Digestive System HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY II

PREPARED BY-TUSHAR AKHARE,

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR,

GURUNANAK COLLEGE OF
PHARMACY, NAGPUR

 The gastrointestinal tract (digestive tract, digestional tract, GI tract, GIT, gut, or
alimentary canal) is an organ system within humans and other animals which takes in
food, digests it and absorb energy and nutrients, and expels the remaining waste as feces.

 The major organs of the digestive system:

• Mouth.

• Pharynx.

• Esophagus.

• Stomach.

• Small Intestine.
• Large Intestine.

• Rectum

 Accessory digestive organs:

 Liver

 Gallbladder

 pancreas.

 Salivary gland

Functions of GI tract
 Ingestion: taking of food into the alimentary tract. i.e. eating & drinking.

 Propulsion: mixes & moves the contents along the alimentary tract.

 Digestion: consist of:

 Mechanical breakdown of food e.g. mastication (chewing)

 Chemical digestion of food into small molecules by enzymes.
 Absorption: this is the process by which digested food substances pass through the walls
of some organs of the alimentary canal into the blood for circulation.

 Elimination: food substances that have been eaten but cannot be digested & absorbed
are excreted from the alimentary canal as faeces by the process of defaecation.

Histology of GI Tract-
  The gastrointestinal tract is a hollow tube with lumen of variable diameter.

Wall made up of 4 layers

 Mucosa

 Submucosa

 Musularis

 Serosa

Parts of Gastrointestinal tract-

MOUTH
 The mouth is the first portion of the alimentary canal that receives food and produces
saliva.

 The oral mucosa is the mucous membrane epithelium lining the inside of the mouth.

 The palate forms the roof of the mouth & is divided into the anterior hard palate &
posterior soft palate.

 The uvula is a curved fold of muscle covered with mucous membrane, hanging down
from the middle.
TONGUE

 The tongue is a muscular organ in the mouth, that manipulates food for mastication, and is
used in the act of swallowing.

 It is of importance in the digestive system and is the primary organ of taste in the gustatory
system.

 The tongue's upper surface (dorsum) is covered by taste buds housed in numerous
lingual papillae.

 The human tongue is divided into two parts, an oral part at the front and a pharyngeal part
at the back.

FUNCTIONS
 Mastication (chewing)

 Deglutition (swallowing)
 Speech

 Taste

TEETH
  The human teeth function to mechanically break down items of food by cutting and
crushing them in preparation for swallowing and digesting.

 Humans have four types of teeth:

1. incisors,

2. canines,

3. premolars,
4. and molars,

each with a specific function.

FUNCTIONS OF TEETH
 Two incisor -for cutting

 • One canine -for tearing

 • Two premolar-for crushing

 • Three molar-for grinding

SALIVARY GLANDS

 The salivary glands in are exocrine glands that produce saliva through a system of ducts.

 Humans have 3 paired major salivary glands:

• Parotid

• submandibular and
• Sublingual
• as well hundreds of minor salivary glands.

Parotid glands
 The two parotid glands are major salivary glands wrapped around the mandibular ramus
in humans.

 The largest of the salivary glands.

 They secrete saliva to facilitate mastication and swallowing, and amylase to begin the
digestion of starches.

 It enters the oral cavity via the parotid duct.

Submandibular glands
 The submandibular glands are a pair of major salivary glands located beneath the lower
jaws, superior to the digastric muscles.

 The secretion produced is a mixture of both serous fluid and mucus, and enters the oral
cavity via the submandibular duct.

 The sublingual glands are a pair of major salivary glands located inferior to the tongue,
anterior to the submandibular glands.

 Approximately 5% of saliva entering the oral cavity comes from these glands.

 The secretion produced is mainly mucous in nature.

COMPOSITION OF SALIVA
 About 1.5 litres of saliva is produced daily & it consists of:

• Water

• Mineral salts
• An enzyme

• Mucus

• Lysozyme

• Immunoglobulins
FUNCTION OF SALIVA
 Saliva contributes to the digestion of food and to the maintenance of oral hygiene.

