LOAD CHARACTERISTICS
LOAD CHARACTERISTICS
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
[Link] load graphs for different consumer types
[Link] maximum and average demand
[Link] and calculate demand, utilization, and diversity factors
[Link] the impact of load diversity on system design
[Link] load characteristics to capacity planning decisions
LOAD CHARACTERISTICS
Load Characteristics
typically refer to the behavior and properties of electrical loads within a power system.
fundamental in the planning, design, and operation of electrical distribution and substation
systems.
provide critical insights into how electrical loads behave under different conditions, enabling
engineers to
• optimize resource usage,
• design systems that meet demand efficiently, and
• ensure the overall reliability and stability of the power network.
LOAD CHARACTERISTICS
Why Study Load Characteristics?
Basis for feeder and transformer sizing
Influences system reliability and economy
Prevents overloading and underutilization
Supports long-term capacity planning
LOAD CHARACTERISTICS
LOAD GRAPH (LOAD CURVE)
Plot of load (kW or MW) vs time
Shows variation of demand over a period
Can be daily, monthly, or yearly
LOAD CHARACTERISTICS
A load duration curve is derived from the load curve but
LOAD DURATION CURVES rearranges the load data in descending order of magnitude
instead of chronological order.
The x-axis represents the percentage of time, and the y-axis
represents the load magnitude.
Purpose:
o Highlights the base load (the consistent minimum
load) and peak load durations.
o Useful for planning capacity and economic dispatch.
Base load: The portion of load consistently
present.
Peak load: The highest demand during the
analyzed period.
LOAD CHARACTERISTICS
Typical Load Curves
Residential: Morning & evening peaks
Commercial: Daytime peak
Industrial: Nearly constant load
LOAD CHARACTERISTICS
MAXIMUM DEMAND
LOAD CHARACTERISTICS
LOAD CHARACTERISTICS
LOAD CHARACTERISTICS
AVERAGE DEMAND
Definition: The total energy consumed over a period
divided by the duration of that period. It is calculated as:
Average Demand = Total Energy Consumed (kWh)/
Time Period (hours)
Example: If a consumer uses 720 kWh over 30 days, the
average demand is: Average Demand=720 / (30×24) =
1 Kw
Importance: Provides insight into the typical energy
usage of a system.
LOAD CHARACTERISTICS
DEMAND FACTOR
Demand Factor: It is the ratio of the maximum demand of a system to the total connected load of the
system. The demand factor is usually less than 1.0. Demand factor gives an
indication of the simultaneous operation of the total connected load.
Connected Load: Each electrical device has its rated capacity. The sum of the continuous rating of all
the electrical devices connected to the supply system is known as connected load.
Significance:
• Indicates the extent to which the connected load is utilized.
• Helps in economic design by avoiding over-sizing of equipment.
LOAD CHARACTERISTICS
LOAD FACTOR
It is the ratio of the average load over a designated
period of time to the peak load occurring on that period
LOAD CHARACTERISTICS
Utilization Factor
Maximum Demand
Utilization Factor =
Rated Capacity
It is the ratio of the maximum demand of a system to the rated capacity of the
system (installed capacity or maximum plant rating).
Interpretation
•Low → underutilized system
•High → risk of overloading
LOAD CHARACTERISTICS
PLANT FACTOR
Also known as Capacity Factor or Use Factor. It is the ratio of the total actual energy
produced over a specified of time to the energy that would have been produced if
the plant (or generating units) had operated continuously at maximum rating.
LOAD CHARACTERISTICS
Example 1: Peak demand of a generating station is 90MW and load factor is 0.60. the plant factor is
0.5. Determine (a) daily energy produced (b) installed capacity of the plant (c) reserve
capacity of the plant (d) utilization factor
LOAD CHARACTERISTICS
Diversity Factor
∑ Individual Maximum Demands
Diversity Factor =
Group Maximum Demand
Diversity Factor: It is the ratio of the sum of the individual maximum demands of the various
subdivisions or groups or consumers to the maximum demand of the whole system.
