PHY 483Lecture Notes Cont…
Fluid dynamics and Bernoulli's equation
Moving fluids
Fluid dynamics is the study of how fluids behave when they're in motion. This can
get very complicated, so we'll focus on one simple case, but we should briefly
mention the different categories of fluid flow.
Fluids can flow steadily, or be turbulent. In steady flow, the fluid passing a given
point maintains a steady velocity. For turbulent flow, the speed and or the direction
of the flow varies. In steady flow, the motion can be represented with streamlines
showing the direction the water flows in different areas. The density of the
streamlines increases as the velocity increases.
Fluids can be compressible or incompressible. This is the big difference between
liquids and gases, because liquids are generally incompressible, meaning that they
don't change volume much in response to a pressure change; gases are
compressible, and will change volume in response to a change in pressure.
Fluid can be viscous (pours slowly) or non-viscous (pours easily).
Fluid flow can be rotational or irrotational. Irrotational means it travels in straight
lines; rotational means it swirls.
For most of the rest of the chapter, we'll focus on irrotational, incompressible,
steady streamline non-viscous flow.
The equation of continuity
The equation of continuity states that for an incompressible fluid flowing in a tube
of varying cross-section, the mass flow rate is the same everywhere in the tube.
The mass flow rate is simply the rate at which mass flows past a given point, so it's
the total mass flowing past divided by the time interval. The equation of continuity
can be reduced to:
Generally, the density stays constant and then it's simply the flow rate (Av) that is
constant.
Making fluids flow
There are basically two ways to make fluid flow through a pipe. One way is to tilt the pipe so
the flow is downhill, in which case gravitational kinetic energy is transformed to kinetic
energy. The second way is to make the pressure at one end of the pipe larger than the
pressure at the other end. A pressure difference is like a net force, producing acceleration of
the [Link] long as the fluid flow is steady, and the fluid is non-viscous and incompressible,
the flow can be looked at from an energy perspective. This is what Bernoulli's equation does,
relating the pressure, velocity, and height of a fluid at one point to the same parameters at a
second point. The equation is very useful, and can be used to explain such things as how
airplanes fly, and how baseballs curve.
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Bernoulli's equation
The pressure, speed, and height (y) at two points in a steady-flowing, non-viscous,
incompressible fluid are related by the equation:
Some of these terms probably look familiar...the second term on each side looks
something like kinetic energy, and the third term looks a lot like gravitational
potential energy. If the equation was multiplied through by the volume, the density
could be replaced by mass, and the pressure could be replaced by force x distance,
which is work. Looked at in that way, the equation makes sense: the difference in
pressure does work, which can be used to change the kinetic energy and/or the
potential energy of the fluid.
Continuity for Fluids
When fluids move through a full pipe, the volume of fluid that enters the pipe must equal the volume of
fluid that leaves the pipe, even if the diameter of the pipe changes. This is a restatement of the law of
conservation of mass for fluids.
The volume of fluid moving through the pipe at any point can be quantified in terms of the volume flow
rate, which is equal to the area of the pipe at that point multiplied by the velocity of the fluid. This
volume flow rate must be constant throughout the pipe, therefore you can write the equation of
continuity for fluids (also known as the fluid continuity equation) as:
This equation says that as the cross-section of the pipe gets smaller, the velocity of the fluid
increases, and as the cross-section gets larger, the fluid velocity decreases. You may have applied
this yourself in watering the flowers with a garden hose. If you want increase the velocity of the water
coming from the end of the hose, you place your thumb over part of the opening of the hose,
effectively decreasing the cross-sectional area of the hose’s end and increasing the velocity of the
exiting water!
Question: Water runs through a water main of cross-sectional area 0.4 m2 with a velocity of 6 m/s.
Calculate the velocity of the water in the pipe when the pipe tapers down to a cross-sectional area of
0.3 m2.
Answer:
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Question: Water enters a typical garden hose of diameter 1.6 cm with a velocity of 3 m/s. Calculate
the exit velocity of water from the garden hose when a nozzle of diameter 0.5 cm is attached to the
end of the hose.
Answer: First, find the cross-sectional areas of the entry (A1) and exit (A2) sides of the hose.
Next, apply the continuity equation for fluids to solve for the water velocity as it exits the hose (v2).
Bernoulli's Principle
Conservation of energy, when applied to fluids in motion, leads to Bernoulli’s Principle. Bernoulli’s
Principle states that fluids moving at higher velocities lead to lower pressures, and fluids moving at
lower velocities result in higher pressures.