 Without normal salivary function the frequency of dental caries, gum disease and other
oral problems increases significantly.

 Lubricant
 Saliva, coats the oral mucosa, mechanically protecting it from trauma during eating,
swallowing and speaking.

 In people with little saliva soreness of the mouth is very common, and the food
(especially dry food) sticks to the inside of the mouth.

 Digestion
 The digestive functions of saliva include moistening food and helping to create a food
bolus.

 This lubricative function of saliva allows the food bolus to be passed easily from the
mouth into the esophagus.

 Role in taste
 Saliva is very important in the sense of taste.

 It is the liquid medium in which chemicals are carried to taste receptor cells (mostly
associated with lingual papillae).

Other Function
 Saliva maintains the pH of the mouth.

 Saliva is supersaturated with various ions.

THE PHARYNX(THROAT)
  The pharynx is the part of the throat that is behind the mouth and nasal cavity and above
the esophagus and the larynx, or the tubes going down to the stomach and the lungs.

 The pharynx is the portion of the digestive tract that receives the food from your mouth.

 Branching off the pharynx is the esophagus, which carries food to the stomach.

THE ESOPHAGUS(FOOD PIPE)

 The esophagus or oesophagus, commonly known as the food pipe or gullet, The
esophagus is a muscular tube connecting the throat (pharynx) with the stomach.

 The esophagus runs behind the windpipe (trachea) and heart, and in front of the spine.
  Length :25 cm

 Diameter:2 cm

FUNCTIONS

 Formation of a bolus

 Swallowing
 Food is ingested through the mouth and when swallowed passes first into the pharynx
and then into the esophagus.

 Reducing gastric reflux

STOMACH

 The stomach is a muscular organ located on the left side of the upper abdomen.

 The stomach receives food from the esophagus.

 As food reaches the end of the esophagus, it enters the stomach through a muscular valve
called the lower esophageal sphincter.

 A pouch-like organ primarily designed for food storage (for 2-4 hours) , some mechanical
and chemical digestion also occur.

 Contains two sphincters at both ends to regulate food movement :

• cardiac sphincter near the esophagus ,

• pyloric sphincter near the small intestine .

 Divided into 4 regions :

• cardiac stomach (or cardiac),

• fundic stomach (or funded) ,

• body of stomach

• pyloric stomach (or Pylorus).

FUNCTIONS
 Digestion
 The stomach releases proteases (protein-digesting enzymes such as pepsin) and
hydrochloric acid, which kills or inhibits bacteria and provides the acidic pH of 2 for the
proteases to work.

 Food is churned by the stomach through muscular contractions of the wall called
peristalsis

 Absorption
 some absorption of certain small molecules nevertheless does occur in the stomach
through its lining.

GASTRIC JUICE
 Gastric acid, gastric juice or stomach acid, is a digestive fluid formed in the stomach and
is composed of hydrochloric acid (HCl), potassium chloride (KCl) and sodium chloride
(NaCl).

 The acid plays a key role in digestion of proteins, by activating digestive enzymes, and
making ingested proteins unravel so that digestive enzymes break down the long chains
of amino acids.

Gastric Secretory Cells

 Chief cells: secrete pepsinogen (an inactive enzyme).

 Parietal cells: secrete hydrochloric and (HCl) and "intrinsic factor" (which helps
absorption of vitamin B12 in the intestines).

 Mucous cells: secrete mucus and alkaline substances to help neutralize HCl in the
gastric juice .
 G cells: secrete a hormone called gastrin , which stimulates the parietal cells and overall
gastric.

THE PANCREAS

 The pancreas is a glandular organ in the digestive system and endocrine system of
vertebrates.

 It is located in the abdominal cavity behind the stomach.

 It is an endocrine gland producing several important hormones, including insulin,
glucagon, somatostatin, and pancreatic polypeptide, all of which circulate in the blood.

