t ) exists and it is continuous. So, order derivative is
f ′, g ′, and h′ are continuous. In other words, we are assuming that C continuous.
is a smooth curve.
51
Block 1 Vector Functions

Now, we can define the arc length of the curve between t = a to t = b

as follows:
b
L =  [ f ′(t )]2 + [ g ′(t )]2 + [h′(t )]2 dt
a

b 2 2 2
 dx   dy   dz 
=    +   +   dt.
a 
dt   dt   dt 

Notice that we can also express the arc length formula in the following
form
b
r r
L =  | r (t ) | dt (As r ′(t ) = ( f ′(t ), g ′(t ), h′(t )) .
a
Here, you can observe that the arc length is a scalar quantity.

Let us see one example.

Example 10: Find the length of the arc of the curve with vector equation
r
r (t ) = t iˆ + cos t ˆj + sin t kˆ from t = 0 to 2π .

r
Solution: r ′(t ) = iˆ − sin t ˆj + cos t kˆ.
r
So, | r ′(t ) | = 1 + sin 2 t + cos 2 t = 2.
Therefore, the arc length of the given curve from t = 0 to t = 2π is
2π 2π
r
L =  | r ′(t ) | dt =  2 dt = 2 2 π .
0 0
***

We have seen how to calculate the arc length of a given curve. Let us
now define the arc length function which will be used later to explain
another characteristic, curvature of the curve.

Let C be a piecewise-smooth curve given by a vector function

r
r (t ) = ( f (t ), g (t ), h (t )), a ≤ t ≤ b, and at least one of f , g , h is one-to-one
on ( a, b). Then the arc length function S is defined by
t
r
S (t ) =  | r ′(u ) | du .
a
After differentiating both sides with respect to t , we can write
ds r
= | r ′(t ) | .
dt

Now let us define the curvature of a curve. Let C is a smooth curve

r r r
defined by the vector function r (t ) and r ′(t ) ≠ 0. We have seen that the
r
tangent vector is given by r ′(t ). Then the unit tangent vector is given by
r r
r ′(t )
T (t ) = r
| r ′(t ) |
and it indicates the direction of the curve (see Fig. 3). Form Fig. 3, we
r
can see that T (t ) changes direction very slowly when C is fairly
52
Unit 3 Vector Functions
straight, but it changes direction very quickly when C bends or twists
more sharply.

Fig. 3: Unit tangent vectors at equally spaced points on C.

The curvature of C at a given point is a measure of how quickly the
curve changes direction at that point. We measure it by the rate of
change of the unit tangent vector with respect to arc length.
r
dT r
Definition 7: The curvature of a curve is k = where T is the unit
ds
tangent vector.
We canreasily r
compute the curvature of a curve. Note that
dT dT ds
=
dt ds dt
r
r d T
dT
 = dt
ds ds
dt
r r
dT | T ′(t ) | ds r
 k (t ) = = r , (As, = | r ′(t ) |) .
ds | r ′(t ) | dt

Now, let us see some examples.

Example 11: Find the curvature of a curve given by the vector function
r
r (t ) = (1, t , t 2 ).

r
Solution: r (t ) = iˆ + t ˆj + t 2 kˆ
r r
Therefore, r ′(t ) = ˆj + 2t kˆ and | r ′(t ) | = 1 + 4t 2
r r
r ′(t ) 1 ˆj + 2t kˆ
So, T (t ) = r =
| r (t ) | 1 + 4t 2 1 + 4t 2
Hence,
r
T ′(t ) = −4t (1 + 4t 2 ) −3 / 2 iˆ + 2(1 + 4t 2 ) −3 / 2 kˆ
= 2(1 + 4t 2 ) −3 / 2 ( −2t iˆ + kˆ )
r
Therefore, | T ′(t ) | = 2(1 + 4t 2 ) −3 / 2 (1 + 4t 2 )1/ 2 = 2(1 + 4t 2 ) −1
Therefore, wer have curvature
| T ′(t ) | 2(1 + 4t 2 ) −1
k (t ) = r =
| r ′(t ) | (1 + 4t 2 )
2
=
(1 + 4t 2 ) 3 / 2
53
Block 1 Vector Functions
***

Example 12: Show that the curvature of a circle with centre at origin
1
and radius a is .
a

Solution: The parametric equation of the circle is n = a cos t , y = a sin t .

Therefore, the equation of the circle is given by the vector function
r
r (t ) = a cos t iˆ + a sin t ˆj.
r r
Hence, r (t ) = − a sin t iˆ + a cos t ˆj and | r ′(t ) | = a.
r r
r ′(t )
So, T (t ) = r = − sin t iˆ + cos t ˆj
| r ′(t ) |
r r
Hence, T ′(t ) = − cos t iˆ − sin t ˆj and | T ′(t ) | = 1. Therefore, we have the
curvature of the circle as
r
| T ′(t ) | 1
k (t ) = r = .
| r ′(t ) | a
***

Now, you try the following exercises.

