MODULE 4

MODULE 4

Metal Joining Processes

Metal joining processes refer to various methods used to connect two or more metal
components or parts to create a larger structure or to repair damaged metal parts. Some
common metal joining processes include:

1. Welding: Welding is the most common metal joining process. It involves melting the
metal components to be joined and then cooling them, causing the parts to fuse
together. Some common types of welding include arc welding, MIG welding, TIG
welding, and spot welding.

2. Brazing: Brazing is a process that uses a filler metal to join two metal components.
The filler metal has a lower melting point than the base metal, so it can be melted
and flowed into the joint between the two parts.

3. Soldering: Soldering is similar to brazing, but it uses a filler metal with an even
lower melting point. The filler metal is melted and flowed into the joint between
the two parts, creating a strong bond.

4. Adhesive bonding: Adhesive bonding involves using an adhesive to join two metal
components. The adhesive is applied to one or both parts, and then the parts are
pressed together and allowed to cure.

5. Mechanical joining: Mechanical joining methods include using bolts, screws, rivets,
or other fasteners to connect two metal components. This method does not require
heat or electricity, but it may not be as strong as welding, brazing, or soldering.

6. Explosion welding: Explosion welding involves using explosives to create a high-

speed collision between two metal components. The impact causes the metals to
fuse together, creating a strong bond.

Soldering
Soldering is a joining process in which two or more metal items are joined together by
melting and then flowing a filler metal into the joint—the filler metal having a relatively low
melting point.
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Soldering is a metal joining process that involves melting a low-melting-point metal alloy
(called solder) and using it to join two metal parts together. Soldering is often used to create
electrical connections, such as joining electronic components to a printed circuit board, or to
repair or replace metal parts in plumbing or HVAC systems.

The basic process of soldering involves cleaning and preparing the metal surfaces to be
joined, applying flux (a chemical cleaning agent) to the joint area to help the solder flow and
prevent oxidation, heating the joint area with a soldering iron or torch, and then applying the
molten solder to the joint. As the solder cools, it solidifies and forms a strong, permanent
bond between the metal [Link] requires a relatively low temperature, typically
between 200-400 degrees Celsius, depending on the type of solder and the metal being
joined. It is important to use the correct type of solder for the job, as different solders have
different melting points and compositions, and may be better suited for specific applications.
Soldering can be done by hand with a soldering iron or torch, or it can be automated using
soldering machines or robotic systems. It is a relatively simple and inexpensive method of
metal joining, and it is often preferred over welding or brazing for delicate or precision
applications, or for joining dissimilar metals that cannot be welded.

Steps To Follow When Soldering

1. Clean the surfaces: Before soldering, it is important to clean the surfaces that will be
joined to remove any dirt, grease, or oxidation. Use a fine abrasive pad or sandpaper to
remove any corrosion, and wipe the surfaces with a clean cloth or alcohol to remove
any residue.

2. Apply flux: Apply a small amount of flux to the joint area to help the solder flow and
to prevent oxidation during the soldering process. The flux can be applied with a brush
or a small applicator, or it may be included in the solder wire.

3. Heat the joint: Use a soldering iron or torch to heat the joint area until the metal
reaches the correct temperature for the solder to melt. The temperature will depend on
the type of solder being used and the metal being joined.

4. Apply solder: Once the metal is heated, touch the solder wire to the joint and allow it
to melt and flow into the joint area. Apply only enough solder to fill the joint, and
avoid applying too much, which can result in a weak joint or a short circuit.
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5. Remove the heat: Once the solder has flowed into the joint, remove the heat source
and allow the joint to cool. Do not move or disturb the joint until it has cooled
completely, as this can cause the joint to weaken or break.

6. Clean the joint: After the joint has cooled, clean any excess flux or residue from the
joint with a clean cloth or brush. Avoid touching the joint with bare hands, as the heat
may cause burns.

These are the basic steps for soldering, but the exact process may vary depending on the
specific application and the tools being used. Always follow the manufacturer's instructions
for the solder and flux being used, and wear appropriate safety gear, such as eye protection
and heat-resistant gloves, when soldering.

Important Points
Solder : Alloy of Lead and Tin .
Melting temp: 150 -3500C.
Flux: To clean the joint surfaces and to prevent the oxidation.
Eg. Zinc chloride.
Soldering iron: is used to apply heat from electrical source.
For strong joint an alloy of copper Tin and silver known as hard solder with melting temp 600- 9000C is used.

Advantages
• Soldering is a relatively simple and inexpensive method of metal joining that requires
only basic tools and equipment.
• It can be used to join dissimilar metals that cannot be welded or brazed, such as
copper and aluminum.
• Soldering can be used for delicate or precision applications, such as electronics or
jewelry making, where welding or brazing may be too strong or damaging.
• It creates a strong, permanent bond between the metal parts being joined.
• Soldering can be used to make electrical connections that are reliable and resistant
to corrosion.
• It can be done quickly and efficiently, especially when using automated soldering
machines or robotic systems.
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Disadvantages

• Soldered joints may not be as strong as welded or brazed joints, especially when
subjected to high stress or vibration.
• Soldered joints may be more prone to failure in high-temperature applications, as
solder can melt or become brittle at high temperatures.
• Soldering requires the use of flux, which can be messy and difficult to clean up if not
used properly.
• Soldering can produce toxic fumes and smoke, especially when using lead-based
solders, and appropriate ventilation and safety measures must be taken.
• Soldering may not be suitable for all types of metal joining applications, especially
those that require a high degree of precision or strength.
• Soldering may not be as visually appealing as other metal joining methods, such as
welding or brazing, as it may leave visible
• solder marks or discoloration.
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Brazing
Brazing is a metal joining process that involves melting a filler metal into the joint between
two metal parts using heat, typically with a torch or furnace. The filler metal is drawn into
the joint by capillary action, creating a strong bond between the two parts.

• Method of joining two similar or dissimilar metals using a special fusible alloy.
• This produces joints stronger than soldering.
• Base material does not melt in brazing, only the filler melts.
• In brazing, the filler metal has a melting temperature above 450°C, but below the
melting point of metals to be joined.
• Flux used is usually Borax.
Difference between Soldering and brazing

Here are some advantages and disadvantages of brazing

Advantages
• Brazing creates strong, permanent joints that are often stronger than the base metal
itself.
• Brazing can be used to join dissimilar metals, such as copper and steel, which may
not be weldable due to their different melting points or other properties.
• Brazing can be used to join thin or delicate parts without damaging them, making it
useful in applications such as electronics or jewelry making.
• Brazing can be used to create a hermetic seal, preventing air or other contaminants
from entering the joint.
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• Brazing can be done with a variety of filler metals, including silver, copper, brass, and
nickel, allowing for flexibility in material selection and performance characteristics.
• Brazing can be done quickly and efficiently, especially when using automated
brazing machines or robotic systems.