Airplane wings have a larger top surface than a bottom surface to take advantage of this fact. As the
air moves across the larger top surface, it must move faster than the air traveling a shorter distance
under the bottom surface. This leads to a lower pressure on top of the wing, and a higher pressure
underneath the wing, providing some of the lift for the aircraft (note that this isn’t the only cause of lift,
as Newton’s 3rd Law also plays a critical role in understanding the dynamics of flight).
This principle is also used in sailboats, carburetors, gas delivery systems, and even water-powered
sump pumps!
Expressing Bernoulli’s Principle quantitatively, you can relate the pressure, velocity, and height of a
liquid in a tube at various points.
The pressure at a point in the tube plus half the density of the fluid multiplied by the square of its
velocity at that point, added to the gauge pressure of the fluid (ρgy), must be equal at any point in the
tube.
Question: Water sits in a large open jug at a height of 0.2m above the spigot. With what velocity will
the water leave the spigot when the spigot is opened?
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Answer: Since the top of the jug and the spigot are both open to atmosphere, the pressures P1and
P2 must be equal. Since the jug is much larger than the spigot, you can assume the velocity of the
water at the top of the jug is nearly zero. This allows you to simplify Bernoulli’s Equation considerably.
Since the density of the fluid is the same throughout, you can do some algebraic simplification to
solve for v2.
This is known as Torricelli’s Theorem. Since the difference in height is 0.2m, you can now easily solve
for the velocity of the water at the spigot.
Notice that this is the same result you would obtain if you had solved for the velocity of an object
dropped from a height of 0.2 meters using the kinematic equations... this should make sense, as
Bernoulli’s Equation is really just a restatement of conservation of energy, applied to fluids!
SOLAR RADIATION AND CONSTANT.
In Solar radiation the rate at which solar energy is received per unit area at the outer limit of
the earth’s atmosphere at the mean distance between the earth and the sun as shown below in
the solar sphere diagram.
D Diameter of the sun
Figure: The Solar Sphere
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Although numerous observations have been made of the solar constant, its value is not
precisely known. The approximate value can be 1353W/m2.
It is mathematically expressed as:
Where:
G-is the solar constant(W/m2)
σ - is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant =5.67 x 10-8W/(m2K4)
R – is mean distance between the earth and the sun (m)
T – is the sun’s surface temperature (K)
D - is the sun’s diameter (m)
Example:
Let the sun's diameter (D) as 1.39 x 10 6 km, the sun's surface temperature (T) as 5762K, and
the mean sun-to-earth distance (R) as 1.5 x 10 8 km. Calculate the value of the solar constant.
Take σ- the Stefan-Boltzmann constant =5.67 x 10-8W/(m2K4)
(See Figure Q4b-The Solar Sphere).
Solution:
Data Given:
G- the solar constant(W/m2) =?
σ - the Stefan-Boltzmann constant =5.67 x 10-8W/(m2K4)
R –mean distance between the earth and the sun = 1.5 x 1011m
T – the sun’s surface temperature=5762 K
D - is the sun’s diameter = 1.39 x 109 m
The formula for Solar Constant is given below:
Substituting the given values in the above equation we have:
Solar Constant,
= 1353W/m2
Q5a(i)Give an expression for Bernoulli’s Principle relating the pressure, velocity, and height
of a liquid in a tube at various points.
Ans: Bernoulli’s Principle is expressed as:
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That is the pressure at a point in the tube plus half the density of the fluid multiplied by the
square of its velocity at that point, added to the gauge pressure of the fluid (ρgy), must be
equal at any point in the tube.
(ii) Water sits in a large open jug at a height difference of 3m above the spigot. With what
velocity will the water leave the spigot when the spigot is opened?
Ans: Since the top of the jug and the spigot are both open to atmosphere, the pressures P1 and
P2 must be equal. Since the jug is much larger than the spigot, you can assume the velocity of
the water at the top of the jug is nearly zero. This allows you to simplify Bernoulli’s Equation
considerably.
Since the density of the fluid is the same throughout, you can do some algebraic
simplification to solve for V2.:
Since the given difference in height is 3m, the velocity of the water at the spigot can be
calculated as:
=7.67m/s
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Example: The specific heat capacity of water is 4184J/ kg.K. Determine
by how many Joules does the internal energy of 800g of water changes as
it is heated from 27oC to 67oC? Neglect the expansion of the water due to
temperature change.