 Length: 15 cm or 6 inch

Structure
 Anatomically, the pancreas is divided into

 the head of pancreas,

 the neck of pancreas,

 the body of pancreas,

 and the tail of pancreas.

 The neck is about 2.5 cm or 1 inch long and lies between the head and the body

 The body is the largest part of the pancreas and lies behind the pylorus.

 The tail ends by abutting the spleen.

FUNCTION
 The pancreas is involved in blood sugar control and metabolism within the body.

 Sugar control and metabolism

 pancreatic islets are present in the pancreas.

 Within these islets are four main types of cells which are involved in the regulation of
blood glucose levels.

 Each type of cell secretes a different type of hormone:

• α alpha cells secrete glucagon (increase glucose in blood)

• β beta cells secrete insulin (decrease glucose in blood)

• δ delta cells secrete somatostatin (regulates/stops α and β cells) and

• γ (gamma) cells, secrete pancreatic polypeptide.

THE LIVER
  The liver, an organ only found in vertebrates, detoxifies various metabolites, synthesizes
proteins, and produces biochemicals necessary for digestion.

STRUCTURE
• The liver is a reddish-brown wedge-shaped organ with four lobes of unequal size and
shape.

• weighs 1.44–1.66 kg

• width -15 cm.

• It is both the heaviest internal organ and the largest gland in the human body.

FUNCTIONS

 Synthesis
• Proteins produced and secreted by the liver.

• The liver plays a major role in carbohydrate, protein, amino acid, and lipid metabolism.

 Breakdown
• The liver is responsible for the breakdown of insulin and other hormones.

THE GALLBLADDER
  The gallbladder is a small hollow organ where bile is stored and concentrated before it is
released into the small intestine.

 In humans, the pear-shaped gallbladder lies beneath the liver.

 sits in a shallow depression below the right lobe of the liver, that is grey-blue in life.

 Length-: 7 to 10 cm or 2.8 to 3.9 inches

 Diameter -: 4 cm or 1.6 inch

 The gallbladder has a capacity of about 50 millilitres

 The gallbladder is shaped like a pear, with its tip opening into the cystic duct.

 gallbladder is divided into three sections:

• the fundus,

• The body,

• and the neck.

FUNCTIONS
 The main purpose of the gallbladder is to store bile, also called gall, needed for the
digestion of fats in food.

 bile flows through small vessels into the larger hepatic ducts and ultimately though the
cystic duct into the gallbladder, where it is stored.
PARTS
 The small intestine is divided into three structural parts:

• (I)The duodenum

• (II)The jejunum

• (III)The ileum
 The duodenum is a short structure ranging from 20 cm to 25 cm in length, and shaped
like a "C".

 The jejunum is the midsection of the small intestine, connecting the duodenum to the
ileum. It is about 2.5 m long.

 The ileum is the final section of the small intestine. It is about 3 m long, and contains
villi similar to the jejunum.

FUNCTIONS

 Digestion
• The small intestine is where most chemical digestion takes place.

• Digestion of proteins & carbohydrate

 Absorption
• Digested food is now able to pass into the blood vessels in the wall of the intestine through
either diffusion or active transport.

• The small intestine is the site where most of the nutrients from ingested food are absorbed.

 Immunological
• The small intestine supports the body's immune system.

• The presence of gut flora appears to contribute positively to the host's immune system.

THE LARGE INTESTINE

 The large intestine, also known as the large bowel or colon, is the last part of the
gastrointestinal tract and of the digestive system in vertebrates.

 Water is absorbed here and the remaining waste material is stored as feces before being
removed by defecation.

STRUCTURE
 The length of male colon is 166 cm .

 female colon 155 cm

 The colon consists of five sections:

• the cecum
• ascending colon,

• the transverse colon,

• the descending colon,

• the sigmoid colon and the rectum.