The diversity factor can be equal or greater than unity. Ratio of the maximum
noncoincident demand to the maximum diversified demand
Coincident Demand : (or Diversified Demand) It is the demand of composite group, as a whole, of
somewhat unrelated loads over a specified period of time. It is the maximum sum of
the contributions of the individual demands to the diversified demand over a
specified time interval.
Noncoincident Demand: It is the sum of the demands of a group of loads with no restrictions on the interval
to which each demand is applicable
LOAD CHARACTERISTICS
LOAD CHARACTERISTICS
LOAD DIVERSITY
Load Diversity: It is the difference between the sum of the peaks of two or more individual loads
and the peak of the combined load.
Benefits
•Smaller feeders and transformers
•Reduced system cost
•Improved reliability
LOAD CHARACTERISTICS
Coincidence factor: It is “the ratio of the maximum coincident total demand of a group of consumers to
the sum of the maximum power demands of individual consumers comprising the
group both taken at the same point of supply for the same time”.
LOAD CHARACTERISTICS
CONTRIBUTION FACTOR
LOAD CHARACTERISTICS
Effect on Feeder Sizing
•Maximum demand sets conductor ampacity
•Diversity reduces required conductor size
•Improves system economy
LOAD CHARACTERISTICS
Transformer Capacity Selection
•Based on diversified load
•Avoids overloading
•Extends transformer life
LOAD CHARACTERISTICS
LOAD CHARACTERISTICS
A power station supplies the load as
tabulated below:
a. Plot the load curve and load
duration curve.
b. Find the load factor
c. Find the reserve capacity of the
plant and plant factor
LOAD CHARACTERISTICS
LOAD CHARACTERISTICS
Hour Load (kW)
Hourly Load Data (kW) 0:00 120
Feeder Rating: 13.2 kV, 500 kVA transformer 1:00 110
(typical residential/commercial distribution) 2:00 105
3:00 100
Residential Consumers (kW) 4:00 95
5:00 100
6:00 130
7:00 170
8:00 200
9:00 180
10:00 170
11:00 160
12:00 150
13:00 155
14:00 160
15:00 165
16:00 180
17:00 210
18:00 250
19:00 280
20:00 270
21:00 230
22:00 180
23:00 150
LOAD CHARACTERISTICS
Commercial Consumers (kW)
Hour Load (kW)
0:00 50
1:00 45
2:00 40
Feeder & Transformer Ratings
3:00 35 •Feeder: 13.2 kV, 300 A maximum capacity (typical low-
4:00
5:00
30
35
voltage distribution)
6:00 50 •Transformer: 500 kVA, 13.2 kV / 0.22 kV (typical pole-
7:00 80 mounted distribution transformer)
8:00 120
9:00 150
10:00 160
11:00 170
12:00 175
13:00 170
14:00 160
15:00 150
16:00 140
17:00 130
18:00 120
19:00 110
20:00 100
21:00 90
22:00 70
23:00 60
LOAD CHARACTERISTICS
Part A: Load Curve Construction
[Link] the given hourly load data.
[Link] the 24-hour load curve for:
• Residential load
• Commercial load
• Combined feeder load
LOAD CHARACTERISTICS
Part B: Load Calculations
1. Determine the maximum demand of each load type and the
combined feeder.
2. Compute the average demand over the 24-hour period.
3. Calculate the load factor of the feeder.
LOAD CHARACTERISTICS
Part C: Load Characteristic Factors
[Link] the demand factor for each consumer type.
[Link] the utilization factor of the feeder and transformer.
[Link] the diversity factor of the combined load.
LOAD CHARACTERISTICS
Part D: Capacity and Reliability Evaluation
[Link] peak demand with feeder and transformer ratings.
[Link] whether the system operates within:
• Normal loading limits
• Emergency loading limits
[Link] potential reliability concerns such as:
• Overloading
• Voltage regulation issues
• Reduced equipment life
LOAD CHARACTERISTICS
Part E: Engineering Decision and Justification
Based on the analysis, recommend one of the following actions:
•No system upgrade required
•Transformer capacity upgrade
•Feeder reconductoring
•Load transfer to adjacent feeder
•Demand-side management implementation
Provide a technical justification considering:
•Load characteristics
•Reliability
•Economy
•Future load growth
LOAD CHARACTERISTICS
LOAD CHARACTERISTICS