Disadvantages

• Brazing requires higher temperatures than soldering, which can be a limitation for
some materials or applications.
• Brazing can cause distortion or warping of the base metal, particularly with thin or
heat-sensitive parts.
• Brazing requires the use of flux, which can be messy and difficult to clean up if not
used properly.
• Brazing may not be suitable for all types of metal joining applications, particularly
those requiring a high degree of precision or surface finish.
• Brazing can be more expensive than other metal joining methods, particularly if
specialized equipment or materials are required.
• Brazing can produce toxic fumes and smoke, particularly when using cadmium or
other hazardous filler metals, and appropriate ventilation and safety measures must
be taken.
Difference between Soldering and brazing and welding
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Welding
Welding is a metal joining process in which two or more parts are joined at their contacting
surfaces by the application of heat or/and pressure, with or without the use of filler material.
OR
Welding is a metal joining process that involves melting the base metals being
joined along with a filler material to form a strong, permanent bond between them.

Advantages of welding:
1. Welding produces strong, permanent joints that are often stronger than the base metal
itself.
2. Welding can be used to join a wide range of materials, including steel, aluminum, and
stainless steel.
3. Welding can be used to join thick sections of metal, making it suitable for structural
applications.
4. Welding can be used to create smooth, visually appealing joints that blend in with the
surrounding metal.
5. Welding can be done quickly and efficiently, especially when using automated
welding machines or robotic systems.
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6. Welding can be used to create hermetic seals or other specialized joint

configurations, such as T-joints or lap joints.

Disadvantages of welding:
1. Welding requires high temperatures and specialized equipment, which can be
expensive and may require skilled operators.
2. Welding can cause distortion or warping of the base metal, particularly with thin or
heat-sensitive parts.
3. Welding may produce weld spatter or other surface irregularities that require additional
finishing or clean-up.
4. Welding may not be suitable for all types of metal joining applications, particularly
those requiring a high degree of precision or surface finish.
5. Welding can produce toxic fumes and smoke, particularly when using certain filler
materials or working with certain metals, and appropriate ventilation and safety
measures must be taken.
6. Welding may introduce heat-affected zones (HAZ) in the metal around the weld,
which can alter the material properties and affect its performance.
Types of welding
Welding processes can be broadly classified into
(i) Fusion welding, (ii) Pressure welding
Fusion welding
🞂 Heat is applied to melt the base metals.
🞂 In many fusion welding processes, a filler metal is used to provide strength to the
welded joint.
🞂 Types:
◦ Arc welding,
◦ Resistance welding,
◦ Gas welding,
◦ Electron beam welding,
◦ laser welding
Pressure welding
In this method, joining is done by application of pressure only or a combination of heat and
pressure.
Even if heat is used, the temperature in the process is less than the melting point of the
metals being welded. No filler metal is utilized.
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Classification of Welding

Electric Arc welding

Electric arc welding is a type of arc welding that uses a power supply to create an electric
arc between an electrode and the base metal being welded.
🞂 It is a fusion welding process in which the melting and joining of metals is done by
the heat energy generated by the arc between the work and electrode.
🞂 An electric arc is generated between the electrode and the work.
🞂 Temperature of 5500°C is generated by this arc.

Electric arc welding is a welding process that uses an electric arc to melt and join two pieces
of metal together. The process involves creating an electric arc between an electrode and the
metal being welded. The heat generated by the arc melts the metal and a filler material,
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which is added to the joint to create a strong, permanent bond.

• Preparation: The metal pieces to be welded are cleaned and prepared to ensure a
clean and secure weld. This may involve removing rust, dirt, or other contaminants
from the metal surfaces.

• Set up: The welding machine is set up with the appropriate settings for the metal
being welded, including the type and thickness of the metal, the welding position, and
the type of electrode and filler material being used.

• Arc initiation: The electrode is brought into contact with the metal and an
electric arc is created. This generates intense heat, which melts the metal and
the filler material.

• Welding: The electrode is moved along the joint, melting the metal and
depositing the filler material as needed. The operator must control the heat and
speed of the electrode to ensure a strong, smooth weld.

• Finishing: After the welding is complete, the weld is inspected and any excess weld
material is removed. The weld may also be ground or sanded to create a smooth
finish.

Arc shielding
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Shielding gas
• This covers the arc, electrode tip and weld pool from external atmosphere.
• The metals being joined are chemically reactive to oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen in
the atmosphere.
• So the shielding is done with a blanket of gas or flux, or both, which prevent exposure
of the weld metal to air.
• Common shielding gas: Argon, Helium

Electric arc welding can be performed using a variety of electrode types, including stick
electrodes, metal-cored electrodes, and flux-cored electrodes. The process can be performed
manually or with the use of automated welding machines or robotic systems.

Electrodes Types
Two types of electrodes are used:
•Consumable
• non-consumable
Consumable electrodes: Present in rod or wire form with 200 to 450 mm length and less
than 10 mm diameter. The electrode is consumed by the arc during the welding process
and added to the weld joint as filler metal.
Non-Consumable electrodes:
The electrodes are not consumed during arc welding.
Filler metal is supplied by means of a separate wire that is fed into the weld pool.