 Sections of the colon are:

• The ascending colon including the cecum and appendix

• The transverse colon including the colic flexures(Right and Left)

• The descending colon

• The sigmoid colon – the s-shaped region of the large intestine

 The average inner diameter of sections of the colon in centimeters

 cecum 8.7cm

 ascending colon 6.6cm

 transverse colon 5.8cm

 descending/sigmoid colon 6.3cm

 and rectum near rectal/sigmoid junction 5.7cm

The cecum
 The cecum is the first section of the colon and involved in the digestion, while the
appendix is a structure of the colon, not involved in digestion.
 The function of the appendix is uncertain.
 Containing Ileocecal valve

 The ileocecal valve is a sphincter muscle valve that separates the small intestine and the
large intestine.

 Its critical function is to limit the reflux of colonic contents into the ileum.

The ascending colon

 It is connected to the small intestine by a section of bowel called the cecum.

 The ascending colon runs upwards through the abdominal cavity toward the transverse
colon for approximately eight inches or 20 cm.
 The unwanted waste material is moved upwards toward the transverse colon by the
action of peristalsis.

 Peristalsis is a radially symmetrical contaraction and relaxation of muscles that

propagates in a wave down a tube.

Transverse colon
 The transverse colon is the part of the colon from the hepatic flexure to the splenic
flexure.

Descending colon
• The descending colon is the part of the colon from the splenic flexure to the beginning of
the sigmoid colon,

• descending colon is also called the distal gut.

• One function of the descending colon in the digestive system is to store feces that will be
emptied into the rectum.

• Sigmoid colon
• • The sigmoid colon is the part of the large intestine after the descending colon and before
the rectum.

• • The name sigmoid means S-shaped .

• • The walls of the sigmoid colon are muscular, and contract to increase the pressure
inside the colon, causing the stool to move into the rectum.

• Rectum
• • The rectum is the last section of the large intestine. It holds the formed feces awaiting
elimination via defecation.

• the anus
• • The anus is the external opening of the rectum.

• • Its function is to control the expulsion of feces.

• • Two sphincters control the exit of feces from the body during an act of defecation.

• • These are the internal anal sphincter and the external anal sphincter, which are circular
muscles that normally maintain constriction of the orifice and which relaxes as required
by normal physiological functioning.
FUNCTIONS
 The large intestine absorbs water and any remaining absorbable nutrients from the food
before sending the indigestible matter to the rectum.
 The colon absorbs vitamins that are created by the colonic bacteria, such as vitamin K.

Gut flora
 The large intestine houses over 700 species of bacteria that perform a variety of
functions.

 The large intestine absorbs some of the products formed by the bacteria inhabiting this
region.

MOVEMENTS OF GIT

1. Movements of the Stomach

2. Movements in the Small Intestine

3. Movements in the Large Intestine

Movements of the Stomach

a) Stomach Filling
 As Food enters the stomach, the area will be a flatten and the stomach volume increases.

b) Mixing of Stomach Content

 Ingested food is thoroughly mixed with the secretion of stomach gland to form chyme.

 To get a Peristaltic like contraction that occur about every 20 seconds .

 Stomach is pushed for the digestion.

c) Stomach Emptying
 Liquid exits the stomach-11-21 hours after ingestion

 Meal-3-4 hours

Movements in the Small Intestine(Segmental Contraction)

 Few Peristaltic contraction may proceed the entire the length of the intestine.

 Contraction Rate-1 cm/min.

Movements in the Large Intestine(Segmental Mixing)

  Large parts of the transverse and descending colon undergo several strong peristaltic
contraction called mass movement.