E13) Find the length of the arc of the curve with vector equation
r π
r (t ) = sin t iˆ − cos t ˆj + t kˆ from t = 0 to t = .
2

E14) Find the curvature of the curve given by the vector function
r
r (t ) = (t , t 2 , t 3 ).

We now end this unit by giving a summary of what we have covered in

it.

3.5 SUMMARY
• A three dimensional vector function is a function from the set of
real numbers to the set of three dimensional vectors.

• A three dimensional vector function can be represented as

r
r (t ) = f (t ) iˆ + g (t ) ˆj + h(t ) kˆ where t is the real independent variable
and f (t ), g (t ), and h(t ) are real-valued functions.
r
• lim r (t ) exists iff lim f (t ), lim g (t ), and lim h(t ) exist.
t →a t →a t →a t →a

r
• A vector function r (t ) = f (t ) iˆ + g (t ) ˆj + h(t ) kˆ is continuous at a
point a iff its component functions f , g , and h are continuous at
a.

54
Unit 3 Vector Functions
r
• If r (t ) = f (t ) iˆ + g (t ) ˆj + h(t ) kˆ then
r
a) r ′(t ) = f ′(t ) iˆ + g ′(t ) ˆj + h′(t ) kˆ and
b)
r
( ) ( ) (
 r (t )dt =  f (t )dt iˆ +  g (t )dt ˆj +  h(t )dt kˆ )
r
• Let r (t ) = ( f (t ), g (t ), h(t )) be the vector equation of a given curve
b
r
then the length of the curve from t = a to t = b is L =  | r ′(t ) | dt .
a

• The curvature of a curve is

r
| T ′(t ) |
k (t ) = r ,
| r ′(t ) |
r r
where T (t ) is the unit tangent vector of the curve at t and r (t ) is
the vector equation of the curve.

3.6 SOLUTIONS/ANSWERS

E1) a) Domain of t 2 is R.
Domain of t is {t ∈ R : t ≥ 0}
Domain of sin t is R.
r
Therefore, the domain of r is {t ∈ R : t ≥ 0}.

b) Domain of 2t is R.
Domain of log(4 − t ) is {t ∈ R : t < 4}
Domain of t − 1 is {t ∈ R : t ≥ 1}
r
Therefore, the domain of r is [1, 4).

r r
E2) Let r (t ) = f (t ) iˆ + g (t ) ˆj + h(t ) kˆ and b = b1iˆ + b2 ˆj + b3kˆ.
r r
If lim r (t ) = b then
t →a

(lim f (t))iˆ + (lim g (t)) ˆj + (lim h(t ))kˆ = b iˆ + b ˆj + b kˆ

t →a t →a t →a
1 2 3

So, lim f (t ) = b1 , lim g (t ) = b2 , lim h(t ) = b3

t →a t→a t →a

Hence, for any given real number ∈> 0 ∃ δ 1 , δ 2 , δ 3 > 0 such that
| f (t ) − b1 | < ∈ 3 whenever 0 < | t − a | < δ1
| g (t ) − b2 | < ∈ 3 whenever 0 < | t − a | < δ 2
| h(t ) − b3 | < ∈ 3 whenever 0 < | t − a | < δ 3
2 2 ∈2 ∈2 ∈2
2
So, | f (t ) − b1 | + | g (t ) − b2 | + | h(t ) − b3 | < + + whenever
3 3 3
0 < | t − a | < δ , where δ = min{δ 1 , δ 2 , δ 3 }
r r
or, | r (t ) − b |2 <∈2 whenever 0 < | t − a | < δ
r r
or, | r (t ) − b | <∈ whenever 0 < | t − a | < δ

Now, let us prove the converse.

55
Block 1 Vector Functions
Let, for any real number ∈> 0 there exists a real number δ > 0
r r
such that | r (t ) − b | <∈ whenever 0 < | t − a | < δ .
or, | ( f (t ) − b1 ) iˆ + ( g (t ) − b2 ) ˆj + (h(t ) − b3 ) kˆ | <∈
whenever 0 < | t − a | < δ
or, ( f (t ) − b1 ) 2 + ( g (t ) − b2 ) 2 + ( h(t ) − b3 ) 2 <∈2
whenever 0 < | t − a | < δ
or, ( f (t ) − b1 ) 2 <∈2 whenever 0 < | t − a | < δ
and
( g (t ) − b2 ) 2 <∈2 whenever 0 < | t − a | < δ
and
( h(t ) − b3 ) 2 <∈2 whenever 0 < | t − a | < δ