Advantages of arc welding

1. Arc welding produces strong, permanent joints that are often stronger than the base
metal itself.
2. Arc welding can be used to join a wide range of materials, including steel, aluminum,
and stainless steel.
3. Arc welding can be done quickly and efficiently, especially when using
automated welding machines or robotic systems.
4. Arc welding can be used to create smooth, visually appealing joints that blend in with
the surrounding metal.
5. Arc welding can be used in a variety of positions, including flat, horizontal, vertical,
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and overhead.
6. Arc welding can be performed in outdoor or remote locations, as long as there is a
source of electricity.
Disadvantages of arc welding:
1. Arc welding requires specialized equipment and safety precautions, such as
protective clothing and welding helmets, which can be expensive and may require
skilled operators.
2. Arc welding can cause distortion or warping of the base metal, particularly with thin or
heat-sensitive parts.
3. Arc welding may produce weld spatter or other surface irregularities that require
additional finishing or clean- up.
4. Arc welding may not be suitable for all types of metal joining applications,
particularly those requiring a high degree of precision or surface finish.
5. Arc welding can produce toxic fumes and
6.
Applications of arc welding:
1. Construction and infrastructure projects (bridges, buildings, highways, etc.)
2. Manufacturing of metal products (including cars, planes, ships, and heavy equipment)
3. Repair and maintenance of machinery and equipment
4. Welding of pipes and pipelines (including for oil and gas industry)
5. Fabrication and installation of metal artwork and sculptures
6. Maintenance and repair of industrial plants and facilities
7. Welding of pressure vessels, boilers, and other large containers
8. Fabrication and installation of metal stairways, handrails, and other architectural
features
9. Welding of fences, gates, and other metal structures
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Gas Welding(Oxy Acetylene Welding)

Gas welding is a welding process that uses a fuel gas, such as acetylene, and oxygen to create
a flame that melts and joins two pieces of metal together

Gas welding is a welding process that uses a fuel gas, such as acetylene, and oxygen to create
a flame that melts and joins two pieces of metal together. Here are the basic steps involved in
gas welding:
Process of gas welding
1. Preparation: The metal pieces to be welded are cleaned and prepared to ensure a
clean and secure weld. This may involve removing rust, dirt, or other contaminants
from the metal surfaces.

2. Set up: The welding equipment is set up with the appropriate settings for the metal
being welded, including the type and thickness of the metal, the welding position,
and the gas flow rate.

3. Flame creation: The fuel gas and oxygen are mixed in the welding torch and ignited to
create a flame. The size and intensity of the flame can be adjusted to control the heat
input and ensure a high-quality weld.
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4. Welding: The operator uses the welding torch to heat the metal and melt a filler rod or
wire, which is added to the joint to create a strong, permanent bond. The operator
must control the heat and speed of the torch to ensure a strong, smooth weld.

5. Finishing: After the welding is complete, the weld is inspected and any excess weld
material is removed. The weld may also be ground or sanded to create a smooth
finish.

6. Gas welding can be performed using a variety of fuel gases, including acetylene,
propane, and natural gas, as well as a variety of filler metals, including steel, copper,
and aluminum. The process can be performed manually or with the use of automated
welding machines or robotic systems.
Gas welding has some advantages over other welding processes, such as its ability to be used
in remote locations and its precise heat control. However, it can be slower and less efficient
than other welding processes and may require more skill and experience to perform
effectively.
Advantages of gas welding:
1. Gas welding can be used to join a wide range of materials, including steel, copper, and
aluminum.
2. Gas welding produces a high-quality weld with good strength and toughness.
3. Gas welding allows for precise control over the heat input and allows for fine-tuned
adjustments during the welding process.
4. Gas welding can be performed in remote locations, as long as there is a source of fuel
gas and oxygen.
5. Gas welding equipment is relatively portable and can be used for both indoor
and outdoor welding applications.
Disadvantages of gas welding:
1. Gas welding can be slower and less efficient than other welding processes,
particularly for large or complex welds.
2. Gas welding can be more difficult to learn and may require more skill and
experience than other welding processes.
3. Gas welding can produce more heat distortion and warping of the base metal than
other welding processes, particularly with thin or heat-sensitive parts.
4. Gas welding requires specialized equipment and safety precautions, such as
protective clothing, welding goggles, and proper ventilation, which can be
expensive and may require skilled operators.
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5. Gas welding may not be suitable for all types of metal joining applications,
particularly those requiring a high degree of precision or surface finish.

Applications of Gas Welding

1. Metal Fabrication: Gas welding is commonly used in metal fabrication, where
it is used to join metal pieces together to create structures such as railings,
gates, and fences.
2. Automotive Repair: Gas welding is used in the automotive industry to repair
damaged metal parts, such as body panels, frames, and exhaust systems
3. Aircraft Maintenance: Gas welding is also used in aircraft maintenance and
repair, where it is used to repair damaged parts and perform maintenance on
the aircraft's structure
4. Pipe Welding: Gas welding is commonly used to weld pipes made of various
metals, including steel, copper, and aluminum.
5. Jewelry Making: Gas welding is used in the jewelry industry to join small metal
pieces together, such as in the creation of rings, necklaces, and bracelets.
6. Sculpture: Gas welding is used in sculpture to join metal pieces together and create
intricate designs.
7. Artistic Welding: Gas welding is also used in artistic welding, where welders
create sculptures and other artistic pieces using metal as their medium.
8. Construction: Gas welding is used in construction for welding steel structures
such as bridges, high-rise buildings, and other large structures.
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Neutral Flame
• The neutral flame has a one-to-one ratio of acetylene and oxygen.
• Neutral flame has a temperature of 32500C
• The neutral flame is so called because it is chemically balanced and has no
tendencies to react with any material used for welding.
• It has a well-defined inner or white cone and outer envelope and it produce a
temperature capable of melting all commercial metals.
• This flame is mainly used for steel, stainless steel, copper, and aluminium, etc.
Carburizing Flame
• The carburizing flame or reducing fleme shows the inner cone (bluish white), the
intermediate cone(white), the outer envelope flame is light blue.
• Reducing flame has a temperature of 31500C
• High Carburizing flames are not used in cutting low-carbon steels because the
additional carbon they add embrittlement and hardness. These flames are ideal for
cutting cast iron because the additional carbon poses no problems
Oxidising Flame
• An oxidising flame has an excess of oxygen.
• This type of flame is used where the maximum temperature is desired.
• This flame has a temperature of 34800C. This type of flame is used in following
cases
• To weld copper, brass, bronze and zinc alloys.
• For gas cutting
 Introduction:
Manufacturing process may be defined as a process of converting, the raw
material into your finished product of required size and shape depending
upon the various processes and methods.

Manufacturing process is broadly classified into two groups.

Manufacturing

Tertiary Manufacturing
Primary Manufacturing

Metal Forming process

Metal Cutting Process

Machining

Figure: Block diagram of Classification of manufacturing Process

In metal cutting process, extra amount of material is removed from the

workpiece in the form of chips. The material removed due to the relative
motion between the cutting tool and the work- piece.
In metal forming process, no material is removed, but it is forced to change its
size and shape by applying external pressure.