Regulation of Digestive System

 The digestive system is controlled by both:

 Nerves,

 and Hormones

Neuronal control of digestion

Hormones that control digestion are:

 Gastrin

 Secretin

 Cholecystokinin

 Glucose insulinotropic peptide (GIP)

Effects of gastrin
 Stimulates gastric juice secretion

 Stimulates smooth muscle contraction

 Relaxation of pyloric sphincter

Effects of secretin
  Stimulates bicarbonate secretion

 Stimulates bile production

 Inhibits gastric juice secretions and gastric motility

Effects of cholecystokinin
 Stimulates bile release

 Stimulates pancreatic juice secretion

 Relaxation of the hepatopancreatic ampulla and opening of hepatopancreatic sphincter

Effects of GIP(Glucose insulinotropic peptide)

 Stimulates the pancreas to begin release of insulin

The 3 phases of digestive regulation

Cephalic Phase
 The cephalic phase is the initial stage of digestion, occurring before food enters the
stomach, triggered by the sight, smell, thought, or taste of food.

Gastric Phase
 The gastric phase is the second, main stage of gastric secretion, initiated when food enters
the stomach, lasting 3–4 hours and responsible for 50–60% of total gastric juice
secretion.
Intestinal Phase
 The intestinal phase of digestion begins when acidic chyme enters the duodenum,
triggering hormonal and nervous reflexes (e.g., CCK, secretin) to regulate digestion.

Digestion and absorption of nutrients

Digestion of food is a form of catabolism, in which the food is broken down into small molecules
that the body can absorb and use for energy, growth, and repair.

Digestion occurs when food is moved through the digestive system. It begins in the mouth and
ends in the small intestine. The final products of digestion are absorbed from the digestive tract,
primarily in the small intestine. There are two different types of digestion that occur in
the digestive system:

mechanical digestion and chemical digestion.

Mechanical Digestion
Mechanical digestion is a physical process in which food is broken into smaller pieces without
becoming changed chemically. It begins with your first bite of food and continues as you chew

food with your teeth into smaller pieces. The process of mechanical digestion continues in
the stomach. This muscular organ churns and mixes the food it contains, an action that breaks any
solid food into still smaller [Link] some mechanical digestion also occurs in the
intestines, it is mostly completed by the time food leaves the stomach. At that stage, food

in the GI tract has been changed to the thick semi-fluid called chyme.

Mechanical digestion is necessary so that chemical digestion can be effective.

Mechanical digestion tremendously increases the surface area of food particles so they can be
acted upon more effectively by digestive enzymes.

Chemical Digestion
Chemical digestion is the biochemical process in which macromolecules in food

are changed into smaller molecules that can be absorbed into body fluids and transported to cells
throughout the body. Substances in food that must be chemically digested include carbohydrates,
proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. Carbohydrates must be broken down into simple sugars, proteins
into amino acids, lipids into fatty acids and glycerol, and nucleic acids into nitrogen bases and
sugars. Some chemical digestion takes place in the mouth and stomach, but most of it occurs in
the first part of the

small intestine(duodenum).
Digestive Enzymes
Chemical digestion could not occur without the help of many different digestive enzymes.
Enzymes are proteins that catalyze or speed up biochemical reactions. Digestive enzymes are
secreted by exocrine glands or by the mucosal layer of the epithelium lining the gastrointestinal
tract. In the mouth, digestive enzymes are secreted by salivary glands. The lining of the stomach
secretes enzymes, as does the lining of the small intestine. Many more digestive enzymes are
secreted by exocrine cells in the pancreas and carried by ducts to the small intestine.

Chemical Digestion of Carbohydrates

About 80 percent of digestible carbohydrates in a typical Western diet are in the form of the
plant polysaccharide amylose, which consists mainly of long chains of glucose and is one of two
major components of starch. Additional dietary carbohydrates include the animal polysaccharide
glycogen, along with some sugars, which are mainly [Link] chemically digest amylose
and glycogen, the enzyme amylase is required. The chemical digestion of these polysaccharides
begins in the mouth, aided by amylase in saliva.

Saliva also contains mucus, which lubricates the food, and hydrogen carbonate, which provides
the ideal alkaline conditions for amylase to work.

Carbohydrate digestion is completed in the small intestine, with the help of amylase secreted by
the pancreas. In the digestive process, polysaccharides are reduced in length by the breaking of
bonds between glucose monomers. The macromolecules are broken down to shorter
polysaccharides and disaccharides, resulting in progressively shorter chains of glucose. The end
result is molecules of the simple sugars glucose and maltose (which consists of two glucose

molecules), both of which can be absorbed by the small intestine.