Solution:
Given Data:
Q - ?
m - 800g = 0.8kg
CPwater - 4184J/ kg.K
T1 - 27oC
T2 - 67oC
Calculations:
Q = mCpΔT
= mCp (T2 – T1)
= 0.8kg x 4184J/kg.K (67 oC - 27oC)
= 133,888J
= 133.888kJ
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Weather stations
Meteorological data are recorded at various types of weather stations. Agrometeorological
stations are sited in cropped areas where instruments are exposed to atmospheric
conditions similar to those for the surrounding crops. In these stations, air temperature and
humidity, wind speed and sunshine duration are typically measured at 2 m above an
extensive surface of grass or short crop. Where needed and feasible, the cover of the station
is irrigated. Guidelines for the establishment and maintenance of agrometeorological stations
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CWeather and Climate Comparison Table:
Climate Weather
Describes the average conditions Describes the atmospheric conditions at
expected at a specific place at a given a specific place at a specific point in
time. A region's climate is generated by time. Weather generally refers to day-to-
Definition
the climate system, which has five day temperature and precipitation
components: atmosphere, hydrosphere, activity
cryosphere, land surface, and biosphere.
Climate may include precipitation, Weather includes sunshine, rain, cloud
temperature, humidity, sunshine, wind cover, winds, hail, snow, sleet, freezing
velocity, phenomena such as fog, frost, rain, flooding, blizzards, ice storms,
Components
and hail storms over a long period of thunderstorms, steady rains from a cold
time. front or warm front, excessive heat, heat
waves and more
By aggregates of weather statistics over By collecting meteorological data, like
Forecast periods of 30 years air temperature, pressure, humidity, solar
radiation, wind speeds and direction etc.
NIGERIA WEATHER:
Nigeria weather primarily features a tropical kind of climate where most of the seasons are
very humid and damp. There are two climatic seasons that prevail namely the wet and the dry
seasons. The weather of is generally quite hot throughout the year, although there are
variations in the climate in certain regions within the country. The southern part of Nigeria is
relatively more humid and damp than the northern part of the country. In the southern areas
of Nigeria the dry seasons begin from the month of November and lasts till the month of
March. The northern regions are much drier in nature in comparison to the southern parts.
Nigeria weather is highly influenced by the south western winds and the north-eastern
winds. The south-eastern winds are full of moisture and blusters from the Atlantic Ocean
whereas the northern easterlies are dry and dirt-laden winds that primarily blow from
the deserts of Sahara. The average rainfall in the southern coastal linings of Nigeria is almost
4000 mm and on the other hand it is 500 mm in the north eastern side of Nigeria.
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SOKOTO STATE UNIVERSITY
Department of Physics
Course Code/ Name: PHY 483: Meteorology & Physics of Lower
Atmosphere
ASSIGNMENT1: 2nd Semester, 2017
1-What is a psychrometric chart and discuss the following properties
of moist air: Wet-bulb temperature; Relative humidity and Dry-bulb
temperature.
2- With the help of a given psychrometric chart,(Figure:A simplified
psychrometric chart) determin the following properties of moist air
corresponding to 40°C (dry bulb) and 60% Relative Humidity: Specific
volume (m3/kg); Specific humidity (gmoist air/kgdry air); Enthalpy(kJ/kg dry air)
and Wet bulb temperature (oC).
3-Clearly describe what meteorology is, and state basic parameters
which we study in relation to and "climate" "weather".
4-Explain the earth’s major surface features and completely list what the
the atmosphere is composed of.
5-List all different weather forecasting techniques and state ways of
carrying
out each.
6-Explain Numerical Weather Forecasts and the factors that “Bad
Numerical Weather Forecasts” can lead to.
7-Define and give an expression for a solar constant.
8Given the sun's diameter (D) as 1.39 x 10 6 km, the sun's surface
temperature (T) as 5762K, and the mean sun-to-earth distance (R)
as 1.5 x 108 km. Calculate the value of the solar constant. Take σ-
he Stefan-Boltzmann constant =5.67 x 10- 8W/(m2K4). (Figure Q4b-
The Solar Sphere).
9-Derive and Give an expression for Bernoulli’s equation relating the
velocity, pressure, and height of a liquid flowing at various points in a
channel or tube.
10-Define the First Law of Thermodynamics write down its equation.
11 The specific heat capacity of water is 4184J/ kg.K. Determine by
how many Joules the internal energy of 800 g of water
changes as it is heated from 20 oC to 67oC, assuming that the
expansion of the water is negligible.
12-Explain the Nigerian weather features and what influences it.
13-Write down expression for Reynold’s Number and state it’s units.
[Link] three type of flows associated with real fluids.
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Figure: A simplified psychrometric chart
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