Machine Tools:
When machines perform the metal cutting operations by the cutting tools
mounted on them, they are called “Machine tools”. A machine tool may be
defined as a power-driven machine which accomplishes the cutting or
machining operations on it. The machine tools used for most of the machining
processes are Lathe, Drilling, Planing, Milling and Grinding machines

Lathe Machine Tool:

 The Lathe is one of the oldest machine tools used to produce cylindrical
objects. The modern engine late are first developed in the year 1797 by an
Englishman Henry Maudslay. The main function of the lathe is to removal
of metal from a work piece of work to give it a required shape and size.
This is accomplished by holding the work securely and rigidly on the machine
and then turning it against a cutting tool which will remove the material from
the work in the form of a chip. To cut the material properly, the tool should
be harder than that of the material of the work piece.

Principle working of a Lathe Machine Tool:

Lathe machine is one of the most important machine tools which is used in the
metalworking industry. It operates on the principle of a rotating work piece and
a fixed cutting tool. The cutting tool is feed into the work piece which rotates
about its own axis causing the workpiece to form the desired shape.

Figure: Principle of turning operation on Lathe

Classification of Lathe Machine Tools:

Lathes are classified based on their design, construction and application.
Following are some of the important lathes used in industries.
1. Speed Lathe
2. Engine Lathe
3. Bench Lathe
4. Tool Room Lathe
5. Capstan & Turret Lathe
6. Special Purpose Lathe
7. Automatic Lathe
8. CNC Lathe (Turning Centres)
Construction & Working Principle of Centre Lathe/ Engine Lathe:
The schematic arrangement of the Centre or Engine Lathe is as shown in the
following figure. The major parts of a centre lathes are:
1. Bed & Guideways
2. Headstock
3. Tailstock
4. Lathe bed
5. Carriage Assembly
6. Driving mechanism & Feeding mechanism

Figure: Schematic arrangement of Centre Lathe.

Bed: The bed forms, the base of the machine. The headstock and the tail stocks
are located at either end of the bed and the carriage rest over the lathe bed and
slides on it. The guide ways of the lathe bed may be flat and inverted V type
having an include angle of 90 degree.

Headstock: The headstock is secured permanently on the inner waves, at the

left end of the lathe bed and it provides mechanical means of rotating the work at
multiple speeds, It contains a hallow spindle and mechanism for driving and
altering this spindle speed. All the parts are housed within the headstock casting.
Tailstock: The tail stock is located on the inner waves at the right end and top of
the bed ways. This has two main uses.
1. It supports the other end of the workpiece. When it is being machine between the
centres.
2. It holds the tool for performing operations, such as drilling. Riming tapping
etc., to accommodate different length of work.
The body of the Tailstock can be adjusted along the length of the bed-ways by
sliding it to the desired position, and can be locked on a lathe bed-way.

Carriage: The carriage of a lathe has several parts that serves to support, move and
control the cutting tool. It consists of the following parts saddle cross, slide,
Compound slide, tool post and apron.

Saddle: The saddle is an H- shape casting that fits over the bed and slides
along the base. It carries the cross slide and tool post.

Cross slide: It is mounted on the saddle and enables the movement of the cutting
tool
laterally, across the lathe bed by means of a cross feed handle. It also serves as
the support for the compound rest.
Compound rest: The compound rest is mounted on top of the cross slide and has
a circular base graduated in degrees. It is used for obtaining angular cuts and
short tapers. As well as convenient positioning of the tool at the work.
Tool post: This is located on top of the compound slide to hold the tool and
enable it to be adjusted to convenient Working position,
Feed mechanism: The movement of the tool related to the work is called as a
feed. The feed can be given either by the hand, or by automatic or powered feed.
To get the automatic feed, carriage is engaged to feed rod. while for cutting
threads, carriage is engaged to screw rod.

Lathe Operations:

Some of the operations carried out on a lathe machine are as listed below;
 1. Facing
2. Turning
3. Step turning
4. Taper turning
5. Knurling
6. Thread cutting
7. Drilling
8. Counter sinking
9. Contour forming
10. Boring etc,

1. Facing: Is the operation of machining the ends of a piece of the work to produce
a flat surface perpendicular with the axis. This is also used to cut the work to the
required length. The operation involves feeding the tool perpendicular to the axis
of rotation of the work piece. A regular cutting tool may be used for facing a large
work piece. The cutting edge should be set at the same height as the centre of the
work piece. A properly ground facing tool is mounted in a tool holder in the tool
post to accomplish facing operation.

Figure: Facing Operation

2. Turning Operation:
 Figure: Turning Operation
The process of metal removal from the cylindrical jobs is called straight or
plain turning. Cross- slide and the carriage are used to perform turning operation
and make the operation faster and economical. Plain turning operations are
generally performed in two steps-rough and finish turning.
Rough turning is usually done for rolled, cast or forged parts to remove the
uneven or sandy or rough surface on the jobs. A roughing tool does roughing and
used for excess stock removal. For finishing a tool with slightly round cutting
edge is used. The depth of cut rate is at the range of 0.2 to 1 mm and the feed
rate between 0.1 to 0.3 mm.

3. Knurling:

Figure: Knurling operations

Knurling is an operation performed on the lathe to generate serrated surface on
the work piece. This is used to produce a rough surface for griping like the
barrel of the micrometre or screw gauge. This is done by a special tool called
knurling tool which has a set of hardened rollers with the desired serrations.
During knurling operation, the hardened rollers of the tool are pressed against
the slowly rotating work pieces such that the impression of tool serrations are
formed on the work pieces surface.

4. Taper turning:
Taper turning is an operation to produce conical surface on the work piece. This
can be machined by either work piece inclined to the axis of the lathe or tool
moving inclined to the axis of the lathe.
There are many methods for taper turning
a) By swivelling the compound rest. b) By offsetting the tail stock.
c) By taper turning attachment.
d) By using form tool/ Broad nose tool
e) Combination of Longitudinal and Transverse feed movement.

a) Taper Turning by Swiveling the compound Tool Rest

Figure: Taper turning by Swiveling the compound rest method

The work pieces which require steep taper for short lengths the taper
turning was done by swiveling the compound rest method. In this method the
compound tool rest is swiveled to the required taper angle and then locked in the
angular position. The carriage is also locked at that position. For taper turning the
compound rest is moved linearly at an angle so that the cutting tool produces the
tapered surface on the work piece. This method is limited to short taper lengths
due to the limited movement of the compound tool rest.
The taper angle is calculated by,

Where,
D= bigger diameter of the taper (mm) d= smaller diameter of the taper (mm) L=
Length of the taper (mm)
 b)Taper Turning by Offsetting the Tailstock (or Tailstock set over
method)
In this method the work piece is inclined with respect to the lathe axis
and tool movement is in line with the lathe axis to produce the required taper.
Here the tail stock body is shifted by small distance (offset) laterally. This makes
the work piece is shifted at one end and hence there will be an inclination with
respect to the lathe axis. The tool is moved parallel to the lathe axis and fed
against the revolving work piece which produces the required taper.