Other sugars are digested with the help of different enzymes produced by the small intestine. For
example, sucrose, or table sugar, is a disaccharide that is broken down by the enzyme sucrase to
form glucose and fructose, which are readily absorbed by the small intestine.

Digestion of the sugar lactose, which is found in milk, requires the enzyme lactase, which breaks
down lactose into glucose and galactose, which are then absorbed by the small intestine. Fewer
than half of all adults produce sufficient lactase to be able to digest lactose. Those who cannot are
said to be lactose intolerant.

Chemical Digestion

of Proteins
Proteins consist of polypeptides, which must be broken down into their constituent amino acids
before they can be absorbed. Protein digestion occurs in the stomach and small intestine
 through the action of three primary enzymes: pepsin, secreted by the stomach; and trypsin and
chymotrypsin secreted by the pancreas. The stomach also secretes hydrochloric acid, making the
contents highly acidic, which is required for pepsin to work. Trypsin and chymotrypsin in the

small intestine require an alkaline environment to work. Bile from the liver and bicarbonate from
the pancreas neutralize the acidic chyme as it empties into the small intestine. After pepsin,
trypsin, and chymotrypsin break down proteins into peptides, these are further broken down into
amino acids by other enzymes called peptidases, also secreted by the pancreas.

Chemical Digestion of Lipids

The chemical digestion of lipids begins in the mouth. The salivary glands secrete the digestive

enzyme lipase, which breaks down short-chain lipids into molecules consisting of two fatty acids.
A tiny amount of lipid digestion may take place in the stomach, but most lipid digestion

occurs in the small intestine. Digestion of lipids in the small intestine occurs with the help of
another lipase enzyme from the pancreas as well as bile secreted by the liver. Bile is required for
the digestion of lipids because lipids are oily and do not dissolve in the watery chyme.

Bile emulsifies, or breaks up, large globules of food lipids into much smaller ones, called micelles,
much as dish detergent breaks up grease. The micelles provide a great deal more surface area to
be acted upon by lipase and also point the hydrophilic (“water-loving”) heads of the fatty acids
outward into the watery chyme. Lipase can then access and break down the micelles into
individual fatty acid molecules.

Chemical Digestion of Nucleic Acids

Nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) in foods are digested in the small intestine with the help of both
pancreatic enzymes and enzymes produced by the small intestine itself. Pancreatic enzymes called
ribonuclease and deoxyribonuclease break down RNA and DNA, respectively, into smaller nucleic
acids. These, in turn, are further broken down into nitrogen bases and sugars by

small intestine enzymes called nucleases.

Chemical Digestion by Gut Flora

The human gastrointestinal tract is normally inhabited by trillions of bacteria, some of which
contribute to digestion. Here are just two of dozens of examples:

1. The most common carbohydrate in plants, which is cellulose, cannot be digested by the
human digestive system. However, tiny amounts of cellulose are digested by bacteria in
the large intestine

.
 2. Certain bacteria in the small intestine help digest lactose, which many adults cannot
otherwise digest. As a byproduct of this process, the bacteria produce lactic acid, which
increases the release of digestive enzymes and the absorption of minerals such as calcium
and iron.

Role of Pepsin in protein digestion

Disorders of GIT
Enteritis
 Enteritis is inflammation of the small intestine, commonly causing abdominal pain,
severe diarrhea, vomiting, fever, and loss of appetite.
 Usually triggered by bacterial or viral food poisoning, it typically lasts a few days, though
chronic forms exist.
Dental caries
 Dental caries, commonly known as tooth decay or cavities, is the destruction of tooth
enamel caused by acid-producing bacteria in dental plaque feeding on sugary foods.

 It is a, progressive, and preventable disease that leads to holes in teeth, causing

sensitivity, pain, and, if untreated, infection or tooth loss.