or, | f (t ) − b1 | <∈ whenever 0 < | t − a | < δ

and
| g (t ) − b2 | <∈ whenever 0 < | t − a | < δ
and
| h(t ) − b3 | <∈ whenever 0 < | t − a | < δ

or, lim f (t ) = b1 and lim g (t ) = b2 and lim h(t ) = b3

t →a t →a t→

( ) ( ) ( )
Hence, lim f (t ) iˆ + lim g (t ) ˆj + lim h(t ) kˆ = b1iˆ + b2 ˆj + b3kˆ
t →a t →a t →a
r
ˆ ˆ ˆ
or, lim( f (t ) i + g (t ) j + h(t ) k ) = b
t →a
r r
∴ lim r (t ) = b .
t →a

 t − 1 tan t 
E3) lim  t + 1, 2 , 
t →1
 t −1 t 
 1 tan t 
=  lim t + 1, lim , lim 
 t →1 t →1 t + 1 t →1 t 
 1 
=  2 , , tan 1
 2 

 t +1 1
E4) lim  e −t , , 
t →∞
 t −1 t 
 t +1 1 ∞
=  lim e −t , lim , lim  [2nd limit is in form]
 t →∞ t →∞ t − 1 t →∞ t
 ∞
 1 
=  0, lim , 0 
 t →∞ 1 
= (0, 1, 0)
r
E5) The proof is exactly similar like E2, replace b by
r
r ( a ) = f ( a) iˆ + g ( a ) ˆj + h( a) kˆ and 0 < | t − a | < δ by | t − a | < δ .

r
E6) Since t 2 , et , and cos t are continuous for 0 ≤ t < ∞, r (t ) is
continuous.
56
Unit 3 Vector Functions
1 r
E7) 2
is not continuous at t = 0. Hence r (t ) is not continuous at
t
t = 0.
r
dr
E8) = (1, 1 + et , cos t )
dt
r
E9) The position vector of the particle P is r (t ) = 2e t iˆ + t ˆj + t 2 kˆ
r
dr
Velocity = = 2et iˆ + ˆj + 2t kˆ
dt
r
d 2r
Acceleration = 2 = 2e t iˆ + 2 kˆ
dt

iˆ ˆj kˆ
r r
E10) a × b = t t 2 t3
1 et sin t
= (t 2 sin t − t 3e t ) iˆ + (t 3 − t sin t ) ˆj + (te t − t 2 ) kˆ
d r r
(a × b ) = (2t sin t + t 2 cos t − 3t 2 e t − t 3e t ) iˆ
dt
+ (3t 2 − sin t − t cos t ) ˆj + (te t + et − 2t ) kˆ
r r
a ⋅ b = t + t 2e t + t 3 sin t
d r r
(a ⋅ b ) = 1 + 2te t + t 2e t + 3t 2 sin t + t 3 cos t
dt
= 1 + ( 2t + t 2 )e t + 3t 2 sin t + t 3 cos t

r
E11) r (t ) = 2t iˆ + te t ˆj + cos 3t kˆ
The position vector of the point where t = 0 is given by
r
r (t ) = (0, 0, 1)
r
r dr
r ′(t ) = = 2iˆ + (e t + te t ) ˆj − 3 sin 3t kˆ
dt
Therefore, the unit tangent vector of C at the point (0, 0, 1) is
r
r ′(0) 2iˆ + ˆj 2 ˆ 1 ˆ
given by r = = i+ j
| r ′(0) | | 2iˆ + ˆj | 5 5

 r (t )dt = ( dt )iˆ + ( t dt ) ˆj + ( e dt )kˆ

r t
E12) a)
t2 r
= t iˆ + ˆj + e t kˆ + C ,
2
r
where C is an arbitrary constant vector.

1
1
r  ˆ t 2 ˆ t ˆ
b) 0 r ( t ) dt = t i + 2 j + e k 
 0
 1 
=  iˆ + ˆj + e kˆ  − (0 + 0 + kˆ)
 2 
1
= iˆ + ˆj + (e − 1) kˆ.
2 57
Block 1 Vector Functions

r
E13) r (t ) = sin t − cos t ˆj + t kˆ
r
r ′(t ) = cos t iˆ + sin t ˆj + kˆ
r
| r ′(t ) | = 1 + 1 = 2
π /2 π /2
r

0
| r ′(t ) | dt = 
0
2 dt

= [ 2 t ]π / 2
π
= .
2

2 1 + 9t 2 + 9t 3
E14) k (t ) = .
(1 + 4t 2 + 9t 4 ) 3 / 2

58