Figure: Taper turning by Setover method

The offset is calculated by,

Milling Machine Tool
Milling is a metal cutting operation in which the cutting tool is a slow
revolving cutter having cutting teeth formed on its periphery. The milling
cutter is a multipoint cutting tool. The work piece is mounted on a movable
worktable, which will be fed against the revolving milling cutter to perform
the cutting operation.

Principle of Milling

(a) (b)
Figure: (a) Up milling and (b) Down milling operation
Figure shown above is the principle of cutting action of a milling cutter.
The milling cutter is mounted on a rotating shaft known as arbor. The work
piece which is mounted on the table can be fed either in the direction opposite
to that of the rotating cutter as shown in above fig (a) or in the same direction
to that of the cutter as shown in above fig (b). When the work piece is fed in
the opposite direction to the cutter tooth at the point of contact, the process is
called as conventional or up-milling.

Milling Machine Tool: A Milling Machine is a machine tool in which a

stationary work piece is fed against a rotating multi point cutter.

Various types of milling machines are

1) Plain or horizontal type of milling machine.
2) Vertical Milling Machine
3) Universal Milling machine
4) Planer type milling machine
5) Profile cutting milling machine.
 Horizontal Milling Machine
The schematic arrangement of horizontal milling machine/ column and
knee typr milling machine is as shown in the figure.

Figure: Horizontal / Column & Nee type milling machine

Milling machine has some principal parts. Their understanding would help us
in understanding how the machine operates. The various parts are
1. Base
2. Column
3. Arbor
4. Knee
5. Saddle
6. Table
7. Overhanging arm
8. Driving and feeding Mechanism

Base: Base forms the foundation of the machine tool. It’s a rectangular
casting made up of Cast Iron. The one end of the base houses the Column and
other end of the base contains a space for table elevating screw or knee
supporting screw.
Column: The column is another rectangular casting mounted on one end of
the base. The column is ribbed heavily in order to support the knee. The front
vertical face of the column is provided with a vertical slide, which may be of
square or dovetail type. The knee moves up and down on this slide. At the top
of the column, an internal dovetail slide accommodates a cast overarm. The
overarm supports the arbor. It also houses the driving mechanism to drive the
spindle and feeding mechanism to feed the table.
Arbor: The arbor is a horizontal shaft provided with a straight body and
tapered shank. On the straight portion of arbor, rotary cutters are mounted. The
tapered end of the arbor fits into the tapered hole of the spindle. The other
end of the arbor is mounted in a bearing housed in the projecting overarm.
The knee of the casting mounted on the front vertical slide of the column and
is moved up or down by an elevating screw. The upper face of the knee is
provided with guide ways so as to mount the saddle.
Knee: The Knee is a casting mounted on the front vertical slide of the
column and is moved up or down by an elevating screw. The upper face of
the knee is provided with guide ways so as to mount the saddle.
Saddle: The saddle is casting provided with two slides one at the top and
the other at the bottom, which are exactly right angles to each other. The
lower slide fits within the guideways on the top of the knee and the upper
slide receives the dovetail guides provided on the bottom of the table.
Table: The table is mounted on the top of the saddle. The bottom of the
table has a dovetail slide which fits in the slide way on the top of the saddle.
The top the table is machined with full length T-slots for mounting vices or
other work holding fixtures.
Overhanging Arm: The overhanging arm extends from the column in
order to support the arbor. The front brace attached to the overhanging arm
supports the free end of the arbor and thus provides rigidity to the rotating
cutter.

Milling machine Operations/ Applications:

A variety of milling operations are performed on a milling machine to
produce a horizontal, vertical, inclined surfaces, keyways, slots, gear teeth
etc., A few of the most commonly used milling operations are described here.
1. Slab Milling
This method is also called as plain milling. The plain milling is the most
common types of milling machine operations.
• Slab milling is performed to produce a plain, flat, horizontal surface
parallel to the axis of rotation of a plain milling cutter.
• The operation is also known as slab milling.
• To perform the operation, the work and the cutter are secured properly on
the machine.
• The depth of cut is set by rotating the vertical feed screw of the table.
And the machine is started after selecting the right speed and feed.
Figure: Slab/ Plain Milling Operation

2. Slot
Milling
The slot milling, also called as groove or keyway cutting is done on a
horizontal milling cutter or using an end milling cutter.
• The operation of producing of keyways, grooves and slots of varying
shapes and sizes can be performed in a milling machine.
• It is done by using a plain milling cutter, a metal slitting saw, an end
mill or by a side milling cutter.

• The open slots can be cut by a plain milling cutter, a metal slitting
saw, or by a side milling cutter. The closed slots are produced by
using end mills.

Figure: Slot Milling/ Grooving operation

3. Face Milling

Figure: Face Milling operation

 In this method, the flat surfaces are milled by the cutters, which are mounted
with their axes perpendicular to the milled surfaces.
• The face milling is the simplest milling machine operations.
• This operation is performed by a face milling cutter rotated about an
axis perpendicular to the work surface.
• The operation is carried in plain milling, and the cutter is mounted on a
stub arbor to design a flat surface.
• The depth of cut is adjusted by rotating the cross-feed screw of the table.

4. Angular Milling
In this method, inclined surfaces are produces by milling cutters having their
teeth inclined to their axes. Dovetail grooves and V-guides are machined by
this method.
• The angular milling is the operation of producing an angular surface
on a workpiece other than at right angles of the axis of the milling
machine spindle.
• The angular groove may be single or double angle and may be of
varying included angle according to the type and contour of the
angular cutter used.
• One simple example of angular milling is the production of V-blocks.

Figure: Angular Milling

5. Form Milling

Figure:Form Milling
In this method, surfaces having irregular profile are milled by suitable cutters.
• The form milling is the operation of producing the irregular
contour by using form cutters.
 • The irregular shape may be convex, concave, or of any other shape.
After machining, the formed surface is inspected by a template gauge.
• Cutting rate for form milling is 20% to 30% less than that of the plain
milling.

Other Lathe Operations:

 Drilling Machine Tool
Introduction

Drilling machine is one of the most important machine tools in a

workshop. It was designed to produce a cylindrical hole of required
diameter and depth on metal workpieces. Though holes can be made by
different machine tools in a shop, drilling machine is designed specifically
to perform the operation of drilling and similar operations. Drilling can be
done easily at a low cost in a shorter period of time in a drilling machine.

Drilling can be called as the operation of producing a cylindrical

hole of required diameter and depth by removing metal by the rotating
edges of a drill. The cutting tool known as drill is fitted into the spindle of
the drilling machine. A mark of indentation is made at the required location
with a centre punch. The rotating drill is pressed at the location and is fed
into the work. The hole can be made up to a required depth.

Types of drilling machines

Drilling machines are manufactured in different types and sizes
according to the type of operation, amount of feed, depth of cut, spindle
speeds, method of spindle movement and the required accuracy.
The different types of drilling machines are:
1. Portable drilling machine (or) Hand drilling machine
2. Sensitive drilling machine (or) Bench drilling machine
3. Upright drilling machine
4. Radial drilling machine
5. Gang drilling machine
6. Multiple spindle drilling machine
7. Deep hole drilling machine

Upright drilling machine

The upright drilling machine is designed for handling medium
sized workpieces. Though it looks like a sensitive drilling machine, it is
larger and heavier than a sensitive drilling machine. Holes of diameter up
to 50mm can be made with this type of machine. Besides, it is supplied
with power feed arrangement. For drilling different types of work, the
machine is provided with a number of spindle speeds and feed.

Base
The base is a rectangular casting made of cast iron and so can withstand
vibrations. It is mounted on a on the floor. It supports all the other parts of
 the machine on it.
Column
The column stands vertically on the base at one end. It supports the work
table and the drill head. The drill head has drill spindle and the driving
motor on either side of the column

Figure: Upright Drilling Machine

Table
The table is mounted on the vertical column and can be adjusted up and
down on it. The table has ‘T’-slots on it for holding the workpieces or to
hold any other work holding device. The table can be adjusted vertically to
accommodate workpieces of different heights and can be clamped at the
required position.
Drill head
Drill head is mounted on the top side of the column. The drill spindle and
the driving motor are connected by means of a V-belt and cone pulleys.
The motion is transmitted to the spindle from the motor by the belt. The
pinion attached to the handle meshes with the rack on the sleeve of the
spindle for providing the drill the required down feed.

Radial drilling machine

The radial drilling machine is intended for drilling on medium to large and
heavy workpieces. It has a heavy round column mounted on a large base.
The column supports a radial arm, hich can be raised or lowered to enable
the table to accommodate workpieces of different heights. The arm, which
has the drill head on it, can be swung around to any position. The drill
head can be made to slide on the radial arm. The machine is named so
because of this reason. It consists of parts like base, column, radial arm,
drill head and driving mechanism. A radial drilling machine is illustrated
 in Figure.

Figure: Radial drilling Machine

Drilling machine operations

Though drilling is the primary operation performed in a drilling machine, a
number of similar operations are also performed on holes using different
tools. The different operations that can be performed in a drilling machine
are:
1. Drilling
2. Reaming
3. Boring
4. Counter boring
5. Countersinking
6. Spot facing
7. Tapping
8. Trepanning

1. Drilling:
Drilling can be called as the operation of producing a cylindrical hole
of required diameter and depth by removing metal by the rotating edges of
a drill. The cutting tool known as drill is fitted into the spindle of the
drilling machine. A mark of indentation is made at the required location
with a centre punch. The rotating drill is pressed at the location and is fed
into the work. The hole can be made up to a required depth.
2. Reaming:
Reaming shown in Figure, is an accurate way of sizing and finishing a hole
which has been previously drilled. In order to finish a hole and to bring it to
the accurate size, the hole is drilled slightly undersize. The speed of the
spindle is made half that of drilling and automatic feed may be employed.
The tool used for reaming is known as the reamer which has multiple
cutting edges. Reamer cannot be used to drill a hole. It simply. follows the
path which has been previously drilled and removes a very small amount of
metal

Figure: Reaming operation

3. Boring
Boring is the operation of enlarging the size of the previously drilled hole.
For this purpose a special purpose cutting tool is used. Boring operation is

also carried out to finish a hole accurately and to bring it to the required
size.
 Figure: Boring operation

Introduction to Advanced Manufacturing Systems

Computer Numeric Control [CNC] Machine:
Introduction: Computer Numeric Control (CNC) is the automation of
machine tools that are operated by precisely programmed commands
encoded on a storage medium (computer command module, usually
located on the device. Most NC today is computer (or computerized)
numerical control (CNC), in which computers play an integral part of the
control.

Definition
Computer Numerical Control (CNC) is one in which the functions and
motions of a machine tool are controlled by means of a prepared program
containing coded alphanumeric data. CNC can control the motions of the
work piece or tool, the input parameters such as feed, depth of cut, speed,
and the functions such as turning spindle on/off, turning coolant on/off
etc,.

Components of CNC:
A CNC machine tool following units in its construction,
1) Input device
2) MCU or machine control unit
3) Machine tool
4) Driving System
5) Feedback devices
6) Display Unit

Figure: Block diagram showing Components of CNC machine tool

1. Input Devices: Input devises are the devises used to enter the part
program into the machine tool. Universal Serial Bus (USB), ethernet
 communication, Tapes and recording devices can be used as input devices.
2. Machine Control Unit: The machine control unit (MCU) is a
microcomputer that stores the program and executes the commands into
actions by the machine tool. The MCU consists of two main units: the data
processing unit (DPU) and the control loops unit (CLU). The DPU
processes the data from the part program and provides it to the CLU which
operates the drives attached to the machine leadscrews and receives
feedback signals on the actual position and velocity of each one of the
axes. A driver (dc motor) and a feedback device are attached to the
leadscrew. The CLU consists of the circuits for position and velocity
control loops, deceleration and backlash take up, function controls such as
spindle on/off.
3. Machine Tool: The machine tool could be one of the following: lathe,
milling machine, laser, plasma, Coordinate measuring machine etc.
Machine tool actuated as per the program through various mechanical
driving and feeding mechanisms. Machine tool perform the intended task
over the work piece.
4. Driving system: A drive system essentially is made up of amplifier
circuits, drive motors and ball lead screws. Commonly used types of
electrical motors include DC Servo motors, AC servo motors, Stepping
motors and Linear motors
5. Feed back devices: For accurate operation of a CNC machine, the
positional values and speed of the axes need to continuously updated.
Inorder to perform this task Positional feed back devices and velocity feed
back devices are used.
The positional feedback systems gives the position of the tool/ workpice
with respect to the reference point. Velocity feed back system gives the
state of the velocity of the sped of the spindle, cutting tool and the
movement of the table etc.,
6. Display Unit: Device that ensures interaction between the machine
operator and the machine is called as a display unit. It displays the current
status of the operation such as the spindle RPM, running part program,
feed rate, position of the machine slide etc. it also shows the graphic
simulation of the path taken by the tool and that the operator can verify the
part program before actual machining and any malfunction of the CNC
system is also displayed as warnings.

Advantages of the CNC Machine Tool:

• Accuracy and repeatability obtained is high. Most aircraft parts are

produced today on CNC machines
• Complex shaped contours can be machined. Turbine blades, impellers etc.
• Can be easily programmed to handle variety of product styles
• High volume of production compared to conventional machines
• Lesser skilled or trained people can operate CNC machines unlike
conventional ones where high skilled people are required
• CNC machines can be used uninterruptedly without turning them off
provided regular maintenance is done
• Avoids errors that were otherwise committed by humans operating conventional
machines
• Since CNC machines can be programmed, one person may well take care
of a number of CNC machines. Reduces employees and hence costs are
reduced
• Using CNC machines results in a safer work environment
• Can be upgraded to a newer technologies by replacing the existing CNC
controller with advanced one

Disadvantages of the CNC Machine:

• Thorough programming knowledge is required by the operators or
programmers.
• Skilled programmers required, cost of the labour can be high
• Cost of the CNC machine is high compared to the conventional machine tools
• Spares of CNC machines are relatively costlier than conventional machines
• CNC machines require air conditioned environment and /or a chiller
unit. Thus extra costs are involved.

CNC Machining Centres:

• The term “machining centers” describes almost any CNC milling and
drilling machine that includes an automatic tool changer and a table that
clamps the workpiece in place.
• CNC machine center is a advance manufacturing machine tool which
performs wide range of machining operation with accuracy and good
quality surface finish.
• The orientation of the spindle is the most fundamental defining
characteristic of a CNC machining centers.
• CNC machining centers can further be classified based on the rotation of
either the work piece Or the rotation of the tool as:
1. CNC turning machines
2. CNC Milling machines

CNC Turning Centres:

• The primary function of a CNC Turning Center is that it rotates (or “turns”)
your workpiece.
• CNC Turning Machines are one of the oldest and simplest forms of
machining parts, called “lathes,” .
• Can be either horizontal or vertical depending on the weight and tolerance
of the workpiece.
• Work-peices for this process are usually round, but can be other shapes — like
squares or hexagons.
• The work-piece is held in place by an instrument known as the “chuck.”
The chuck then spins at various RPMs (depending on the capability of
your machine).
• When this occurs, the machine’s tool moves into the rotating workpiece
and begins to shave away material to create the desired shape.

Figure: CNC Turning centre and machining centre

CNC Milling Centres/ Machining Centres:

• The primary function of a CNC Milling Machine is that your tool will
be doing the rotating and moving while your workpiece stays in one spot
(generally).
• Milling is a more specific process that is similar to drilling and cutting.
• These machines can also be either horizontal or vertical, again
depending on the tolerance and weight of your workpiece.
• This process has many axes that allow for a variety of shapes, holes, and
slots to be cut into the workpiece at many angles.
• These axes provide many different maneuvers, either by the spindle or the
bed, to cut the part desired to the exact specifications.
3D Printing

A method of manufacturing known as ‘Additive manufacturing’, due to the

fact that instead of removing material to create a part, the process adds
material in successive patterns to create the desired shape.

Main areas of use:

• Prototyping
• Specialized parts – aerospace, military, biomedical engineering, dental
• Hobbies and home use
• Future applications– medical (body parts), buildings and cars

3D Printing uses software that slices the 3D model into layers (0.01mm
thick or less in most cases). Each layer is then traced onto the build plate by
the printer, once the pattern is completed, the build plate is lowered and the
next layer is added on top of the previous one.
Typical manufacturing techniques are known as ‘Subtractive
Manufacturing’ because the process is one of removing material from a
preformed block. Processes such as Milling and Cutting are subtractive
manufacturing techniques. This type of process creates a lot of waste since;
the material that is cut off generally cannot be used for anything else and is
simply sent out as scrap. 3D Printing eliminates such waste since the
material is placed in the location that it is needed only, the rest will be left
out as empty space.
Basic Principles of Additive Manufacturing: (Steps of AM process)
 AM involves 8 steps that move from the virtual CAD description to the physical
resultant part

Step 1: CAD
All AM parts must start from a software model that fully describes the
external geometry. This can involve the use of almost any professional
CAD solid modeling software, but the output must be a 3D solid or surface
representation. Reverse engineering equipment (e.g., laser scanning) can
also be used to create this representation.

Step 2: Conversion to STL

Nearly every AM machine accepts the STL file format, which has become
a de facto standard, and nearly every CAD system can output such a file
format. This file describes the external closed surfaces of the original CAD
model and forms the basis for calculation of the slices.

Step 3: Transfer to AM Machine and STL File Manipulation

The STL file describing the part must be transferred to the AM machine.
Here, there may be some general manipulation of the file so that it is the
correct size, position, and orientation for building.

Step 4: Machine Setup

The AM machine must be properly set up prior to the build process. Such
settings would relate to the build parameters like the material constraints,
energy source, layer thickness, timings, etc.
Step 5: Build
Building the part is mainly an automated process and the machine can
largely carry on without supervision. Only superficial monitoring of the
machine needs to take place at this time to ensure no errors have taken
place like running out of material, power or software glitches, etc.

Step 6: Removal
Once the AM machine has completed the build, the parts must be removed.
This may require interaction with the machine, which may have safety
interlocks to ensure for example that the operating temperatures are
sufficiently low or that there are no actively moving parts.

Step 7: Post processing

Once removed from the machine, parts may require an amount of

additional cleaning up before they are ready for use. Parts may be weak at
this stage or they may have supporting features that must be removed. This
therefore often requires time and careful, experienced manual

Step 8: Application

Parts may now be ready to be used. However, they may also require
additional treatment before they are acceptable for use. For example, they
may require priming and painting to give an acceptable surface texture and
finish. Treatments may be laborious and lengthy if the finishing
requirements are very demanding.

Advantages of Additive Manufacturing Technologies:

1. Variety is free – Changing a part is simple and can be made easily in

the original CAD file and the new print can be taken easily.
2. Complexity is free – Printing of a complex part costs less than simple
cubes of the same size The less solid or more complex object, it can be
fastly and cheaply made through additiv manufacturing.
3. No need for assembly – Hinges and bicycle chains are some of the
moving parts which can be printed in metal directly into the product and
thus reduce the part numbers.
4. Little-skill manufacturing – Professionals take care of the
complicated parts with specific parameters and high-tech applications,
children in the elementary school have created their on figures by use of
3D printing processes.
5. Few Constraints – In the CAD software one can dream anything and
design the same and create it with additive manufacturing.
6. Various shades of materials – In the CAD files, the engineers can
program parts to have specific colors and printers can use materials of any
color to print them.
7. Lower energy consumption: AM saves energy by eliminating
production steps, using substantially less material, enabling reuse of by-
products, and producing lighter products
8. Less Waste: Building objects up layer by layer, instead of traditional
machining processes that cut away material can reduce materi al needs and
costs by up to 90%. AM can also reduce the “cradle-to-gate” environmental
footprints of component manufacturing through avoidance of the tools,
dies, and materials scrap associated with CM processes. Additionally, AM
reduces waste by lowering human error in production.
9. Reduced time to market: Items can be fabricated as soon as the 3-D
digital description of the part has been created, eliminating the need for
expensive and time-consuming part tooling and prototype fabrication.
10. Innovation: AM enables designs with novel geometries that would be
difficult or impossible to achieve using CM processes, which can improve a
component’s engineering performance. Novel geometries enabled by AM
technologies can also lead to performance and environmental benefit s in a
component’s product application.
11. Part Consolidation: The ability to design products with fewer, more
complex parts, rather than a large number of simpler parts – is the most
important of these benefits. Reducing the number of parts in an assembly
immediately cuts the overhead associated with documentation and
production planning and control. Also, fewer parts mean less time and
labor is required for
assembling the product, again contributing to a reduction in overall
manufacturing costs. The “footprint” of the assembly line may also become
smaller, further cutting costs
12. Lightweight: With the elimination of tooling and the ability to create
complex shapes, AM enables the design of parts that can often be made to
the same functional specifications as conventional parts, but with less
material.
13. Agility to manufacturing operations: Additive techniques enable rapid
response to markets and create new production options outside of factories,
such as mobile units that can be placed near the source of local materials.
Spare parts can be produced on demand, reducing or eliminating the need
for stockpiles and complex supply chains.

Disadvantages of Additive Manufacturing Technologies:

1. Production cost is high – With the use of techniques other than

additive manufacturing, parts can be made faster and hence the extra
time can lead to higher costs. Besides, high-quality of additive
manufacturing machines may cost high.
2. Discontinuous production process – To prevent economies of
scale, parts can only be printed one at a time.
3. Requires post-processing – The surface finish and dimensional
accuracy are of low quality than other manufacturing methods.
4. Slow build rates – Some of the printers lay down material at speed
of one to five cubic inches per hour. Depending on the part needed
the other manufacturing processes may be higher.
5. Considerable effort in application design and setting process
parameters – Material design needs vast knowledge and additive
manufacturing machine is needed to make quality parts.
6. Poor mechanical properties – Layering and multiple interfaces
can cause defects in the product.
7. Post-processing is needed – Surface finish and dimensional
 accuracy may be of low quality than other manufacturing methods.

Applications of Additive Manufacturing Technologies:

• Automotive applications
• Aerospace applications
• Biomedical applications
• Consumer goods applications
• Space applications
• Health care applications
• Artistic Industry
Architectural Industry
•
Additive Manufacturing Processes:

Additive manufacturing processes are classified into seven areas on the basis of

• Type of materials used

• Deposition technique, and
• The way the material is fused or solidified

These classifications have been developed by the ASTM

International Technical Committee F42 on additive manufacturing
technologies.
The seven major additive manufacturing processes classified as per ASTM
F42 are:

1. Photopolymerization
2. Material jetting
3. Binder jetting
4. Material extrusion
5. Powder Bed Fusion
6. Sheet Lamination
7. Direct Energy Deposition

Photopolymerisation:

Photopolymerization processes make use of liquid, radiation curable resins,

or photopolymers as their primary materials. Most photopolymers react to
radiation in the ultraviolet (UV) range of wavelengths, but some visible
light systems are used as well. Upon irradiation, these materials undergo a
chemical reaction to become solid. This reaction is called
 photopolymerization. Related Additive manufacturing technology which
uses Photopolymerization is Steriolithography (SLA).

Vat polymerisation uses a vat of liquid photopolymer resin, out of which the
model is constructed layer by layer. An ultraviolet (UV) light is used to cure
or harden the resin where required, whilst a platform moves the object
being made downwards after each new layer is cured.

As the process uses liquid to form objects, there is no structural support

from the material during the build phase., unlike powder based methods,
where support is given from the unbound material.

In this case, support structures will often need to be added. Resins are
cured using a process of photo polymerisation or UV light, where the light
is directed across the surface of the resin with the use of motor controlled
mirrors. Where the resin comes in contact with the light, it cures or hardens.

Figure: Photopolymerization Process

Photopolymerisation – Step by Step procedure

1. The build platform is lowered from the top of the resin vat
downwards by the layer thickness
2. A UV light cures the resin layer by layer. The platform
continues to move downwards and additional layers are
built on top of the previous.
3. Some machines use a blade which moves between layers in order
to provide a smooth resin bas to build the next layer on.
4. After completion, the vat is drained of
resin and the object removed.

The SLA process has a high level of accuracy and good finishbut often
requires support structures and post curing for the part to be strong
enough for structural use. The process of photo polymerisation can be
achieved using a single laser and optics. Blades or recoating blades pass
over previous layers to ensure that there are no defects in the resin for
the construction of the next layer The photo-polymerisation process
and support material may have likely caused defects
Advantages:

• High level of accuracy and good finish

• Relatively quick process
• Typically large build areas: object 1000: 1000 x 800 x 500 and max model
weight of 200 kg

Disadvantages:
• Relatively expensive
• Lengthily post processing time and removal from resin
• Limited material use of photo-resins
• Often requires support structures and post curing for parts to be
strong enough for structural use

Complexity and in their methods of controlling the deposition of

material. The material layers are then cured or hardened using ultraviolet
(UV) light.

As material must be deposited in drops, the number of materials available to

use is limited. Polymers and waxes are suitable and commonly used materials,
due to their viscous nature and ability to form drops.